Chapter 4

Information Gathering: Interactive

Methods
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Question format
Interviewing techniques
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Questionnaires

Interviewing
Interviewing is an important method for collecting
data on information system requirements.
Interviews reveal information about:
Interviewee opinions.
Interviewee feelings.
About the current state of the system.
Organizational and personal goals.
Informal procedures.
Planning the Interview
Five steps in planning the interview are:
Reading background material.
Establishing interview objectives.
Deciding whom to interview.
Preparing the interviewee.
Deciding on question types and structure.
Question Types
There are two basic types of interview questions:
Open-ended.
Closed.
Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to
 respond how they wish, and to what length they wish.
Open-ended questions are appropriate when the analyst is
interested in breadth and depth of reply.
Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
Eight benefits of open-ended questions are:
Puts the interviewee at ease.
Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee's vocabulary.
Reflect education, values, attitudes, and beliefs.
Provides richness of detail.
Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone
untapped.
Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
Eight Benefits of open-ended questions are:
(continued)
Provides more interest for the interviewee.
Allows more spontaneity.
Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer.
Useful if the interviewer is unprepared.
Disadvantages of Open-Ended
Questions
The five drawbacks include:
May result in too much irrelevant detail.
Possibly losing control of the interview.
May take too much time for the amount of useful
information gained.
Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared.
Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a
"fishing expedition”
Closed Interview Questions
Closed interview questions limit the number of
possible responses.
Closed interview questions are appropriate for
generating precise, reliable data that is easy to
analyze.
The methodology is efficient, and it requires little
skill for interviewers to administer.
Benefits of Closed Interview Questions
Six benefits are:
Saving interview time.
Easily comparing interviews.
Getting to the point.
Keeping control of the interview.
Covering a large area quickly.
Getting to relevant data.
Disadvantages of Closed Interview
Questions
Four drawbacks of closed interview questions
include:
Boring for the interviewee.
Failure to obtain rich detailing.
Missing main ideas.
Failing to build rapport between interviewer and
interviewee.
Attributes of Open-ended and Closed
Questions
Bipolar Questions and Probes
Bipolar questions are those that may be answered
with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or ‘agree’ or ‘disagree’.
Bipolar questions should be used sparingly.
Probing Questions
Probing questions elicit more detail about previous
questions.
The purpose of probing questions is:
To get more meaning.
To clarify.
To draw out and expand on the interviewee's point.
Question Sequencing
The three basic ways of structuring interviews are :
Pyramid, starting with closed questions and working
toward open-ended questions.
 Funnel, starting with open-ended questions and working
toward closed questions.
Diamond, starting with closed, moving toward open-
ended, and ending with closed questions.
Pyramid Structure
Begins with very detailed, often closed questions
Expands by allowing open-ended questions and more
generalized responses
Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the
topic or seem reluctant to address the topic
Funnel Structure
Begins with generalized, open-ended questions
Concludes by narrowing the possible responses using
closed questions
Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin an
interview
Is useful when the interviewee feels emotionally
about the topic
Diamond Structure
A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very specific
way
Then more general issues are examined
Concludes with specific questions
Combines the strength of both the pyramid and
funnel structures
Takes longer than the other structures
Closing the Interview
Always ask “Is there anything else that you would
like to add?”
Summarize and provide feedback on your
impressions.
Ask whom you should talk with next.
Set up any future appointments.
Thank them for their time and shake hands.
Interview Report
Write as soon as possible after the interview.
Provide an initial summary, then more detail.
Review the report with the respondent.
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Joint Application Design (JAD) can replace a series of
interviews with the user community.
JAD is a technique that allows the analyst to
accomplish requirements analysis and design the
user interface with the users in a group setting.
When to Use JAD
JAD may be used when:
Users are restless and want something new.
The organizational culture supports joint problem-solving
behaviors.
Analysts forecast an increase in the number of ideas using
JAD.
Personnel may be absent from their jobs for the length of
time required.
JAD Personnel
JAD involves:
Analysts
Users
Executives
Observers
Scribe
Session leader
Benefits of JAD
The potential benefits of using JAD are:
Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing.
Rapid development of systems.
Improved user ownership of the system.
Creative idea production is improved.
Drawbacks of Using JAD
Potential drawbacks of using JAD are:
JAD requires a large block of time to be available for all
session participants.
If preparation is incomplete, the session may not go very
well.
If the follow-up report is incomplete, the session may not
be successful.
The organizational skills and culture may not be conducive
to a JAD session.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are useful in gathering information
from key organization members about:
Attitudes.
Beliefs.
Behaviors.
Characteristics.
When to Use Questionnaires
Questionnaires are valuable if:
Organization members are widely dispersed.
Many members are involved with the project.
Exploratory work is needed.
Problem solving prior to interviews is necessary.
Question Types
Questions are designed as either:
Open-ended
Try to anticipate the response you will get.
Well suited for getting opinions.
Closed
Use when all the options may be listed.
When the options are mutually exclusive.
Open-Ended and Closed Questions
Questionnaire Language
Questionnaire language should be:
Simple.
Specific.
 Free of bias.
Not patronizing.
Technically accurate.
Addressed to those who are knowledgeable.
Appropriate for the reading level of the respondent.
Measurement Scales
The two different forms of measurement scales are :
Nominal.
Interval.
Nominal Scales
Nominal scales are used to classify things into
categories.
It is the weakest form of measurement.
Data may be totaled.
Interval Scales
An interval scale is used when the intervals are
equal.
There is no absolute zero.
Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit or
centigrade scale.

Validity and Reliability

Questionnaires must be valid and reliable.
Reliability of scales refers to consistency in response--
getting the same results if the same questionnaire was
administered again under the same conditions.
Validity is the degree to which the question measures
what the analyst intends to measure.
Problems with Scales
There are three problems associated with poorly
constructed scales:
Leniency.
Central tendency.
 Halo effect.
Leniency
Caused by easy raters.
Solution is to move the “average” category to the
left or right of center.
Central Tendency
Central tendency occurs when respondents rate
everything as average.
Improve by making the differences smaller at the two
ends.
Adjust the strength of the descriptors.
Create a scale with more points.
Halo Effect
When the impression formed in one question carries
into the next question
Solution is to place one trait and several items on
each page.
Designing the Questionnaire
Good response rates can be achieved with
consistent control of questionnaire.
Allow ample white space.
Allow ample space to write or type in responses.
Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark their
answers.
Be consistent in style.
Order of Questions
Place most important questions first.
Cluster items of similar content together.
Introduce less controversial questions first.
Web Form Questionnaires
Controls (fields) used on Web forms:
Single line text box.
Scrolling text box, used for one or more paragraphs of text.
Check box for yes-no or true-false answers.
 Radio button for mutually exclusive yes-no or true-false answers.
Drop-down menu for selection from a list.
Submit or Clear buttons.
Methods of Administering the
Questionnaire
Methods of administering the questionnaire include:
Convening all concerned respondents together at one
time.
Personally administering the questionnaire.
Allowing respondents to self-administer the questionnaire.
Mailing questionnaires.
Administering over the Web or via email.
Electronically Submitting
Questionnaires
Administering a questionnaire electronically has
the following benefits:
Reduced costs.
Collecting and storing the results electronically.
Chapter 11
Designing Effective Output
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Designing output
Output technologies
Factors in choosing an output technology
Report design
Screen design
Web site design
Designing Output
Output should be designed to:
Serve the intended purpose.
Be meaningful to the user.
Deliver the right quantity of output.
Deliver it to the right place.
Provide output on time.
Choose the right output method.
External and Internal Output
Internal output is used within the corporation.
External output is used outside the organization.
External output differs from internal output in its
design and appearance.
A turnaround document is one that is sent out and
then returned.
Output Technologies
Output can be in the form of:
Print.
Display screen.
Audio.
CD-ROM or CD-RW.
 DVD.
Electronic output.
Output Technologies (Continued)
Output technologies differ in their:
Speed.
Cost.
Portability.
Flexibility.
Storage and retrieval possibilities.
Video Clips
Video clips are useful for:
Supplementing static, printed output.
Distance collaboration.
Showing how to perform an action.
Providing brief training episodes.
Shifting the time of an actual event by recording it for later output.
Preserving an important occasion for addition to an organization’s
archives.
Animation
Animation is composed of four elements:
Elemental symbols.
Spatial orientation.
Transition effects.
Alteration effects.
Electronic Output
Electronic output includes:
Fax.
Electronic mail (email).
The World Wide Web.
Push and Pull Technology
Pull technology allows the user to take formatted
data from the Web.
Push technology sends solicited or unsolicited
information to a customer or client.
Factors in Choosing an Output
 Technology
Factors that must be considered when choosing an
output technology are:
Who will use the output?
How many people need the output?
Where is the output needed?
What is the purpose of the output?
What is the speed with which output is needed?
Factors in Choosing an Output
Technology
Factors that must be considered when choosing an output
technology are (continued):
How frequently will the output be accessed?
How long will the output be stored?
Under what special regulations is the output produced, stored, and
distributed?
What are the initial and ongoing costs of maintenance and supplies?
What are the environmental requirements for output technologies?
Output Bias
Analysts must be aware of sources of output bias and
inform users of the possibilities of bias in output.
Bias is introduced in three main ways:
How information is sorted.
Setting of acceptable limits.
Choice of graphics.
Strategies to Avoid Bias
Strategies to avoid output bias:
Awareness of the sources of bias.
Design of output that includes users.
Working with users so that they are informed of the output's biases.
Creating output that is flexible and allows users to modify limits and
ranges.
Train users to rely on multiple output for conducting "reality tests"
on system output.
Report Design Considerations
Constant information does not change when the
report is printed.
Variable information changes each time the report is
printed.
Paper quality, type, and size should be specified.
Printed Reports
Design reports using software.
Design guidelines for printed reports are:
Include functional attributes, such as headings, page
numbers, and control breaks.
Incorporate stylistic and aesthetic attributes, such as
extra blank space and grouping data.
Display Screen Design
Guidelines for display design are:
Keep the display simple.
Keep the display presentation consistent.
Facilitate user movement among displayed output.
Create an attractive display.
Graphical Output
Primary considerations for designing graphical
output:
Output must be accurate, easy to understand and use.
Graphical Output (Continued)
The analyst must determine:
The purpose of the graph.
The kind of data to be displayed.
The audience.
The effects on the audience of different kinds of graphical
output.
Web Site Design
Design principles must be used when designing Web
sites.
These include:
Using professional tools.
Studying other sites.
Using Web resources.
Examining the sites of professional Web site designers.
Web Site Design (Continued)
Further principles:
Using tools that you are familiar with.
Consulting books.
Examining of poorly designed pages.
Creating Web templates. Style sheets allow you to format
all Web pages in a site consistently.
Using plug-ins, audio, and video sparingly.
Plan Ahead
Pay attention to:
Structure.
Content.
Text.
Graphics.
Presentations style.
Navigation.
Promotion.
Web Graphics
Guidelines for using graphics when designing Web
sites are:
Use either JPEG or GIF formats.
Keep the background simple and readable.
Create a few professional-looking graphics for use on your
page.
Reuse bullet or navigational buttons.
Examine your Web site on a variety of monitors and
graphics resolutions.

Presentation Style
Guidelines for entry displays for Web sites:
Provide an entry screen or home page.
Keep the number of graphics to a reasonable minimum.
Use large and colorful fonts for headings.
Use interesting images and buttons for links.
Presentation Style
Guidelines for entry displays for Web sites
 (continued)
Use tables to enhance the layout.
Use the same graphics image on several Web pages.
Avoid overusing animation, sound, and other “busy”
elements.
Navigation
Navigation guidelines:
Use the three-clicks rule.
Promote the Web site.
Encourage your viewers to bookmark your site.
Output Production and XML
An XML document may be transformed into different
media types.
There are two methods:
Using cascading style sheets (CSS).
Using Extensible Style Language Transformations (XSLT).
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
CSS allows you to specify the font family, color, size,
and so on.
Styles may be set up for different media, such as
display, print, or handheld devices.
Styles do not allow you to select or sort XML
elements.
Extensible Style Language
Transformations (XSLT)
XSLT allows you to:
Select XML elements.
Sort.
Select data to be output.
Extensible Style Language
Transformations (XSLT)
Chapter 12
Designing Effective Input
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Input design
Form design
Display design
GUI screen design
GUI controls
Web design guidelines
Input Design Objectives
The quality of system input determines the quality of system
output.
Well-designed input objectives:
Effectiveness.
Accuracy.
Ease of use.
Consistency.
Simplicity.
Attractiveness.
Form Design
Guidelines for good form design:
Make forms easy to fill out.
Ensure that forms meet the purpose for which they are
designed.
Design forms to assure accurate completion.
Keep forms attractive.
Form Completion
To make forms easy to fill out, the following
techniques are used:
First, design forms with proper flow, from left to right and
top to bottom.
Second, group information logically using the seven
 sections of a form.
Third, provide people with clear captions.
Captions tell the person completing the form what to put on a
blank line, space, or box.
Seven Sections of a Form
The seven sections of a form are:
Heading.
Identification and access.
Instructions.
Body.
Signature and verification.
Totals.
Comments.
Seven Sections of a Form
Caption Types
Captions may be one of the following:
Line caption, putting the caption on the same line or
below the line.
Boxed caption, providing a box for data instead of a line.
Vertical check off, lining up choices or alternatives
vertically.
Horizontal check off, lining up choices or alternatives
horizontally.
Caption Types
Meeting the Intended Purpose
Systems analysts may use different types of specialty
forms for different purposes.
Specialty forms can also mean forms prepared by a
stationer.
Ensuring Accurate Completion
To reduce error rates associated with data collection,
forms should be designed to assure accurate
completion.
Design forms to make people do the right thing with
the form.
To encourage people to complete forms, systems
analysts should keep forms attractive.
Attractive Forms
To be more attractive, forms should look uncluttered,
and elicit information in the expected order.
Aesthetic forms or usage of different fonts and line
weights within the same form can help make it
more attractive.
Computer Form Design Software
Numerous microcomputer form design software is available.
Features of electronic form design software:
Ability to design paper, electronic, or Web- based forms.
Form design using templates.
Form design by cutting and pasting familiar shapes and objects.
Computer Form Design Software
(Continued)
Features of the electronic form design software
Facilitates completion through the use of software.
Permits customized menus, toolbars, keyboards, and
macros.
Supports popular databases.
Enables broadcasting of electronic forms.
Permits sequential routing of forms.
Computer Form Design Software
(Continued)
Features of electronic form design software
Assists form tracking.
Encourages automatic delivery and processing.
Establishes security for electronic forms.
Controlling Business Forms
Controlling forms include:
Making sure that each form in use fulfills its specific
purpose.
Making sure that the specified purpose is integral to
 organizational functioning.
Preventing duplication of information collected and the
forms that collect it.
Designing effective forms.
Controlling Business Forms
(Continued)
Controlling forms include:

Deciding on reproduce forms in the most

economical way
Establishing stock control and inventory procedures that
make forms available when needed, at the lowest
possible cost
Display Design Guidelines
Guidelines for good display design:
First, keep the display simple.
Second, keep the display presentation consistent.
Third, facilitate user movement among display screens.
Finally, create an attractive display.
Three Screen Sections
To keep the screen simple, it is divided into three
sections:
Heading.
Body.
Comments and instructions.
Display Design Concepts for Simplicity
Displaying a few necessary basic commands using
windows or hyperlinks is another way to keep
screens simple.
For the occasional user, only 50 percent of the
screen should contain useful information.
Display Design Concepts for Simplicity
(Continued)
Simplistic design includes maximizing or minimizing
 the window size as needed.
Use context-sensitive help and other pop-up menus.
Consistency is achieved by displaying information in
the same area or by grouping information logically.
Facilitating Movement
Guidelines for facilitating movement from one page
to another:
Clicking--the three clicks rule says that users should be
able to get to the screens they need within three mouse
or keyboard clicks.
Scrolling--using arrows or PgDn keys.
Using context-sensitive pop-up windows.
Using onscreen dialogue .
Designing an Attractive Screen
To make the screen attractive use:
Different thickness of separation lines between
subcategories.
Inverse video and blinking cursors.
Different combinations of colors.
Different type fonts.

Using Icons in Screen Design

Icons are used in graphical screens to run programs
and execute commands.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) are used in
conjunction with a mouse, keyboard, lightpen, or
joystick for making selections and entering data.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Controls
GUI controls or fields:
Text boxes.
Check boxes.
Option or radio buttons.
List and drop-down list boxes.
Sliders and spin buttons.
Image maps.
Text area.
 Message boxes.
GUI Screen Example
Text Boxes
Text boxes should be large enough to accommodate
all the field characters.
Captions should be to the left of the text box.
Character data should be left aligned within the box.
Numeric data right aligned.
Check Boxes
Check boxes are used for nonexclusive choices.
Check box text or label is placed to the right of the
check box.
If there are more than 10 check boxes, group in a
bordered box.
Option Buttons and Drop-down List
Boxes
Option or radio buttons are used for exclusive
choices.
Often they are placed in a rectangle called an option
group.
List and drop-down list boxes are used to select one
choice out of many.
Sliders, Spin Buttons, and Image Maps
Sliders and spin buttons are used to change data
that have a continuous range of values.
Image maps are used to select values within an
image.
The x and y coordinates are sent to the program.
Slider and spin button example
Text Area
A text area is used for entering a larger amount of
text.
These areas may have text that wraps when the text
reaches the end of the box.
There are two ways to handle the text:
Hard return is used to force new lines.
Use word wrap within the text area.
Message Boxes and Command Buttons
Message boxes are used to display warning and
other messages in a rectangular window.
Command buttons perform an action.
Tab Control Dialogue Boxes
Tab control dialog boxes help organize GUI features
(controls) for users.
Each tab dialog box should have three basic buttons:
OK.
Cancel.
Help.
Web Page Dialogue Boxes
A new type of dialogue box has the look and feel of a
Web page.
Buttons are called places and are hyperlinked to
items a user would wish to access.
Color
The five most legible foreground/background color
combinations for display monitors are:
Black on yellow.
Green on white.
Blue on white.
White on blue.
Yellow on black.
Skins
Skins are graphical overlays that allow customers to
change the appearance of a Web site depending on
their preferences for a particular kind of image.
Internet and Intranet Design
Guidelines
Guidelines for creating intranet and Internet input
pages:
Provide clear instructions.
Use a logical entry sequence for fill-in forms.
Use a variety of text boxes, push buttons, radio buttons,
drop-down lists, and other GUI features.
Internet and Intranet Design
Guidelines
Guidelines for creating intranet and Internet input
pages (continued):
Provide a scrolling text box if you are uncertain how much
text will be entered.
Include two basic buttons: Submit and Clear.
If the form is lengthy, divide it into several simpler forms
on separate pages.
Internet and Intranet Design
Guidelines
Guidelines for creating intranet and Internet input
pages (continued):
Create a feedback screen that lists error messages if a
form has not correctly been filled out
Ecommerce Applications
Ecommerce applications involve more than just good
Web site design.
Customers need to be confident of the site, including
privacy and security.
Chapter 14
Designing User Interfaces
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
User interfaces
Dialogue guidelines
Feedback
Help
Ecommerce dialogue
Data mining
Ergonomics
The User Interface
The user interface is the system that helps users
communicate with the computer system and/or the
application system
User Interface Design Objectives
To design a better user interface, use the following
objectives:
Match the user interface to the task.
Make the user interface efficient.
Provide appropriate feedback to users.
Generate usable queries.
Improve productivity of knowledge workers.
Components of the User Interface
The user interface has two main components:
Presentation language, which is the computer-to-human
part of the transaction.
Action language that characterizes the human-to-
computer portion.
Types of User Interfaces
There are several types of user interfaces:
 Natural-language interfaces.
Question-and-answer interfaces.
A menu interface.
Form-fill interfaces.
Command-language interfaces.
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs).
Natural-Language Interfaces
Natural-language interfaces permit users to interact
with the computer in their everyday or "natural"
language.
Question-and-Answer Interfaces
The computer displays a question for the user on the
screen.
The user enters an answer via the keyboard or a mouse
click.
The computer acts on that input information in a
preprogrammed manner.
New users may find the question-and-answer interface
most comfortable.
A Menu Interface
A menu interface, that provides the user with an
onscreen list of available selections.
A nested menu is a menu that can be reached
through another menu.
Advantages of Nested Menus
The advantages of nested menus are:
Less cluttered screen.
Eliminate menu options which do not interest a user.
Allow users to move quickly through the program.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Menus
GUI menus guidelines:
The main menu is always on the screen.
The main menu uses single words.
The main menu should have secondary menus grouped
into similar features.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Menus
GUI menus guidelines (continued):
The secondary drop-down menus often consist of more
than one word.
Secondary options perform actions or display additional
menu options.
Menu items in grey are unavailable for the current
activity.
Form-Fill Interfaces
Form-fill interfaces are onscreen forms displaying
fields containing data items or parameters that
need to be communicated to the user.
Form-fill interfaces may be implemented using the
Web.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Web Forms
Advantages of using a Web-based form are:
User enters the data.
Data may be entered 24 hours a day, globally.
Disadvantages of a Web-based form are:
The experienced user may become impatient with input/output
forms.
Command-Language Interfaces
Allow the user to control the application with a series
of keystrokes, commands, phrases, or some
sequence of these.
Require memorization of syntax rules.
May be an obstacle for inexperienced users.
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
Allow direct manipulation of the graphical
representation on the screen.
Can be accomplished with keyboard input, joystick, or
mouse.
Requires more system sophistication than other
interfaces.
Voice or Speech Recognition
Voice or speech recognition systems are developing
rapidly
There are two different types of voice recognition:
Continuous speech systems, allowing for dictation.
Speaker independence, so people can enter commands or
words at a given workstation.
Evaluating User Interfaces
The five useful standards in evaluating the
interfaces are:
The training period for users should be acceptably short.
Users early in their training should be able to enter
commands without thinking about them, or referring to a
help menu or manual.
Evaluating User Interfaces
The five useful standards in evaluating the interfaces are
(continued):
The interface should be seamless so that errors are few, and those
that do occur are not occurring because of poor design.
Time necessary for users and the system to bounce back from
errors should be short.
Infrequent users should be able to relearn the system quickly.
Dialog
Dialog is the communication between a person and
the computer
Three key points to be considered are:
Meaningful communication.
Minimal user action.
Standard operation and consistency.
Communication
Communication means that the user understands the
information that is being presented
Users with less skill require a greater amount of
communication
Provide easy to use help screens
Often these contain hyperlinks to other related help
topics
Minimal User Action
Minimal user action is achieved by:
Entering codes instead of code meanings.
Enter only data that are not stored on files.
Not requiring users to enter editing characters.
Supplying default values on entry screens.
Providing inquiry, change, or delete programs with short
entry fields.
Minimal User Action
Minimal user action is achieved by:
Providing keystrokes for selecting menu options that are
normally selected using a mouse
Selecting codes from a pull-down menu on a GUI
screen
Standard Operation
Standard operation is achieved by:
Keeping header and footer information in the same
locations for all screens.
Using the same keystrokes to exit a program.
Using the same keystroke to cancel a transaction.
Using a standard key for obtaining help.
Standard Operation
Standard operation is achieved by (continued):
Standardized use of icons when using graphical user interface
screens.
Consistent use of terminology within a screen or Web site.
Providing a consistent way to navigate through the dialog.
Consistent font alignment, size, and color on a Web page.
Tab Control Dialogue Boxes
Tab control dialog boxes are a feature of GUI design.
They should have logically grouped functions on each
tab.
Each tab dialog box should have OK, Cancel or Apply,
 and perhaps Help buttons.
Feedback
All systems require feedback in order to monitor
and change behavior by:
Comparing current behavior with predetermined goals.
Giving back information describing the gap between
actual and intended performance.
Types of Feedback
Feedback to the user is necessary in seven distinct
situations:
The computer has accepted the input.
The input is in the correct form.
The input is not in the correct form.
There will be a delay in processing.
The request has been completed.
The computer cannot complete the request.
More detailed feedback is available.
Program Help
Program help comes in a variety of ways:
Pressing a function key, such as F1.
A GUI pull-down menu.
Context-sensitive help, specific for the operation being
performed.
Iconic help, obtained when a cursor is left over an icon for
a few seconds.
Program Help
Program help comes in a variety of ways (continued):
Wizards, which provide a series of questions and answers
when trying to perform an operation
Telephone help desks provided by the software
manufacturer
Software forums on nation wide bulletin boards
Ecommerce Dialog
Extra considerations are needed when developing
ecommerce Web sites.
Feedback needs to be solicited from customers,
 using either of two methods:
Launch the user’s email program.
Create a blank feedback template with a submit button
labeled “feedback”.
Intuitive Navigation for Ecommerce
Sites
Intuitive navigation should be designed for:
Creating a rollover menu.
Building a collection of hierarchical links.
Placing a site map on the home page and emphasizing the link to it
from every page on the site.
Placing a navigational bar on every inside page that repeats the
categories used on the entry screen.
Types of Queries
The six different types of queries are :
Obtain specified data for a particular entity.
Find a group of entities that have certain characteristics.
Find attributes for an entity for certain characteristics.
Display all the attributes for a certain entity.
Types of Queries
The different types of queries are (continued):
Find all entities with a certain characteristic.
List attributes for all entities for certain characteristics.
Entities, Attributes, and Values
Query Notation
V is value, E is entity, A is attributes, variables in
parentheses are given:
Query type 1: V <--- (E,A)
Query type 2: E <--- (V,A)
Query type 3: A <--- (V,E)
Query type 4: V <--- (E, all A)
Query type 5: E <--- (V, all A)
Query type 6: A <--- (V, all E)
Methods for Implementing Queries
There are two methods for implementing database
 queries:
Query By Example (QBE), which allows users to select
fields and specify conditions using a grid.
Structured Query Language (SQL), which uses a series of
keywords and commands to select the rows and
columns that should be displayed.
SQL Example
Parameter Queries
A parameter query allows users to enter a value to
select records without changing the query syntax.
Web Searches
Web searches uses search engines to answer a
query.
Guidelines for searching the Web are:
Decide whether to search or surf the Web.
Think of the key terms before searching.
Construct the search questions logically, with attention to
the use of AND and OR search logic.
Web Searches
Guidelines for searching the Web are (continued):
Use a metasearch engine that saves your searches
Use a search engine that informs you of changes in the
Web sites you select
Look for new search engines periodically
Data Mining
Data mining is gathering a large amount of
information about a person and their habits and
using that information as a predictor of future
behavior.
It must be carefully and ethically used to avoid
infringing on an individual’s privacy.
Data Mining