Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120

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Electric Power Systems Research
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ epsr
Improved modelling of power transformer winding using bacterial swarming
algorithm and frequency response analysis
A. Shintemirov, W.J. Tang, W.H. Tang, Q.H. Wu

Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics The University of Liverpool, Brownlow Hill, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 10 April 2008
Received in revised form 19 June 2009
Accepted 2 March 2010
Available online 13 April 2010
Keywords:
Transformer winding
Mathematical model
Bacterial swarming algorithm
Frequency response analysis
Parameter identication
a b s t r a c t
The paper discusses an improved modelling of transformer windings based on bacterial swarming algo-
rithm (BSA) and frequency response analysis (FRA). With the purpose to accurately identify transformer
windings parameters a model-based identication approach is introduced using a well-known lumped
parameter model. It includes search space estimation using analytical calculations, which is used for the
subsequent model parameters identication with a novel BSA. The newly introduced BSA, being devel-
oped upon a bacterial foraging behavior, is described in detail. Simulations and discussions are presented
to explore the potential of the proposed approach using simulated and experimentally measured FRA
responses taken from two transformers. The BSA identication results are compared with those using
genetic algorithm. It is shown that the proposed BSA delivers satisfactory parameter identication and
improved modelling can be used for FRA results interpretation.
2010 Published by Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
Power transformer is a major apparatus in a power system, and
its correct functioning is vital to system operation. It is therefore
very necessary toclosely monitor their in-service behavior, inorder
to avoid catastrophic failures and costly outages and improve the
management of maintenance and servicing.
Among various techniques applied to power transformer condi-
tion monitoring, frequency response analysis (FRA) is suitable for
reliable winding displacement and deformation assessment and
monitoring. It has been established upon the fact that frequency
response shape of a transformer winding in high frequencies
depends on changes of its internal distances and proles, which
are concerned with its deviation or geometrical deformation [1].
However, the interpretation of FRA data is mainly conducted
manually by trained experts. Measured FRA traces are compared
with the references taken from the same winding during previous
tests or from the corresponding winding of a sister transformer,
or from other phases of the same transformer. The shifts in reso-
nant frequencies and magnitude of FRA traces are believed to be
indicators of a potential winding deformation. However, the ques-
tion of potential deformation location in a winding is still required
to be investigated [2].
A range of research activities have been undertaken to uti-
lize FRA in the development of suitable mathematical models of

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 151 7944535; fax: +44 151 7944540.
E-mail address: qhwu@liv.ac.uk (Q.H. Wu).
transformer windings. Consideringthesimpliedequivalent model
of transformer winding, various experimental research was per-
formed with the purpose to observe the model behaviors in the
frequency domain [3,4]. A winding equivalent model and an iden-
tication method of transformer equivalent circuit were proposed
in [5,6], where equivalent circuits of transformer winding for the
low, medium and high frequency ranges were discussed and its
frequency responses were compared with experimental data in
order to identify the models parameters. These models represent
the overall windings by combinations of single lumped elements:
inductances, resistances and capacitances. This allows estimat-
ing only the overall winding parameters in a particular frequency
range, which makes these models unsuitable for deformation anal-
ysis of each winding section.
Thecalculationof internal parameters plays animportant part in
accurate simulations of transformer winding frequency behavior.
Modelling of a real winding in order to obtain frequency responses,
being close to experimental ones, is an extremely complex task
since a detailed transformer model must consider each turn or sec-
tion of a winding separately. The reason is the uctuation of real
winding parameters such as inductances and resistances per turn
length as well as interturn capacitances. The insulation property
deviation should also be taken into account, which is frequency
dependent.
In [7] efcient procedures to calculate turn self inductances,
mutual inductances and capacitances were proposed which
demanded additional experimental tests and knowledge of geo-
metric and physical characteristics of a transformer. A transfer
functionapproachis usedin[2] tostudythe discriminating changes
0378-7796/$ see front matter 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V.
doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2010.03.001
1112 A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120
Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit of single-phase power transformer windings.
introduced into a winding physical model. In [811] analytical
expressions areusedtoestimateparameters of anequivalent model
basedonthe geometryof windings. The well-knownnite-element
methodwas appliedin[12,13] for more precise calculationof wind-
ing parameters for an equivalent circuit model. These techniques
show higher degree of accuracy compared with experiment mea-
surements.
However, in industry measurements it is not always possible to
conduct additional tests for precise measurements of transformer
geometry or insulation parameter estimation. Recently, evolution-
aryalgorithms wereutilizedtoovercomesuchdifculties, that offer
a way to identify model parameters using limited measurement
data. Regarding transformer winding modelling, at rst, two simi-
lar simplied winding model parameter identication approaches
using particle swarm optimizer (PSO) [14] and genetic algorithms
(GAs) [15] were proposed in [16,17] respectively. However, only
simplied one-winding lumped parameter models were consid-
ered in these work for parameter identication. The questions of
initial estimationof the model parameters to establishsearchspace
for the evolutionary algorithms were not discussed either.
A variety of well-established biologically inspired computa-
tional methodologies has emerged in the past a few years, such
as GAs, PSO, evolutionary programming (EP) [18], bacterial forag-
ing algorithm (BFA) [19], etc. However, data processing in these
algorithms may be time consuming, especially when a large num-
ber of multi-dimensional variables need to be optimized. Thus, it
leads to a slowconvergence rate and reluctant application in many
problems involving a large number of parameters to be optimized,
primarily because of the huge computational burden imposed. A
keyadvanceinthis eldwill thereforebemet byasignicant reduc-
tion in the computational time-costs whilst further improving the
efciencyof global researchcapabilities of thesealgorithms [20,21].
In this paper an improved modelling of transformer windings is
presentedbyusing a model-basedidenticationapproachtoderive
the parameters of transformer windings models. The approach,
rstly introduced in [16,17], is further modied with a novel bac-
terial swarming algorithm (BSA) [21,22], presented and utilized to
undertake parameter identication. The newly introduced BSA is
based on BFA, which incorporates ideas fromthe modelling of bac-
terial foraging patterns [22]. Simulation studies and discussions
are presented to explore the potentials of the proposed modelling
approach.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2
describes a lumped parameter mathematical model of transformer
windings utilized in this study, then in Section 3 the analyti-
cal expressions for model parameter estimation are presented.
BSA and a model-based identication approach are introduced in
Section 4. Subsequently, results of parameter identication using
simulated and experimentally measures frequency responses from
two transformers are presented and discussed in Section 5. Finally,
conclusions are given in Section 6.
2. Lumped parameter model of transformer windings
Since resonances of an FRA trace are related to the values
of capacitances and inductances within a transformer winding,
lumped-parameter equivalent circuit models have beenwidely uti-
lized to analyze frequency domain behaviors. Each section of an
equivalent circuit usually represents one or a few discs in the case
of a disc type windings as well as one or a few turns for helical
type windings [911]. Therefore, despite of the model simplicity in
comparison with those based on traveling wave theory [20,23,24]
and multiconductor transmission line theory [2528], it retains a
physical veracity and can be useful for frequency response simula-
tion in a restricted frequency diapason up to 1 MHz. Fig. 1 shows a
typical equivalent circuit of single-phase power transformer wind-
ings [812], where the following notations for section parameters
of a high voltage (HV) and a low voltage (LV) windings are in use:
K
HV
and K
LV
series capacitances of HV and LV winding sections
A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120 1113
C
HV
and C
LV
ground capacitances of HV and LV winding sections
C
HVLV
capacitances between HV and LV winding sections
C
HVLV
conductance between HV and LV winding section
g
HV
and g
LV
series conductances of HV and LV winding sections
C
HV
and C
LV
ground conductances of HV and LV winding sections
L
HV
and L
LV
inductances of HV and LV winding sections
R
HV
and R
LV
resistances of HV and LV winding sections
M
km
mutual inductance between the k
th
and m
th
winding sec-
tions
n number of sections in one winding
The mathematical descriptionof the model infrequencydomain
is usually given in a matrix form of nodal equations applying the
rst and second Kirchhoffs laws [811]:
Y U = A I +QU
0
,
Z I = A
1
U+PU
0
,
(1)
where vectors Uand I represent node voltages and branch currents
respectively and voltage U
0
denotes an input sinusoidal signal.
Each element of the admittance matrix Y is a combination of
admittances, corresponding to g K and C C parallel branches
respectively as shown in Fig. 1. Using matrix notations for the
capacitance and conductance matrices, Y = jC +G, where is an
angular frequencyandj denotes theimaginaryoperator. Thebranch
impedance matrix Z = jL +Rconsists of the self- and mutual sec-
tional inductances L and M, being combined into the matrix L, and
equivalent section resistances R, building the matrix R [8].
The incidence matrix A consists of 1, 0 and 1 and serves to
link nodal voltages with branch currents. Matrices Q and P are
formed as a component vector of Y and Amatrices correspondingly
inaccordancewithterminal connections of thewindingmodel such
as external voltage source imposition, node grounding, internodal
connections, etc. [911,29].
FromEq. (1), the branch currents and nodal voltages vectors can
be expressed as [8,9,11,29]:
U = (Y +AZ
1
A
1
)
1
(AZ
1
P +Q)U
0
,
I = Z
1
(A
1
U+PU
0
).
(2)
An output signal can be chosen arbitrarily fromthe variable vec-
tor Uor I in order to obtain the transfer function H(j) of a winding
in frequency domain, i.e. the ratio of nodal voltages and inductive
branch currents with respect to the applied input voltage.
3. Estimation of model parameters
Model parameters are usually estimated using physical
dimensions of a winding. In practice some simplication and
approximations of winding geometrical structures are accepted
which allow to apply analytical formulae [8,9]. On the other
hand, geometrysimplications canbe avoidedusingnite-element
method [12,13] for parameter calculation. In both cases the
frequency dependent behavior of resistive elements should be
accounted as well as frequency dependent insulation properties.
In this study, the analytical expressions for initial estimation of the
model parameters are presented.
3.1. Capacitance and conductance
One of the common methods to calculate the ground and inter-
winding capacitances C between windings, tank (or core) is to use
the expression for cylindrical capacitance having an axial height of
the model section [9,10,13].
On the other hand, the evaluation of series capacitances K
depends on winding types. For instance, for a disc type winding the
series capacitance is determined by the amount of stored energy
in the disc, which can be estimated by assuming the equal voltage
drop across each disc and the existence of equipotential surfaces
in the interdisc space as stated in [9,10,13,30]. Transformer insula-
tionmaterials at capacitance calculationare usually representedby
effective dielectric permittivities calculated as proposed in [9,13]
usingdielectric material referencesources or additional test results.
It is known that the insulation conductivity is frequency depen-
dent due to dielectric losses characterized by tan. Therefore,
expressions for series and ground conductances g and G can be
obtained using the well-known formulae [27,28]:
C = C tan
g
,
g = K tan
s
,
(3)
where tan
g
and tan
s
are the effective loss tangents of the insula-
tion between winding and ground, and the intersection insulation
respectively.
3.2. Inductance and resistance
Research reported in [8,29] assumes that in the high frequency
region above 10 kHz the core effect is not signicant and can be
neglected. Hence, the self and mutual inductances of model were
calculated using air-core case expressions. This method showed a
high degree of accuracy in comparison with the results performed
on several experimental transformers with the core removed and
substituted by a hollow metal cylinder.
However, according to [13] the core effect has to be taken into
account during inductance calculation in order to accurately model
practical transformers. This can be achieved using the analytical
expressions derived by Wilcox [31,32] as described below, which
are adopted in this study.
In Fig. 2, two coils representing the k
th
and m
th
sections of a
transformer winding are illustrated. These coils have N
k
and N
m
turns respectively wounded concentrically on a magnetic core of
radius b at intersection distance z. Each coil is characterized by the
average a, internal u
1
and external u
2
radii respectively, and cross-
section weight wand height h. The mutual impedance between the
coils is given as [32]:
Z
km
= sL
km
+Z
1(km)
+Z
2(km)
, (4)
where s denotes the Laplace transform operator, L
km
corresponds
to the mutual inductance upon the air-core assumption, Z
1(km)
rep-
resents the impedance due to the ux conned to core and Z
2(km)
is the impedance owing to leakage ux upon introducing the core.
The secondandthirdterms of Eq. (4) are thoroughly denedin[32].
Regarding the rst term, L
km
, it is proposed to use the following
approximate formula [32]:
L
km

=
0
N
k
N
m
_
u
k
u
m
2
k
__
1
k
2
2
_
K(k) (k)
_
, (5)
where
0
is a free space permeability, K(k) and (k) are complete
elliptic integrals of the rst and the second kinds respectively, and
k =
_
4u
k
u
m
z
2
+(u
k
+u
m
)
2
. (6)
However, a more precise calculation of the mutual inductances
can be achieved by the following expression [31]:
L
km
= 2
0
N
k
N
m
u
k
u
m

_
0
l
1
(u
m
)K
1
(u
k
) cos(z)d, (7)
where K
1
and l
1
are the modied Bessel functions.
In both Eqs. (5) and (7) in the case of self impedance calculation,
e.g. Z
kk
, z = 0.2235(h +w) [32].
1114 A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120
Fig. 2. Two coil sections on a core.
The calculation of winding resistance is the one of the major
challenges due to eddy current effect in winding conductor and
core. There are a lot of methods being proposed and utilized
[8,11,12] for the resistance calculation, among them, the Dowells
approach [33] is one of the most referenced:
R= R
dc
z
_
sinh(2z) +sin(2z)
cosh(2z) cos(2z)
+
2(p
2
1)
3

sinh(z) sin(z)
cosh(z)+cos(z)
_
,
(8)
where R
dc
is the DC resistance of one-winding section, p is the
number of layers in the section and
z=
_

4
_
3]4
d
3]2
t
1]2
, (9)
in which d is the conductor equivalent diameter and t is the dis-
tance between the centers of two adjacent conductors. The skin
penetration depth can be found as follows:
=
_
2

r
o
, (10)
where o and
r
are the conductor conductivity and relative per-
meability, respectively.
4. Model-based identication approach with bacterial
swarming algorithm
4.1. Bacterial foraging algorithm
In the past a few years, the development of evolutionary algo-
rithms received great attention in the computational intelligence
community worldwide. The BFA [19] is one of the emerging opti-
mization methods, utilizing an optimization model for E. coli
bacterial foraging to mimicry the self-adaptability of bacteria in
the group searching activities.
In general, an E. coli bacteriumhas a control systemthat enables
it to search for food molecules (nutrient) and try to avoid noxious
substances. This activity of individual meretriciously agellated
bacteria, which is called chemotaxis, can be described in terms
of run intervals during which the microbe swims approximately
in a straight line interspersed with tumbles so that the organism
undergoes a randomreorientation, and it alternates between these
two modes of operation in its entire lifetime.
E. coli bacteria also demonstrate a particularly interesting
groupbehaviorcellcell communication, whichis a process that
allows bacteria tosearchfor similar cells intheir close surroundings
using secreted chemical signaling molecules called autoinducers.
Other bacteria release the same autoinducers in response. One-
cell organisms in effect become multi-cellular organisms and can
respond together [34].
A BFA optimization model operates by a population (set) of
bacteria executing processes of chemotaxis, reproduction and dis-
persion. A chemotactic process in BFA consists of Tumble and
Run steps for each bacterium in the population, and a step
tness is evaluated at each step of the process. The total t-
ness of each bacterium is calculated as the sum of the step
tness during its life, which is obtained after all chemotactic
steps.
In the reproduction process, all bacteria are sorted in reverse
order according totheir tness. Only the rst half of populationsur-
vive and a surviving bacteriumsplits into two identical ones, which
occupy the same positions in the environment at 1
st
step. Thus,
A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120 1115
the population of bacteria remains constant in each chemotactic
process.
The dispersion process prevents the optimization process to be
trapped around local optima or initial positions. In BFA, the disper-
sion event happens after a xed number of reproduction processes.
A bacterium is chosen, according to a preset probability p
ed
, to
be dispersed and moved to another position within the environ-
ment. BFA adopts a strategy of individual-based attraction and
repellent for cellcell communication, which largely increases
its computational complexity [19].
BFA is claimed to have a satisfactory performance in optimiza-
tion problems and has been applied to power ow optimization
[35] and stabilizers design [36] for power systems. However, the
algorithm has limitations, e.g. it is unable to obtain satisfactory
results in a certain range of optimization problems, in particular,
high dimensional and multi-modal problems, as some parts of the
foraging process are articially set in such a way that the charac-
teristics of the problem (landscape) were ignored [21].
Comparative studies have demonstrated that a recent develop-
ment uponthebacterial foragingstudy, BSA, outperforms BFAinthe
aforementioned problems. The numerical comparison study [21]
has shown that BSA has demonstrated a superior performance in
comparison with some popularly used algorithms, such as PSOand
Fast Evolutionary Programming. Therefore, this algorithm is used
in this study to perform intelligent optimization with the purpose
to identify transformer winding model parameters andis described
in detail in the next subsection.
4.2. Bacterial swarming algorithm
The main difference between BSA and BFA is the absence of the
reproduction process in BSA. All bacteria are kept in the population
with only their positions updated in the search domain accord-
ing to their tness values. The BSA model executes a combination
of both chemotactic and group-based attraction and dispersion
processes, which is described below in details.
In the chemotactic process, a unit walk with random direction
represents a Tumble and a unit walk with the same direction of
the last step indicates a Run. The process consists of one step of
Tumble and followed by N
s
steps of Run, depending on the variation
of environment.
In the process of Tumble, the position of the i
th
bacteriumcan be
represented as
0
i
(j +1, r) = 0
i
(j, r) +C
i
(j)
i
(j), (11)
where 0
i
(j, r) indicates the position of the i
th
bacterium at the j
th
chemotactic step in the r
th
iteration loop; (j) is the direction angle
of the j
th
step for bacterium i, and it is a random angle generated
within a range of [0, 2] [21]. C
i
(j) is the length vector of a unit walk
for the i
th
bacterium at the j
th
chemotactic step in the r
th
iteration
loop, which is dened as follows [21]:
C
i
(j) =
_
C
init
8 : if Tumble
D
1
r
1
8, : if Run
, (12)
where C
init
is the step size for a unit walk, D
1
is a constant, r
1
is a
randomnumber, r
1
[0, 1], and 8 is the length vector of the bound-
aries of the search domain, depending on a particular optimization
problem.
The tness of the i
th
bacterium at the j
th
chemotactic step is
represented by j
i
(j, r). If j
i
(j +1, r) is better than j
i
(j, r), then the
process of Run follows, which can be represented by:

0
l+1
i
(j +1, r) =

0
l
i
(j +1, r) +C
i
(j)
i
(j) (13)
where

0
l
i
denotes the position of the i
th
bacterium in the l
th
step of
Run, 1 l N
s
, 1 j N
c
, 1 r N
r
. The notation N
s
corresponds
to the swimlength limits when it is on a gradient, N
c
is the number
of chemotactic steps per bacteria lifetime and N
r
is the number
of iteration steps. This process continues until j
l+1
i
(j +1, r) is not
better than j
l
i
(j +1, r) [21].
The group-based attraction and dispersion process is adopted
to mimicry cellcell communication. The individual with most
energy (best tness value) gainedinN
c
chemotactic steps is dened
as the best cell and its position 0
p
(r) is kept for updating the
positions of other bacteria in the next selection process. A certain
percentage of bacteria are involved in an attraction action, which
are selected according to a probability p
a
. Based on their current
positions and the global best position, the positions of bacteria
being attracted are recalculated as follows [21]:
0
i
(1, r +1) = 0
i
(N
c
, r) +r
2
D
2
(0
p
(r) 0
i
(N
c
, r)), (14)
where D
2
is a constant and r
2
a randomnumber, r
2
[0, 1]. The rest
bacteria are dispersed to positions around the best individual with
a randomly chosen mutation step and a mutation angle, using the
following equation:
0
i
(1, r +1) = 0
p
(r) +r
3
8j (15)
where r
3
is a random number, r
3
[0, 1] and j is a random angle
chosen from [0, 2].
In summary, a BSA process can be briey expressed in the form
of a sequence of the following operations:
(i) Random generation of the initial population.
(ii) Performing the chemotactic process for tness evaluation of
each bacterium in the population.
(iii) Performing the group-based attraction and dispersion pro-
cess.
(iv) Repeating steps iiiv until a termination criterion is met.
(v) Presentation of the best bacteriumin the population as the BSA
output.
4.3. Model-based identication approach
The model-based learning approach is based on searching of the
optimal model parameters by minimizing the difference, i.e. tness,
between reference frequency responses and simulated model out-
puts. It is achieved by measuring the errors between the original
responses and the model outputs. Therefore, for each individual
(bacterium) of a population in BSA, its total tness value is given as
follows:
min
S

j=1
||H
0
(
j
) H(
j
)|| w
j
, (16)
where H
0
(
j
) and H(
j
) R
1
are the reference and simulated with
the identied parameters frequency responses at frequency
j
, j =
1, . . . , S, where S is the number of frequency points involved in BSA
learning process and w
j
is the relative weight of the j
th
point.
Due to iterative nature of evolutionary algorithms, processing
a large number of data points can greatly slow down a learning
process. In the case of FRA, frequency responses are characterized
mainlybyresonant andantiresonancefrequencies andcorrespond-
ingmagnitudevalues. Therefore, as proposedin[17], thedimension
of processed FRAdata can be reduced by selection of points of reso-
nance andantiresonance andits vicinities for more speedy analysis,
which are weighted accordingly.
The following steps are performed for parameter identication
of the transformer windings model:

Measurement FRAdata or predened model parameters are used

to obtain the reference frequency responses.
1116 A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120
Table 1
Comparison of the reference and identied parameters of the transformer winding model.
Parameter Reference value
(reprinted from [29])
Estimated value
(expressions in Section 3)
Identied value Deviation from the reference (%)
BSA GA Estimated BSA GA
L
1
, H 186.0534 194.3 190.1 177.5 4.43 2.17 4.59
M
12
, H 141.4607 145.7 147.8 164.0 2.99 4.48 15.93
M
13
, H 91.0820 91.8 93.9 95.4 0.79 3.09 4.74
M
14
, H 65.3182 63.8 65.5 79.3 2.32 0.28 21.4
M
15
, H 48.9240 48.1 48.8 55.8 1.68 0.25 14.05
M
16
, H 37.5984 38.1 38.4 44.2 1.33 2.13 17.55
M
17
, H 29.4244 29.9 30.9 32.7 1.61 5.02 11.13
M
18
, H 23.3602 22.9 22.8 18.9 1.97 2.39 19.09
M
19
, H 18.7726 18.2 17.9 20.7 3.05 4.64 10.26
M
110
, H 15.2490 15.3 15.4 16.4 0.33 0.99 7.55
M
111
, H 12.5083 12.9 13.2 12.4 3.13 5.53 0.87
M
112
, H 10.3530 10.3 10.5 8.2 0.51 1.42 20.79
M
113
, H 8.6410 8.2 8.1 7.0 5.10 6.26 18.99
M
114
, H 7.2688 7.2 7.2 6.1 0.94 0.94 16.08
M
115
, H 6.1593 6.4 6.5 9.1 3.91 2.28 41.55
M
116
, H 5.2552 5.4 5.3 4.3 2.75 0.85 18.17
Cg, pF 5.0224 5.085 4.8017 4.2384 1.25 4.39 15.61
K, pF 85.686 127.41 79.92 87.55 48.69 6.72 2.18
R
dc
, ! 0.0151 0.0544 0.0204
tans 0.03 0.0153 0.0670
tang 0.03 0 0

Reference response points of resonance and antiresonance and

its vicinities are selected and weighted accordingly to create a
reference dataset, being employed as training targets for BSA
learning.

Each point of the training dataset is weighted according to its

degree of importance of being accurately repeated in simulated
frequency responses.

Assuming approximate geometrical and material parameters of

the tested winding are known, parameter values of an utilized
winding model are initially estimated using analytical formulae
in order to establish the possible search space for each parameter
of the model.

BSA learning is performed, in each step of which the predened

training dataset is comparedwiththe corresponding values of the
simulated frequency responses at the same frequency points. The
simulated frequency responses are generated using the model
parameters obtained during BSA learning process.
5. Simulation result and comparison
5.1. BSA accuracy analysis using numerical simulation
5.1.1. Reference response simulation
In order to analyze the identication accuracy of BSA, the mod-
elling results of a transformer winding presented in [29] are chosen
due to its high degree of simulation accuracy in comparison with
experimental measurements. The test object is a disc-type winding
consisting of 60 discs with 9 turns in each discs. The ratio of an out-
put neutral current owing to ground and an input signal injected
into terminal end of the winding is used to produce frequency
response measurements.
Using listed model parameters in [29], the frequency responses
of the test transformer winding have been calculated using the pre-
viouslydescribedlumped-parameter windingmodel, simpliedfor
one-winding case, and 71 selected points are dened as a reference
dataset in the this study. FRA simulations are performed assuming
a grounded winding through an impedance Z
out
. Since the model
does not allowto directly obtain the total neutral current, it is more
convenient to express it as a product of the grounded node voltage
U
n+1
and Z
out
.
5.1.2. Initial estimation of model parameters
With the purpose to establish the search space for transformer
winding parameter identication with BSA, the analytical expres-
sions, described in Section 3, are employed to provide initial
estimates of winding parameters. The parameter estimation is per-
formed using a double disc basis as a unit section of the lumped
circuit model. This allows to compare the estimated and subse-
quently identied with BSA parameters with the reference ones,
calculated in [29] using the same winding model partition.
It is known that the mutual inductance between winding sec-
tions decreases with an increase of the intersection distance.
However, numerical estimation of the inductance using approxi-
mate formulae, Eq. (5), reveals some discrepancies. As shown in
Fig. 3, the mutual inductance goes down rapidly with the inter-coil
distance raising. However, the decrease is not monotonic since at
some inter-coil distance the mutual inductance begins to increase
slightly, which may be explained by the presence of the (2]k) term
in Eq. (5), being in dependence on inter-coil distance z. On the other
hand, Eq. (7) gives more appropriate results as illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Mutual inductances of the 1
st
section of the tested winding.
A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120 1117
Table 2
BSA parameters.
Parameter Notation Value
No. of bacteria in the population p 50
No. of chemotactic steps per bacteria lifetime Nc 5
Swim length limit when bacteria is on a gradient Ns 6
No. of iteration steps Nr 5
Initial step length C
init
10e
4
Parameter for calculating step length D
1
0.5
Attraction factor D
2
1
Probability for attraction pu 0.8
Search space variation from estimated values (1050)%
Table 1 lists the reference and estimated using the analytical
expression in Section 3 parameters of the analyzed winding model.
The analysis of the table shows that inductance estimates given by
Eq. (7) are very close to the reference values with the deviation not
exceeded 5.1%. It should be noted that, since the test winding does
not have a magnetic core, the remaining parts of Eq. (4), i.e. Z
1
and
Z
2
are not used [9].
5.1.3. Parameter identication with BSA
As shown in Fig. 3, the mutual inductances between distant
sections are negligibly small in comparison with self-inductance.
Therefore, it is decidedtoconsider onlytheself-inductances andthe
closest 15 mutual inductances, similar to the approach proposed in
[17]. In addition, DC resistance R
dc
is of interest to calculate the
frequency variable section resistance R with aid of Eq. (8), as well
as the series and ground capacitances and loss tangents K, tan
s
and C, tan
g
respectively. Regarding the latter parameter, tan
g
,
based on preliminary BSA runs it is assumed that better results can
be obtained without consideration of ground loss, i.e. tan
g
= 0.
Thereby, intotal 20parameters of the model as showninTable 1are
tobe investigatedwithBSAlearning. These parameters are codedas
nite-length strings (bacteria), representing potential solutions of
the parameter identication problem. Accepted search space vari-
ations for parameter identication with BSA learning are limited to
be within 10% for the inductive and 50% ranges for the rest of
parameters from the corresponding estimated values.
The BSA learning parameters are selected on the basis of the
previous study on bacterial foraging optimization [21,22] and
numerous trials with various BSA parameters. The parameters are
listed in Table 2.
Fig. 4 illustrates the comparisons of the analytically estimated
and the identied with BSA magnitude frequency responses,
whereas in Fig. 5 the corresponding phase frequency responses are
given.
Table 1 summarizes the reference parameter and the identied
parameter values with BSA. It should be noted that the frequency
dependent reference values of section resistances and conduc-
tances are given in a formof data vectors [29] and are not included
in Table 1. The table contains the results of one successful run with
BSAand its deviation fromthe reference in percents, the analysis of
which shows negligible difference between the identied param-
eters, therefore, conrming the convergence stability of the BSA
with respect to the investigated problem.
Considering inductance parameters, BSA provides its accurate
identication with maximum deviation of 6.26% from the corre-
sponding reference values. This does not essentially differ fromthe
analytically estimated values of inductances with the deviation of
5.1% from the corresponding reference values.
However, the major improvement of BSA identication is an
adjustment of series capacitance K to 6.72% deviation fromthe ref-
erence, while the initial estimation was not successful and showed
48.69% difference. The large deviation of the initial estimation of K
from the reference caused failure to repeat all resonance frequen-
Fig. 4. Comparison of the transfer function magnitude frequency responses: iden-
tied with BSA, estimated and reference.
cies when using the model with estimated parameters. This results
in clear shifts to the left of the resonant points with regard to the
reference frequency responses in Figs. 4 and 5.
Nevertheless, despite of slight deviation fromthe reference val-
ues, the utilization of the estimated parameters as a search basis
for BSA parameter identication essentially improves the model
performance as illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5.
5.2. Comparison with GA
Inorder tocomparetheperformancebetweenBSAandanevolu-
tionary algorithm widely utilized for the parameter identication
purposes, GA is employed to conduct parameter identication of
the equivalent lumped parameter model using the same reference
responses and tness function (16). Due to the stochastic nature of
both the algorithms, BSA and GA, initial populations of individu-
als (bacteria) are generated in randomorder using the same search
space limits, specied in Section 5.1.3.
The GA parameters are chosen based on various preliminary
trials and listed in Table 3.
Fig. 8illustrates the tness convergence of one of the best runs of
BSA and GA, where the total number of iterations for BSA is dened
Fig. 5. Comparison of the transfer function phase frequency responses: identied
with BSA, estimated and reference.
1118 A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120
Table 3
GA parameters.
Parameter Value
Population size 80
Selection Algorithm tournament [37]
Crossover Algorithm scattered [37]
Crossover Fraction 0.8
Mutation Algorithm adapt feasible [37]
No. of Elite Individuals 2
Search space variation from estimated values (1050)%
Fig. 6. Comparison of the transfer function magnitude frequency responses: iden-
tied with GA, estimated and reference.
as the product of number of bacteria in the population, number
of chemotactic steps per bacteria lifetime, the number of iteration
steps and the number of swimlength steps when a bacteriumis on
a gradient. The number of GAtotal iterations denotes the product of
the GA population size and the number of generations considered.
FromFig. 8it is clear that BSAconverges faster thanGA, whichcould
be due to a different search principles of the algorithms. However,
boththe algorithms are able to reachtness minimumvalue within
almost the same number of iterations. With regard to the compu-
tation demand, the parameter identication process takes almost
equal computation time (about 100s) using both the algorithms
using the same Intel Duo 2 Core computer.
Frequency responses obtained using the model parameters
identied with GA are given in Figs. 6 and 7. Visual comparison
Fig. 7. Comparison of the transfer function phase frequency responses: identied
with GA, estimated and reference.
Fig. 8. Fitness functions convergence.
of Figs. 4 and 5 with Figs. 6 and 7 respectively shows that the
simulated magnitude frequency response with BSA identication
is closer to the reference. On the other hand, GA identication
gives closer resemblance of the phase frequency response with the
reference.
Table 1 presents the identied parameters with GA and its devi-
ation from the reference. As seen from the table, the deviation of
the GA identied parameters becomes greater than those obtained
with BSA. For instance, the deviation of the GA identied mutual
inductance M
115
reaches 41.55% in comparison with only 2.28%
deviation by the BSA identication. Moreover, GA gives a worse
estimate of ground capacitance C with 15.61% deviation comparing
withthe one identiedwithBSA(4.39%deviation). Onthe contrary,
GA performs better in identication of series capacitance K with
only 2.18% deviation against 6.72% deviation with BSA.
The above difference in the identied results can be explained
by the fact that both the algorithms optimize the combinations
of inductances and capacitances constituting the mathematical
model, which dene the model resonance frequencies. Thus, a
capacitance reduction jointly with an increase of an inductance
could provide the same resonance frequency as the capacitance
increase with the corresponding decrease of the inductance.
Besides, the algorithms are generally guided by the tness func-
tion, which computes only the total deviation of the model outputs
from the reference. Therefore, due to different learning principles,
BSAandGAidentifydiverseparameters, despiteof achievingaclose
resemblance with the reference (Fig. 8).
In summary, considering more accurate parameter identica-
tion using BSA in comparison with the reference values, it can be
assumed that BSA is more appropriate for the given optimization
case.
5.3. Parameter identication using experimental FRA results
In practice, each phase of a power transformer includes LV and
HV windings, which are connected to each other via interwinding
capacitances and mutual inductances as shown in Fig. 1. This inter-
winding coupling as well as a terminal connection mode of one
winding, i.e. open or short circuited, grounded, etc., affects mea-
suredfrequency responses of the other winding. Therefore, inorder
to verify the proposed approach with BSA, it is applied to iden-
tify transformer winding parameters onthe basis of experimentally
measured frequency responses. A single-phase experiment trans-
former without a core, consisted of a 30-double disc HV winding
and a 23-turn helical LV winding, was used to measure HV winding
A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120 1119
Fig. 9. Comparison of the analytically estimated input admittance magnitude fre-
quency response with the experiment measurements.
input admittance frequency responses using standard FRA equip-
ment [9,10].
The transformer parameters are estimatedona double disc basis
as a unit section of the two winding lumped circuit model based
on the geometrical dimensions provided in [10]. In general, it can
be assumed that the LV winding does not essentially affect input
admittance responses taken from the HV side of a transformer.
Therefore, the parameters of the LVwinding canbe analytically cal-
culated and used directly in the model. As discussed earlier, Eq. (7)
gives more accurate inductance estimation, therefore only a nar-
row search range of 10% from the analytically estimated values
is considered for BSA parameter identication of the HV winding
inductive parameters.
Figs. 9 and 10 show the comparisons of the magnitude and
phasefrequencyresponses, beinganalyticallyestimatedandexper-
imentally measured. As seen from the gures, there is an observed
shift in resonant frequencies between the simulated responses
using estimated model parameters and the measured ones, which
primarily concerns series capacitance K
HV
, DC resistance R
dcHV
and insulation characteristics tan
s
and tan
g
respectively. In
Fig. 10. Comparisonof the analyticallyestimatedinput admittance phase frequency
response with the experiment measurements.
Fig. 11. Comparison of the BSA identied input admittance magnitude frequency
response with the experiment measurements.
addition, the gradual increase of the measured magnitude fre-
quency response at higher frequencies corresponds to the presence
of bushing capacitance and capacitance of the measurement
leads, which have to be taken into account in a form of an
additional ground capacitance parallel to C
HV1
. Therefore, the
above parameters are optimized using the proposed parameter
identication approach with BSA and the results are shown in
Figs. 11 and 12.
It can be observed from the gures that the simulated with BSA
identied parameters and measured responses are close to each
other as far as the general shape and resonant frequencies are con-
cerned. However, the developed model provides more damping
at the higher resonant frequencies with respect to the measured
responses. This could be due to an essential discretization of the
lumped model and an existence of additional frequency dependant
loss mechanisms that are not considered in the model. All these
issues need to be further investigated in order to achieve a more
precise parameter identication of the transformer model.
Fig. 12. Comparison of the BSA identied input admittance phase frequency
response with the experiment measurements.
1120 A. Shintemirov et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 80 (2010) 11111120
6. Conclusion
In this paper a model-based identication approach is for-
mulated to determine the parameters of a well-known lumped
parameter model of transformer winding with BSA learning. Initial
search space for identication of the model parameters is estab-
lished based onparameter estimated values, being calculated using
analytical expressions. The analysis of the BSA performance using
simulated reference frequency responses and a comparison with
GA has shown that that BSA is more accurate for the considered
case of the model-based parameter identication of transformer
windings. There is a slight difference between the identied and
preset parameters, which is negligible in a practical sense.
The model parameter identication using experimental input
admittancefrequencyresponses shows that theproposedapproach
can be utilized for the experimental FRAresults interpretation aim-
ing at winding fault diagnosis.
In the current study, only single-phase model transformers
without a laminated core are considered. However, further study
needs to be undertaken to verify the model by simulation studies
of real transformers with core involved. As a variant, the core effect
can be accounted in the inductance calculation as proposed in [32].
Acknowledgment
The rst author would like to thank the Center for International
Programs for granting Kazakhstan Presidential Bolashak Scholar-
ship to support his PhD research in the University of Liverpool, UK.
He is also indebted to Dr. N. Abeywickrama and Professor S. M.
Gubanski from the Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg,
Sweden, for providing experimental data.
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