Chapter 9

Describing Process Specifications

and Structured Decisions
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Process specifications
Business rules
Structured English
Decision tables
Decision trees
Horizontal balancing
Process Specifications
Process specifications are created for primitive
processes and some higher level processes on a
data flow diagram.
They are also called minispecs.
Goal of Creating Process Specifications
The goals of producing process specifications are:
Reduce process ambiguity.
Obtain a precise description of what is accomplished.
Validate the system design, including data flow diagrams
and the data dictionary.
Process Specifications
Process specifications are not created for:
Physical input and/or output processes.
Processes that represent simple data validation.
Processes for which prewritten code already exists.
Data Flow Diagram and
Process Specifications
Process Specification Format
Process specifications link the process to the DFD
and the data dictionary.
The following information should be entered:
The process number, which must match the process ID on
the data flow diagram.
This allows an analyst to work or review any process and
easily locate the data flow diagram containing the
process.
Process Specification Format
(Continued)
The process name, the same as displays within the
process symbol on the DFD.
A brief description of what the process accomplishes.
A list of input and output data flow, using the names found
on the data flow diagram.
Data names used in the formulae or logic should match
the data dictionary, for consistency and good
communication.
Process Specification Format
(Continued)
An indication of the type of process, whether it is batch,
online, or manual.
All online processes require screen designs.
All manual processes should have well-defined procedures
for employees performing the process tasks.
If the process has prewritten code for it, include the name
of the subprogram or function.
Process Specification Format
(Continued)
A description of the process logic.
This should state policy and business rules, not computer
language pseudocode.
A reference to further information, such as a structured
English description, a decision table, or tree depicting
the logic.
 List any unresolved issues.
These issues form the basis of the questions used for a
follow-up interview.
Business Rules
Business rules include the following:
Definitions of business terms
Business conditions and actions
Data integrity constraints
Mathematical and functional derivations
Logical inferences
Processing sequences
Relationships among facts about the business
Process Specification Example Part 1
Process Specification Example Part 2
Structured English
Structured English is based on structured logic and
Simple English statements such as add, multiply,
move, and so on.
It is an appropriate technique for analyzing the
system when structured decisions are not complex.
Steps to Use Structured English
The following steps are needed:
Express all logic in terms of sequential structures, decision
structures, case structures, or iterations.
Use and capitalize accepted keywords such as IF, THEN,
ELSE, DO, and PERFORM.
Indent blocks of statements to show their hierarchy
(nesting) clearly.
Steps to Use Structured English
(Continued)
Underline words or phrases used have been defined
in a data dictionary to signify that they have a
specialized, reserved meaning.
Be careful when using "and" and "or ”.
Avoid confusion when using logical comparisons such
 as "greater than" and "greater than or equal to”.
Structured English
Advantages of Structured English
Clarifying the logic and relationships found in human
languages
An effective communication tool, and easy to teach
and understand
Data Dictionary and Structured English
The data dictionary is a starting point for creating
structured English:
Sequenced data dictionary entries become simple
structured English statements.
Selection [] entries become IF..THEN...ELSE statements.
Iteration { } entries become DO WHILE, DO UNTIL, or
PERFORM UNTIL structured English statements.
Decision Tables
Decision tables provide a way to examine, describe, and
document decisions using a table.
They are used to:
Describe the conditions.
Identify possible decision alternatives.
Indicate actions should be performed.
Describe actions.

Decision Table Format

Decision Table Example
Decision Tables (Continued)
Decision tables help analysts ensure completeness
and accuracy.
Four main problems that can occur in developing
decision tables:
Incompleteness.
Impossible situations.
Contradictions.
 Redundancy.
Redundancy and Contradictions
Decision Trees
Decision trees are used when complex branching
occurs in a structured decision process.
Trees are also useful when it is essential to keep a
string of decisions in a particular sequence.
Drawing Decision Trees
First, identify all conditions and actions and the order
and timing of these (if they are critical).
Second, begin building the tree from left to right
while making sure you are complete in listing all
possible alternatives before moving over to the
right.
Decision Tree Example
Decision Tree Advantages
Three advantages over a decision table are:
The order of checking conditions and executing actions is
immediately noticeable.
Second, conditions and actions of decision trees are found on some
branches but not on others.
Third, compared to decision tables, decision trees are more readily
understood by others in the organization.
Selecting a Structured Decision
Analysis Technique
Guidelines are as follows:
Use structured English when there are many repetitious actions or
when communication to end users is important.
Use decision tables when complex combination of conditions,
actions, and rules are found or you require a method that
effectively avoids impossible situations, redundancies, and
contradictions.
Selecting a Structured Decision
Analysis Technique
Guidelines are as follows (continued):
 Use decision trees when the sequence of conditions and
actions is critical or when not every condition is relevant
to every action (the branches are different).
Parent Process Specifications
If a process explodes to a child diagram, the process
becomes a control module when the computer
program representing the process is written.
The logic of the process shows the sequence that the
child diagram processes must be executed in.
Program Process Specification
All the process specifications are consolidated for a
computer program and are included in the
specification packet given to the computer
programmer.
Since they are developed for one process, the logic is
easier to understand.
Horizontal Balancing
Horizontal balancing means that all output data flow
must be either on input data flow or described in
the process logic.
It is used to verify that each process has the required
data dictionary entries defined and the formulas
and logic necessary to produce the output.
Rules for Horizontal Balancing
Rules for horizontal balancing are:
All base elements on an output data flow must be present
on an input data flow.
All derived elements on an output data flow must be
either:
Present on an input data flow, or
Created by the process.
Chapter 10
Preparing The Systems Proposal
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Systems proposal
Determining hardware/software needs
Tangible and intangible costs and benefits
Systems proposal
Using tables, graphs, and figures
Systems Proposal
In order to prepare the systems proposal analysts
must use a systematic approach to:
Ascertain hardware and software needs.
Identify and forecast costs and benefits.
Compare costs and benefits.
Choose the most appropriate alternative.
Ascertaining Hardware and Software
Needs
Steps used to determine hardware and software needs:
Inventory computer hardware currently available.
Estimate current and projected workload for the system.
Evaluate the performance of hardware and software using some
predetermined criteria.
Choose the vendor according to the evaluation.
Obtain hardware and software from the vendor.

Steps in Acquiring Computer Hardware

and Software
Hardware Inventory
When inventorying hardware check:
Type of equipment.
Status of equipment operation.
Estimated age of equipment.
Projected life of equipment.
 Physical location of equipment.
Department or person responsible for equipment.
Financial arrangement for equipment.
Evaluating Hardware
Criteria for evaluating hardware:
Time required for average transactions (including time for
input and output).
Total volume capacity of the system.
Idle time of the central processing unit.
Size of memory provided.
People that Evaluate Hardware
The people involved:
Management.
Users.
Systems analysts.
Purchasing, Leasing, or Renting
Decision
There are three options for obtaining computer
equipment:
Buying.
Leasing.
Rental.
Buying
Leasing
Renting
Evaluating Hardware Support
When evaluating hardware vendors, the selection
committee needs to consider:
Hardware support.
Software support.
Installation and training support.
Maintenance support.
Performance of the hardware.
Software Alternatives
 Software may be:
Custom created in-house.
Purchased as COTS (commercial off-the-shelf) software.
Provided by an application service provider (ASP).
Creating Custom Software
Purchasing COTS Packages
Using an ASP
Software Evaluation
Use the following to evaluating software packages:
Performance effectiveness
Performance efficiency
Ease of use
Flexibility
Quality of documentation
Manufacturer support
Analytic Hierarchy Processing (AHP)
Analytic Hierarchy Processing requires decision
makers to judge the relative importance of each
criteria and indicate their preference regarding the
importance of each alternative criteria.
A disadvantage of AHP stems from the use of the
pairwise method used to evaluate alternatives.
Expert Systems
Expert systems are rule-based reasoning systems
developed around an expert in the field.
Neural Nets
Neural nets are developed by solving a number of
specific type of problems and getting feedback on
the decisions, then observing what was involved in
successful decisions.
Recommendation Systems
Recommendation systems are software and
 database systems that reduce the number of
alternatives by ranking, counting, or some other
method.
A recommendation system does not use weights.
It simply counts the number of occurrences.
The Web and Decision Making
The World Wide Web may be used to extract
decision-making information.
Push technologies automatically deliver new Internet
information to a desktop.
Intelligent agents learn your personality and
behavior and track topics that you might be
interested in based on what it has learned.
Identifying and Forecasting Costs and
Benefits
May forecast costs and benefits of a prospective
system through:
Graphical judgment.
Moving averages.
Analysis of time series.
Estimating Trends
Trends may be estimated using:
Graphical judgment.
The method of least squares.
Moving average method.
Costs and Benefits
Systems analysts should take tangible costs,
intangible costs, tangible benefits, and intangible
benefits into consideration to identify cost and
benefits of a prospective system.
Tangible Benefits
Tangible benefits are advantages measurable in
dollars that accrue to the organization through use
 of the information system.
Examples:
Increase in the speed of processing.
Access to information on a more timely basis.
Intangible Benefits
Intangible benefits are advantages from use of the
information system that are difficult to measure.
Examples:
Improved effectiveness of decision-making processes.
Maintaining a good business image.
Tangible Costs
Tangible costs are those that can be accurately
projected by systems analysts and the business
accounting personnel.
Examples:
Cost of equipment.
Cost of resources.
Cost of systems analysts' time.
Intangible Costs
Intangible costs are those that are difficult to
estimate, and may not be known
Examples:
Cost of losing a competitive edge.
Declining company image.
Selecting the Best Alternative
To select the best alternative, analysts should
compare costs and benefits of the prospective
alternatives using:
Break-even analysis.
Payback.
Cash-flow analysis.
Present value method.
Break-Even Analysis
Break-even analysis is the point at which the cost of
 the current system and the proposed system
intersect.
Break-even analysis is useful when a business is
growing and volume is a key variable in costs.
Break-Even Analysis
Payback
Payback determines the number of years of
operation that the system needs to pay back the
cost of investing in it.
Break-Even Analysis Showing a Payback
Period
Cash-Flow Analysis
Cash-flow analysis is used to examine the direction,
size, and pattern of cash flow associated with the
proposed information system.
Determine when cash outlays and revenues will
occur for both:
The initial purchase.
Over the life of the information system.
Present Value Method
Way to assess all the economic outlays and revenues
of the information system over its economic life
and to compare costs today with future costs and
today's benefits with future benefits.
Use present value when the payback period is long,
or when the cost of borrowing money is high.
Selecting the Best Alternative
Guidelines to select the method for comparing
alternatives:
Use break-even analysis if the project needs to be justified
in terms of cost, not benefits.
Use payback when the improved tangible benefits form a
convincing argument for the proposed system.
Selecting the Best Alternative
Guidelines to select the method for comparing
alternatives (continued)
Use cash-flow analysis when the project is expensive,
relative to the size of the company.
Use present value when the payback period is long or
when the cost of borrowing money is high.
Items in the Systems Proposal
When preparing a systems proposal, systems analysts
should arrange the following ten items in order:
Cover letter.
Title page of project.
Table of contents.
Executive summary (including recommendation).
Items in the Systems Proposal
When preparing a system’s proposal, systems analyst should
arrange the following ten items in order (continued):
Outline of systems study with appropriate documentation.
Detailed results of the systems study.
Systems alternatives (three or four possible solutions).
Systems analysts recommendations.
Summary.
Items in the Systems Proposal
(Continued)
When preparing a system’s proposal,
systems analyst should arrange the following ten items
in order:
Appendices
Assorted documentation.
Summary of phases.
Correspondence.
Other material as needed.
Guidelines for Using Tables
Some guidelines to use tables effectively are:
Integrate it into the body of the proposal.
Try to fit the entire table vertically on a single page.
 Number and title the table at the top of the page.
Guidelines for Using Tables
Some guidelines to use tables effectively are
(continued):
Make the title descriptive and meaningful.
Label each row and column.
Use a boxed table if room permits.
Use footnotes if necessary to explain detailed information
contained in the table.
Guidelines for Using Graphs
Some guidelines for using graphs are:
Choose a style of graph that communicates your intended
meaning well.
Integrate the graph into the proposal body.
Give the graph a sequential figure number and a
meaningful title.
Label each axis, any lines, columns, bars, and pieces of
the pie on the graph.
Guidelines for Using Graphs
Some guidelines for using graphs are (continued):
Include a key to indicate differently colored lines, shaded
bars, or crosshatched areas.
Types of Graphs
Line graphs
Column charts
Bar charts
Pie charts
Line Graphs
Used to show change over time
Changes of up to five variables on a single graph
May show when lines intersect
Line Chart Example
Column Charts
Show a comparison between two or more variables
Compare different variables at a particular point in
time
Easier to understand than line graphs
Column Chart Example
Variations of Column Charts
100 percent stacked chart
Includes 100 percent stacked charts
Show how different variables make up 100 percent of an
entity
Deviation Column Chart
Shows deviation from average
Bar Charts
Used to show one or more variables within certain
classes or categories during a specific time period
May be sorted or organized by:
Alphabetical.
Numerical.
Geographical order.
Progressive order.
Pie Charts
Used to show how 100 percent of a commodity is
divided at a particular point in time
Easier to read than 100 percent stacked column
charts or 100 percent subdivided bar charts
Disadvantage is they take a lot of room on the page
Pie Chart Example
Oral Presentations
When delivering the oral presentation, keep in mind
the principles of delivery:
Project loudly enough so that the audience can hear you.
Look at each person in the audience as you speak.
Make visuals large enough so that the audience can see
them.
Oral Presentations (Continued)

When delivering the oral presentation, keep in mind

the principles of delivery.
Use gestures that are natural to your
conversational style.
Introduce and conclude your talk confidently.
Chapter 11
Designing Effective Output
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Designing output
Output technologies
Factors in choosing an output technology
Report design
Screen design
Web site design
Designing Output
Output should be designed to:
Serve the intended purpose.
Be meaningful to the user.
Deliver the right quantity of output.
Deliver it to the right place.
Provide output on time.
Choose the right output method.
External and Internal Output
Internal output is used within the corporation.
External output is used outside the organization.
External output differs from internal output in its
design and appearance.
A turnaround document is one that is sent out and
then returned.
Output Technologies
Output can be in the form of:
Print.
Display screen.
Audio.
CD-ROM or CD-RW.
 DVD.
Electronic output.
Output Technologies (Continued)
Output technologies differ in their:
Speed.
Cost.
Portability.
Flexibility.
Storage and retrieval possibilities.
Video Clips
Video clips are useful for:
Supplementing static, printed output.
Distance collaboration.
Showing how to perform an action.
Providing brief training episodes.
Shifting the time of an actual event by recording it for later output.
Preserving an important occasion for addition to an organization’s
archives.
Animation
Animation is composed of four elements:
Elemental symbols.
Spatial orientation.
Transition effects.
Alteration effects.
Electronic Output
Electronic output includes:
Fax.
Electronic mail (email).
The World Wide Web.
Push and Pull Technology
Pull technology allows the user to take formatted
data from the Web.
Push technology sends solicited or unsolicited
information to a customer or client.
Factors in Choosing an Output
 Technology
Factors that must be considered when choosing an
output technology are:
Who will use the output?
How many people need the output?
Where is the output needed?
What is the purpose of the output?
What is the speed with which output is needed?
Factors in Choosing an Output
Technology
Factors that must be considered when choosing an output
technology are (continued):
How frequently will the output be accessed?
How long will the output be stored?
Under what special regulations is the output produced, stored, and
distributed?
What are the initial and ongoing costs of maintenance and supplies?
What are the environmental requirements for output technologies?
Output Bias
Analysts must be aware of sources of output bias and
inform users of the possibilities of bias in output.
Bias is introduced in three main ways:
How information is sorted.
Setting of acceptable limits.
Choice of graphics.
Strategies to Avoid Bias
Strategies to avoid output bias:
Awareness of the sources of bias.
Design of output that includes users.
Working with users so that they are informed of the output's biases.
Creating output that is flexible and allows users to modify limits and
ranges.
Train users to rely on multiple output for conducting "reality tests"
on system output.
Report Design Considerations
Constant information does not change when the
report is printed.
Variable information changes each time the report is
printed.
Paper quality, type, and size should be specified.
Printed Reports
Design reports using software.
Design guidelines for printed reports are:
Include functional attributes, such as headings, page
numbers, and control breaks.
Incorporate stylistic and aesthetic attributes, such as
extra blank space and grouping data.
Display Screen Design
Guidelines for display design are:
Keep the display simple.
Keep the display presentation consistent.
Facilitate user movement among displayed output.
Create an attractive display.
Graphical Output
Primary considerations for designing graphical
output:
Output must be accurate, easy to understand and use.
Graphical Output (Continued)
The analyst must determine:
The purpose of the graph.
The kind of data to be displayed.
The audience.
The effects on the audience of different kinds of graphical
output.
Web Site Design
Design principles must be used when designing Web
sites.
These include:
Using professional tools.
Studying other sites.
Using Web resources.
Examining the sites of professional Web site designers.
Web Site Design (Continued)
Further principles:
Using tools that you are familiar with.
Consulting books.
Examining of poorly designed pages.
Creating Web templates. Style sheets allow you to format
all Web pages in a site consistently.
Using plug-ins, audio, and video sparingly.
Plan Ahead
Pay attention to:
Structure.
Content.
Text.
Graphics.
Presentations style.
Navigation.
Promotion.
Web Graphics
Guidelines for using graphics when designing Web
sites are:
Use either JPEG or GIF formats.
Keep the background simple and readable.
Create a few professional-looking graphics for use on your
page.
Reuse bullet or navigational buttons.
Examine your Web site on a variety of monitors and
graphics resolutions.

Presentation Style
Guidelines for entry displays for Web sites:
Provide an entry screen or home page.
Keep the number of graphics to a reasonable minimum.
Use large and colorful fonts for headings.
Use interesting images and buttons for links.
Presentation Style
Guidelines for entry displays for Web sites
 (continued)
Use tables to enhance the layout.
Use the same graphics image on several Web pages.
Avoid overusing animation, sound, and other “busy”
elements.
Navigation
Navigation guidelines:
Use the three-clicks rule.
Promote the Web site.
Encourage your viewers to bookmark your site.
Output Production and XML
An XML document may be transformed into different
media types.
There are two methods:
Using cascading style sheets (CSS).
Using Extensible Style Language Transformations (XSLT).
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
CSS allows you to specify the font family, color, size,
and so on.
Styles may be set up for different media, such as
display, print, or handheld devices.
Styles do not allow you to select or sort XML
elements.
Extensible Style Language
Transformations (XSLT)
XSLT allows you to:
Select XML elements.
Sort.
Select data to be output.
Extensible Style Language
Transformations (XSLT)
Chapter 12
Designing Effective Input
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Input design
Form design
Display design
GUI screen design
GUI controls
Web design guidelines
Input Design Objectives
The quality of system input determines the quality of system
output.
Well-designed input objectives:
Effectiveness.
Accuracy.
Ease of use.
Consistency.
Simplicity.
Attractiveness.
Form Design
Guidelines for good form design:
Make forms easy to fill out.
Ensure that forms meet the purpose for which they are
designed.
Design forms to assure accurate completion.
Keep forms attractive.
Form Completion
To make forms easy to fill out, the following
techniques are used:
First, design forms with proper flow, from left to right and
top to bottom.
Second, group information logically using the seven
 sections of a form.
Third, provide people with clear captions.
Captions tell the person completing the form what to put on a
blank line, space, or box.
Seven Sections of a Form
The seven sections of a form are:
Heading.
Identification and access.
Instructions.
Body.
Signature and verification.
Totals.
Comments.
Seven Sections of a Form
Caption Types
Captions may be one of the following:
Line caption, putting the caption on the same line or
below the line.
Boxed caption, providing a box for data instead of a line.
Vertical check off, lining up choices or alternatives
vertically.
Horizontal check off, lining up choices or alternatives
horizontally.
Caption Types
Meeting the Intended Purpose
Systems analysts may use different types of specialty
forms for different purposes.
Specialty forms can also mean forms prepared by a
stationer.
Ensuring Accurate Completion
To reduce error rates associated with data collection,
forms should be designed to assure accurate
completion.
Design forms to make people do the right thing with
the form.
To encourage people to complete forms, systems
analysts should keep forms attractive.
Attractive Forms
To be more attractive, forms should look uncluttered,
and elicit information in the expected order.
Aesthetic forms or usage of different fonts and line
weights within the same form can help make it
more attractive.
Computer Form Design Software
Numerous microcomputer form design software is available.
Features of electronic form design software:
Ability to design paper, electronic, or Web- based forms.
Form design using templates.
Form design by cutting and pasting familiar shapes and objects.
Computer Form Design Software
(Continued)
Features of the electronic form design software
Facilitates completion through the use of software.
Permits customized menus, toolbars, keyboards, and
macros.
Supports popular databases.
Enables broadcasting of electronic forms.
Permits sequential routing of forms.
Computer Form Design Software
(Continued)
Features of electronic form design software
Assists form tracking.
Encourages automatic delivery and processing.
Establishes security for electronic forms.
Controlling Business Forms
Controlling forms include:
Making sure that each form in use fulfills its specific
purpose.
Making sure that the specified purpose is integral to
 organizational functioning.
Preventing duplication of information collected and the
forms that collect it.
Designing effective forms.
Controlling Business Forms
(Continued)
Controlling forms include:

Deciding on reproduce forms in the most

economical way
Establishing stock control and inventory procedures that
make forms available when needed, at the lowest
possible cost
Display Design Guidelines
Guidelines for good display design:
First, keep the display simple.
Second, keep the display presentation consistent.
Third, facilitate user movement among display screens.
Finally, create an attractive display.
Three Screen Sections
To keep the screen simple, it is divided into three
sections:
Heading.
Body.
Comments and instructions.
Display Design Concepts for Simplicity
Displaying a few necessary basic commands using
windows or hyperlinks is another way to keep
screens simple.
For the occasional user, only 50 percent of the
screen should contain useful information.
Display Design Concepts for Simplicity
(Continued)
Simplistic design includes maximizing or minimizing
 the window size as needed.
Use context-sensitive help and other pop-up menus.
Consistency is achieved by displaying information in
the same area or by grouping information logically.
Facilitating Movement
Guidelines for facilitating movement from one page
to another:
Clicking--the three clicks rule says that users should be
able to get to the screens they need within three mouse
or keyboard clicks.
Scrolling--using arrows or PgDn keys.
Using context-sensitive pop-up windows.
Using onscreen dialogue .
Designing an Attractive Screen
To make the screen attractive use:
Different thickness of separation lines between
subcategories.
Inverse video and blinking cursors.
Different combinations of colors.
Different type fonts.

Using Icons in Screen Design

Icons are used in graphical screens to run programs
and execute commands.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) are used in
conjunction with a mouse, keyboard, lightpen, or
joystick for making selections and entering data.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Controls
GUI controls or fields:
Text boxes.
Check boxes.
Option or radio buttons.
List and drop-down list boxes.
Sliders and spin buttons.
Image maps.
Text area.
 Message boxes.
GUI Screen Example
Text Boxes
Text boxes should be large enough to accommodate
all the field characters.
Captions should be to the left of the text box.
Character data should be left aligned within the box.
Numeric data right aligned.
Check Boxes
Check boxes are used for nonexclusive choices.
Check box text or label is placed to the right of the
check box.
If there are more than 10 check boxes, group in a
bordered box.
Option Buttons and Drop-down List
Boxes
Option or radio buttons are used for exclusive
choices.
Often they are placed in a rectangle called an option
group.
List and drop-down list boxes are used to select one
choice out of many.
Sliders, Spin Buttons, and Image Maps
Sliders and spin buttons are used to change data
that have a continuous range of values.
Image maps are used to select values within an
image.
The x and y coordinates are sent to the program.
Slider and spin button example
Text Area
A text area is used for entering a larger amount of
text.
These areas may have text that wraps when the text
reaches the end of the box.
There are two ways to handle the text:
Hard return is used to force new lines.
Use word wrap within the text area.
Message Boxes and Command Buttons
Message boxes are used to display warning and
other messages in a rectangular window.
Command buttons perform an action.
Tab Control Dialogue Boxes
Tab control dialog boxes help organize GUI features
(controls) for users.
Each tab dialog box should have three basic buttons:
OK.
Cancel.
Help.
Web Page Dialogue Boxes
A new type of dialogue box has the look and feel of a
Web page.
Buttons are called places and are hyperlinked to
items a user would wish to access.
Color
The five most legible foreground/background color
combinations for display monitors are:
Black on yellow.
Green on white.
Blue on white.
White on blue.
Yellow on black.
Skins
Skins are graphical overlays that allow customers to
change the appearance of a Web site depending on
their preferences for a particular kind of image.
Internet and Intranet Design
Guidelines
Guidelines for creating intranet and Internet input
pages:
Provide clear instructions.
Use a logical entry sequence for fill-in forms.
Use a variety of text boxes, push buttons, radio buttons,
drop-down lists, and other GUI features.
Internet and Intranet Design
Guidelines
Guidelines for creating intranet and Internet input
pages (continued):
Provide a scrolling text box if you are uncertain how much
text will be entered.
Include two basic buttons: Submit and Clear.
If the form is lengthy, divide it into several simpler forms
on separate pages.
Internet and Intranet Design
Guidelines
Guidelines for creating intranet and Internet input
pages (continued):
Create a feedback screen that lists error messages if a
form has not correctly been filled out
Ecommerce Applications
Ecommerce applications involve more than just good
Web site design.
Customers need to be confident of the site, including
privacy and security.
Chapter 13
Designing Databases
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
Files
Databases
Normalization
Key design
Using the database
Data warehouses
Data mining
Data Storage Design Objectives
The objectives in the design of data storage
organization are:
The data must be available when the user wants to use it.
The data must have integrity.
It must be accurate and consistent.
Efficient storage of data as well as efficient updating and
retrieval.
Data Storage Design Objectives
The objectives in the design of data storage organization are
(continued):
The information retrieval be purposeful.
The information obtained from the stored data must be in an
integrated form to be useful for:
Managing.
Planning.
Controlling.
Decision making.

Approaches to Data Storage

There are two approaches to the storage of data in
a computer system:
Store the data in individual files each unique to a
particular application.
 Storage of data in a computer-based system involves
building a database.
A database is a formally defined and centrally controlled store of
data intended for use in many different applications.
Files
A file can be designed and built quite rapidly, and the
concerns for data availability and security are
minimized.
Analysts can choose an appropriate file structure
according to the required processing speed of the
particular application system.
Objectives of Effective Databases
The effectiveness objectives of the database
include:
Ensuring that data can be shared among users for a
variety of applications.
Maintaining data that are both accurate and consistent.
Ensuring all data required for current and future
applications will be readily available.
Objectives of Effective Databases
The effectiveness objectives of the database include
(continued):
Allowing the database to evolve and the needs of the
users to grow.
Allowing users to construct their personal view of the
data without concern for the way the data are physically
stored.
Metadata
Metadata is the information that describes data in
the file or database.
Used to help users understand the form and structure of
the data
Reality, Data, and Metadata
Entity-Relationship Concepts
Entities are objects or events for which data is
collected and stored.
An entity subtype represents data about an entity
that may not be found on every record.
Relationships are associations between entities.
Entities
A distinct collection of data for one person, place,
thing, or event.
Entity Subtype
An entity subtype is a special one-to-one relationship used to
represent additional attributes, which may not be present
on every record of the first entity.
This eliminates null fields on the primary database.
For example, a company that has preferred customers, or
student interns may have special field.
Associative Entity
Associative Entity - links two entities
An associative entity can only exist between two
entities

Attributive Entity
An attributive Entity - describes attributes, especially
repeating elements.
Entity-Relationship
Diagram Symbols
Relationships
Relationships may be:
One-to-one.
One-to-many.
Many-to-many.
A single vertical line represents one.
A circle represents zero or none.
A crows foot represents many.
Relationships
Self-Join
A self-join is when a record has a relationship with
another record on the same file.
Entity-Relationship Diagram Example
Attributes, Records, and Keys
Attributes are a characteristic of an entity,
sometimes called a data item.
Records are a collection of data items that have
something in common.
Keys are data items in a record used to identify the
record.
Key Types
Key types are:
Primary key, unique for the record.
Secondary key, a key which may not be unique, used to
select a group of records.
Concatenated key, a combination of two or more data
items for the key.
Foreign key, a data item in one record that is the key of
another record.
Files
A file contains groups of records used to provide
information for operations, planning, management,
and decision making.
Files can be used for storing data for an indefinite
period of time, or they can be used to store data
temporarily for a specific purpose.
File Types
Types of files available are:
Master file.
Table file.
Transaction file.
 Work file.
Report file.
Master and Transaction Files
Master files
Have large records
Contain all pertinent information about an entity
Transaction records
Are short records
Contain information used to update master files
File Organization
The different organizational structures for file design
are:
Sequential organization.
Linked lists.
Hashed file organization.
Databases
A database is intended to be shared by many users.
There are three structures for storing database files:
Relational database structures.
Hierarchical database structures (older).
Network database structures (older).
Logical and Physical Database Design
Normalization
Normalization is the transformation of complex user
views and data to a set of smaller, stable, and
easily maintainable data structures.
Normalization (Continued)
Normalization creates data that are stored only once
on a file.
The exception is key fields.
The data structures are simpler and more stable.
The data is more easily maintained.
Three Steps of Data Normalization
 The three steps of data normalization are:
Remove all repeating groups and identify the primary key.
Ensure that all nonkey attributes are fully dependent on
the primary key.
Remove any transitive dependencies, attributes that are
dependent on other nonkey attributes.
Three Steps of Normalization
Data Model Diagrams
Data model diagrams are used to show relationships
between attributes.
An oval represents an attribute.
A single arrow line represents one.
A double arrow line represents many.
Data Model Example
First Normal Form (1NF)
Remove any repeating groups.
All repeating groups are moved into a new table.
Foreign keys are used to link the tables.
When a relation contains no repeating groups, it is in
the first normal form.
Second Normal Form (2NF)
Remove any partial dependencies.
A partial dependency is when the data are only
dependent on a part of a key field.
A relation is created for the data that are only
dependent on part of the key and another for data
that are dependent on both parts.
Third Normal Form (3NF)
Remove any transitive dependencies.
A transitive dependency is when a relation contains
data that are not part of the entity.
The problem with transitive dependencies is
updating the data.
A single data item may be present on many records.
Entity-Relationship Diagram and
Record Keys
The entity-relationship diagram may be used to determine
record keys.
When the relationship is one-to-many, the primary key of the file at
the one end of the relationship should be contained as a foreign
key on the file at the many end of the relationship.
A many-to-many relationship should be divided into two one-to-
many relationships with an associative entity in the middle.
Guidelines for Creating Master Files or
Database Relations
Guidelines for creating master files or database
relations are:
Each separate entity should have it's own master file or
database relation.
A specific, nonkey data field should exist on only one
master file or relation.
Each master file or relation should have programs to
create, read, update, and delete records.
Integrity Constraints
There are three integrity constraints that help to
ensure that the database contains accurate data:
Entity integrity constraints, which govern the composition
of primary keys.
Referential integrity, which governs the denature of
records in a one-to-many relationship.
Domain integrity.
Entity Integrity
Entity integrity constraints are rules for primary
keys:
The primary key cannot have a null value.
If the primary key is a composite key, none of the fields in
the key can contain a null value.
Referential Integrity
Referential integrity governs the denature of records
in a one-to-many relationship.
Referential integrity means that all foreign keys in
one table (the child table) must have a matching
record in the parent table.
Referential Integrity (Continued)
Referential integrity includes:
You cannot add a record without a matching foreign key
record.
You cannot change a primary key that has matching child
table records.
A child table has a foreign key for a different record.
You cannot delete a record that has child records.
Referential Integrity
A restricted database updates or deletes a key only if
there are no matching child records.
A cascaded database will delete or update all child
records when a parent record is deleted or
changed.
The parent triggers the changes.
Domain Integrity
Domain integrity defines rules that ensure that only
valid data are stored on database records
Domain integrity has two forms:
Check constraints, which are defined at the table level.
Rules, which are defined as separate objects and may be used
within a number of fields.
Retrieving and Presenting Database
Data
The guidelines to retrieve and present data are:
Choose a relation from the database.
Join two relations together.
Project columns from the relation.
Select rows from the relation.
Derive new attributes.
Index or sort rows.
 Calculate totals and performance measures.
Present data.
Denormalization
Denormalization is the process of taking the logical
data model and transforming it into an efficient
physical model.
Data Warehouses
Data warehouses are used to organize information
for quick and effective queries.
Data Warehouses and Database
Differences
In the data warehouse, data are organized around major
subjects.
Data in the warehouse are stored as summarized rather than
detailed raw data.
Data in the data warehouse cover a much longer time frame
than in a traditional transaction-oriented database.
Data Warehouses and Database
Differences (Continued)
Data warehouses are organized for fast queries.
Data warehouses are usually optimized for answering
complex queries, known as OLAP.
Data warehouses allow for easy access via data-
mining software called software.
Data Warehouses and Database
Differences (Continued)
Data warehouses include multiple databases that
have been processed so that data are uniformly
defined, containing what is referred to as “clean”
data.
Data warehouses usually contain data from outside
sources.
Online Analytic Processing (OLAP)
Online analytic processing (OLAP) is meant to answer
decision makers’ complex questions by defining a
multidimensional database.
Data mining, or knowledge data discovery (KDD), is the
process of identifying patterns that a human is incapable
of detecting.
Data Mining Decision Aids
Data mining has a number of decision aids
available, including:
Statistical analysis.
Decision trees.
Neural networks.
Intelligent agents.
Fuzzy logic.
Data visualization.
Data Mining Patterns
Data mining patterns that decision makers try to
identify include:
Associations, patterns that occur together.
Sequences, patterns of actions that take place over a
period of time.
Clustering, patterns that develop among groups of people.
Trends, the patterns that are noticed over a period of
time.
Web Based Databases and XML
Web-based databases are used for sharing data.
Extensible markup language (XML) is used to define
data used primarily for business data exchange
over the Web.
Chapter 14
Designing User Interfaces
Systems Analysis and Design
Kendall & Kendall
Sixth Edition
Major Topics
User interfaces
Dialogue guidelines
Feedback
Help
Ecommerce dialogue
Data mining
Ergonomics
The User Interface
The user interface is the system that helps users
communicate with the computer system and/or the
application system
User Interface Design Objectives
To design a better user interface, use the following
objectives:
Match the user interface to the task.
Make the user interface efficient.
Provide appropriate feedback to users.
Generate usable queries.
Improve productivity of knowledge workers.
Components of the User Interface
The user interface has two main components:
Presentation language, which is the computer-to-human
part of the transaction.
Action language that characterizes the human-to-
computer portion.
Types of User Interfaces
There are several types of user interfaces:
 Natural-language interfaces.
Question-and-answer interfaces.
A menu interface.
Form-fill interfaces.
Command-language interfaces.
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs).
Natural-Language Interfaces
Natural-language interfaces permit users to interact
with the computer in their everyday or "natural"
language.
Question-and-Answer Interfaces
The computer displays a question for the user on the
screen.
The user enters an answer via the keyboard or a mouse
click.
The computer acts on that input information in a
preprogrammed manner.
New users may find the question-and-answer interface
most comfortable.
A Menu Interface
A menu interface, that provides the user with an
onscreen list of available selections.
A nested menu is a menu that can be reached
through another menu.
Advantages of Nested Menus
The advantages of nested menus are:
Less cluttered screen.
Eliminate menu options which do not interest a user.
Allow users to move quickly through the program.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Menus
GUI menus guidelines:
The main menu is always on the screen.
The main menu uses single words.
The main menu should have secondary menus grouped
into similar features.
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Menus
GUI menus guidelines (continued):
The secondary drop-down menus often consist of more
than one word.
Secondary options perform actions or display additional
menu options.
Menu items in grey are unavailable for the current
activity.
Form-Fill Interfaces
Form-fill interfaces are onscreen forms displaying
fields containing data items or parameters that
need to be communicated to the user.
Form-fill interfaces may be implemented using the
Web.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Web Forms
Advantages of using a Web-based form are:
User enters the data.
Data may be entered 24 hours a day, globally.
Disadvantages of a Web-based form are:
The experienced user may become impatient with input/output
forms.
Command-Language Interfaces
Allow the user to control the application with a series
of keystrokes, commands, phrases, or some
sequence of these.
Require memorization of syntax rules.
May be an obstacle for inexperienced users.
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
Allow direct manipulation of the graphical
representation on the screen.
Can be accomplished with keyboard input, joystick, or
mouse.
Requires more system sophistication than other
interfaces.
Voice or Speech Recognition
Voice or speech recognition systems are developing
rapidly
There are two different types of voice recognition:
Continuous speech systems, allowing for dictation.
Speaker independence, so people can enter commands or
words at a given workstation.
Evaluating User Interfaces
The five useful standards in evaluating the
interfaces are:
The training period for users should be acceptably short.
Users early in their training should be able to enter
commands without thinking about them, or referring to a
help menu or manual.
Evaluating User Interfaces
The five useful standards in evaluating the interfaces are
(continued):
The interface should be seamless so that errors are few, and those
that do occur are not occurring because of poor design.
Time necessary for users and the system to bounce back from
errors should be short.
Infrequent users should be able to relearn the system quickly.
Dialog
Dialog is the communication between a person and
the computer
Three key points to be considered are:
Meaningful communication.
Minimal user action.
Standard operation and consistency.
Communication
Communication means that the user understands the
information that is being presented
Users with less skill require a greater amount of
communication
Provide easy to use help screens
Often these contain hyperlinks to other related help
topics
Minimal User Action
Minimal user action is achieved by:
Entering codes instead of code meanings.
Enter only data that are not stored on files.
Not requiring users to enter editing characters.
Supplying default values on entry screens.
Providing inquiry, change, or delete programs with short
entry fields.
Minimal User Action
Minimal user action is achieved by:
Providing keystrokes for selecting menu options that are
normally selected using a mouse
Selecting codes from a pull-down menu on a GUI
screen
Standard Operation
Standard operation is achieved by:
Keeping header and footer information in the same
locations for all screens.
Using the same keystrokes to exit a program.
Using the same keystroke to cancel a transaction.
Using a standard key for obtaining help.
Standard Operation
Standard operation is achieved by (continued):
Standardized use of icons when using graphical user interface
screens.
Consistent use of terminology within a screen or Web site.
Providing a consistent way to navigate through the dialog.
Consistent font alignment, size, and color on a Web page.
Tab Control Dialogue Boxes
Tab control dialog boxes are a feature of GUI design.
They should have logically grouped functions on each
tab.
Each tab dialog box should have OK, Cancel or Apply,
 and perhaps Help buttons.
Feedback
All systems require feedback in order to monitor
and change behavior by:
Comparing current behavior with predetermined goals.
Giving back information describing the gap between
actual and intended performance.
Types of Feedback
Feedback to the user is necessary in seven distinct
situations:
The computer has accepted the input.
The input is in the correct form.
The input is not in the correct form.
There will be a delay in processing.
The request has been completed.
The computer cannot complete the request.
More detailed feedback is available.
Program Help
Program help comes in a variety of ways:
Pressing a function key, such as F1.
A GUI pull-down menu.
Context-sensitive help, specific for the operation being
performed.
Iconic help, obtained when a cursor is left over an icon for
a few seconds.
Program Help
Program help comes in a variety of ways (continued):
Wizards, which provide a series of questions and answers
when trying to perform an operation
Telephone help desks provided by the software
manufacturer
Software forums on nation wide bulletin boards
Ecommerce Dialog
Extra considerations are needed when developing
ecommerce Web sites.
Feedback needs to be solicited from customers,
 using either of two methods:
Launch the user’s email program.
Create a blank feedback template with a submit button
labeled “feedback”.
Intuitive Navigation for Ecommerce
Sites
Intuitive navigation should be designed for:
Creating a rollover menu.
Building a collection of hierarchical links.
Placing a site map on the home page and emphasizing the link to it
from every page on the site.
Placing a navigational bar on every inside page that repeats the
categories used on the entry screen.
Types of Queries
The six different types of queries are :
Obtain specified data for a particular entity.
Find a group of entities that have certain characteristics.
Find attributes for an entity for certain characteristics.
Display all the attributes for a certain entity.
Types of Queries
The different types of queries are (continued):
Find all entities with a certain characteristic.
List attributes for all entities for certain characteristics.
Entities, Attributes, and Values
Query Notation
V is value, E is entity, A is attributes, variables in
parentheses are given:
Query type 1: V <--- (E,A)
Query type 2: E <--- (V,A)
Query type 3: A <--- (V,E)
Query type 4: V <--- (E, all A)
Query type 5: E <--- (V, all A)
Query type 6: A <--- (V, all E)
Methods for Implementing Queries
There are two methods for implementing database
 queries:
Query By Example (QBE), which allows users to select
fields and specify conditions using a grid.
Structured Query Language (SQL), which uses a series of
keywords and commands to select the rows and
columns that should be displayed.
SQL Example
Parameter Queries
A parameter query allows users to enter a value to
select records without changing the query syntax.
Web Searches
Web searches uses search engines to answer a
query.
Guidelines for searching the Web are:
Decide whether to search or surf the Web.
Think of the key terms before searching.
Construct the search questions logically, with attention to
the use of AND and OR search logic.
Web Searches
Guidelines for searching the Web are (continued):
Use a metasearch engine that saves your searches
Use a search engine that informs you of changes in the
Web sites you select
Look for new search engines periodically
Data Mining
Data mining is gathering a large amount of
information about a person and their habits and
using that information as a predictor of future
behavior.
It must be carefully and ethically used to avoid
infringing on an individual’s privacy.
Data Mining