WELDING

The welding process itself is

complex, involving heat and liquid-metal transfer, chemical reactions,
and the gradual formation of the welded joint through liquid-metal
deposition and subsequent cooling into the solid state, with attendant
metallurgical transformations.
ARC WELDING
Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metal. By the
generation of intense heat, the juncture of two metal pieces is melted
and mixeddirectly or, more often, with an intermediate molten filler
metal. Upon cooling and solidification, the resulting welded joint metallurgically
bonds the former separate pieces into a continuous structural
assembly (a weldment). When the pieces are properly designed and
fabricated, the strength properties are basically those of the individual
pieces before welding.
In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by
an electric arc. The arc forms between the workpieces and an electrode
that is either manually or mechanically moved along the joint; conversely,
the work may be moved under a stationary electrode. The electrode generally
is a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts electric
current and sustains the arc, but also melts and supplies filler metal to the
joint; this constitutes a consumable electrode. Carbon or tungsten electrodes
may be used, in which case the electrode serves only to conduct electric
current and to sustain the arc between tip and workpiece, and it is not
consumed; with these electrodes, any filler metal required is supplied by
rod or wire introduced into the region of the arc and melted there. Filler
metal applied separately, rather than via a consumable electrode, does
not carry electric current.
Most steel arc welding operations are performed with consumable
electrodes.
Welding Process Fundamentals
Heat and Filler Metal An ac or dc power source fitted with necessary
controls is connected by a work cable to the workpiece and by a hot
cable to an electrode holder of some type, which, in turn, is electrically
connected to the welding electrode (Fig. 13.3.1). When the circuit is energized,
the flow of electric current through the electrode heats the electrode
by virtue of its electric resistance. When the electrode tip is touched
to the workpiece and then withdrawn to leave a gap between the electrode
and workpiece, the arc jumping the short gap presents a further path of
high electric resistance, resulting in the generation of an extremely high
temperature in the region of the sustained arc. The temperature reaches
about 6,500_F, which is more than adequate to melt most metals. The heat
of the arc melts both the base and the filler metal, the latter being supplied
via a consumable electrode or separately. The puddle of molten metal
produced is called a weld pool, which solidifies as the electrode and arc
move along the joint being welded. The resulting weldment is metallurgically
bonded as the liquid metal cools, fuses, solidifies, and cools. In
addition to serving its main function of supplying heat, the arc is subject
to adjustment and/or control to vary the proper transfer of molten metal
to the weld pool, remove surface films in the weld region, and foster gasslag
reactions or other beneficial metallurgical changes.
Filler metal composition is generally different from that of the weld
metal, which is composed of the solidified mix of both filler and base
metals.
Shielding and Fluxing High-temperature molten metal in the weld
pool will react with oxygen and nitrogen in ambient air. These gases
will remain dissolved in the liquid metal, but their solubility significantly
decreases as the metal cools and solidifies. The decreased solubility
causes the gases to come out of solution, and if they are trapped
in the metal as it solidifies, cavities, termed porosity, are left behind. This
is always undesirable, but it can be acceptable to a limited degree
depending on the specification governing the welding

Smaller amounts of these gases, particularly nitrogen, may remain
dissolved in the weld metal, resulting in reduction in the physical properties
of otherwise excellent weld metal. Notch toughness is degraded by
nitrogen inclusions. Accordingly, the molten metal must be shielded
from harmful atmospheric gas contaminants. This is accomplished by
gas shielding or slag shielding or both.
Gas shielding is provided either by an external supply of gas, such as
carbon dioxide, or by gas generated when the electrode flux heats up.
Slag shielding results when the flux ingredients are melted and leave
behind a slag to cover the weld pool, to act as a barrier to contact
between the weld pool and ambient air. At times, both types of shielding
are utilized.
In addition to its primary purpose to protect the molten metal, the
shielding gas will affect arc behavior. The shielding gas may be mixed
with small amounts of other gases (as many as three others) to improve
arc stability, puddle (weld pool) fluidity, and other welding operating
characteristics.
In the case of shielded-metal arc welding (SMAW), the stick electrode
is covered with an extruded coating of flux. The arc heat melts the
flux and generates a gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten
metal, and at the same time the flux ingredients react with deleterious
substances, such as surface oxides on the base metal, and chemically
combine with those contaminants, creating a slag which floats to the
surface of the weld pool. That slag crusts over the newly solidified hot
metal, minimizes contact between air and hot metal while the metal
cools, and thereby inhibits the formation of surface oxides on the newly
deposited weld metal, or weld bead. When the temperature of the weld
bead decreases, the slag, which has a glassy consistency, is chipped off
to reveal the bright surface of the newly deposited metal. Minimal surface
oxidation will take place at lower temperatures, inasmuch as oxidation
rates are greatly diminished as ambient conditions are
approached.
Fluxing action also aids in wetting the interface between the base
metal and the molten metal in the weld pool edge, thereby enhancing
uniformity and appearance of the weld bead.
Process Selection Criteria
Economic factors generally dictate which welding process to use for a
particular application. It is impossible to state which process will always
deliver the most economical welds, because the variables involved are
significant in both number and diversity. The variables include, but are
not limited to, steel (or other base metal) type, joint type, section thickness,
production quantity, joint access, position in which the welding is
to be performed, equipment availability, availability of qualified and
skilled welders, and whether the welding will be done in the field or in
the shop.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
The SMAW process (Fig. 13.3.2), commonly known as stick welding, or
manual welding, is a popular and widespread welding process. It is versatile,
relatively simple to do, and very flexible in being applied. To