1.

0 CMPS 431 (Operating Systems) Course Notes

1. Overview of Operating Systems
a. Wat is an OS ! "t is a #ontro$ program tat provi%es an interfa#e &etween te
#omputer ar%ware an% te user. Part of tis interfa#e in#$u%es too$s an%
servi#es for te user.
'rom Si$&ers#at( (page 3)) *+n operating system is a program tat a#ts as an
interme%iary &etween a user of #omputer an% #omputer ar%ware. ,e purpose of
te OS is provi%e an environment in wi# te user #an e-e#ute programs. ,e
primary goa$ of an OS is tus to ma.e te #omputer #onvenient to use. +
se#on%ary goa$ is to use te #omputer ar%ware in an effi#ient manner./
Computer Hardware ! CP01 memory1 "2O %evi#es provi%e &asi# #omputing
resour#es.
System and Application Programs ! Compi$ers1 %ata&ase systems1 games1
&usiness programs1 et#. %efine te ways te #omputing resour#es are use% to so$ve
te users pro&$ems.
Operating System ! Contro$s an% #oor%inates te #omputing resour#es among
te system an% app$i#ation programs for te users.
1
End User ! 3iews te #omputer system as a set of app$i#ations. ,e 4n% 0ser is
genera$$y not #on#erne% wit various %etai$s of te ar%ware.
Programmer ! 0ses $anguages1 uti$ities (fre5uent$y use% fun#tions) an% OS
servi#es ($in.ers1 assem&$ers1 et#.) to %eve$op app$i#ations instea%. ,is meto% is
use% to re%u#e #omp$e-ity &y a&stra#ting te %etai$ of ma#ine %epen%ant #a$$s
into +P"s an% various uti$ities an% OS servi#es.
OS Mas.s te ar%ware %etai$s from te programmer an% provi%es an interfa#e
to te system. Manages te #omputers resour#es. ,e OS %esigner as to &e
fami$iar wit user re5uirements an% ar%ware %etai$s.
&. OS attri&utes
i. Convenien#e ! ma.e te #omputer easy to use
ii. 4ffi#ien#y ! manage #omputer resour#es in an effi#ient manner
iii. +&i$ity to 4vo$ve ! +n OS sou$% &e a&$e to integrate new system
fun#tions an% a%%itions2mo%ifi#ations witout interfering wit servi#e
or over &ur%ening users.
#. OS #an &e tougt of as)
i. Contro$ Program an% 6esour#e +$$o#ator ! ,e OS is a program1 $i.e
oter programs in te system. 7i.e oter programs1 it ma%e of
instru#tions1 &ut its instru#tions serve te purpose to a$$o#ate resour#es
(CP01 memory1 %is. storage1 i2o) so tat oter programs #an operate.
,o %o tis it must stop itse$f from running an% $et oter programs run.
Wen te oter program8s turn to run is over1 te OS runs $ong enoug
to prepare te resour#es for te ne-t pro#ess to run1 an% so on.
9
ii. 0ser to Computer "nterfa#e ! Provi%es an frien%$y environment from
wi# user #an a##omp$is teir goa$s.
%. OS from te viewpoint tat it is 0ser2Computer "nterfa#e ! ,e OS a#ts as an
interme%iary &etween te 0sers2Programmers an% te ar%ware1 ma.ing it
easier for users1 programmers1 an% app$i#ations to a##ess te OS8s fa#i$ities1
servi#es (fa#i$ities #an &e tougt of as te system8s resour#es1 servi#es are te
meto%s tat te OS provi%es to use te fa#i$ities). Servi#es are typi#a$$y
provi%e% in te fo$$owing areas)
i. Program :eve$opment ! e%itors1 %e&uggers1 #ompi$ers1 et#.
ii. Program 4-e#ution ! $oa%ers1 $in.ers1 system prote#tion.
iii. +##ess to "2O %evi#es ! Provi%es a uniform interfa#e1 usua$$y simp$e
rea%s an% writes1 tat i%es te %etai$s of i2o %evi#e operation.
iv. 'i$e a##ess an% prote#tion ! Must &e a&$e to manage storage %evi#es1
a##ess %ata in fi$e1 an% provi%es a##ess #ontro$ to fi$es.
v. 4rror %ete#tion ! Must &e a&$e to gra#efu$$y an%$e various errors1
su# as memory a##ess vio$ations1 %ivi%e &y (ero1 %evi#e errors1 et#.
vi. System 7ogging ! $og important system events for system tuning1
error #orre#tion an%2or &i$$ing information.
e. ;rief istory (Wi.ipe%ia)
i. ,e first #omputers %i% not ave an OS &ut programs for managing te
system an% using te ar%ware 5ui#.$y appeare%.
ii. ;y te ear$y 1<=0s1 #ommer#ia$ #omputer ven%ors1 su# as 0N"3+C
an% Contro$ :ata Corporation1 were supp$ying 5uite e-tensive too$s for
stream$ining te %eve$opment1 s#e%u$ing1 an% e-e#ution of >o&s on
&at# pro#essing systems.
iii. "n te 1<=0s ";M System23=0 OS 3=0 was %eve$ope% to run on a
wo$e $ine of #omputers. "t was a first1 an OS for severa$ %ifferent
ma#ines in ";M8s pro%u#t $ine. 'eatures in#$u%e%)
1. ?ar% %is. storage %eve$opment.
9. ,ime saring environment. ,ime saring provi%e% users te
i$$usion of aving te wo$e ma#ine to temse$ves.
iv. Mu$ti#s was anoter we$$ .nown OS tat use% te time saring
#on#epts. "t inspire% severa$ OS8s in#$u%ing 0ni- an% 3MS.
v. ,e first mi#ro#omputers (pre%e#essors to PCs) %i% not re5uire2use
most of te a%van#e% features use% for mainframes an% mini
#omputers.
vi. CP2M (Contro$ Program2Monitor) was #reate% &y :igita$8s @ary
Ai$%a$$ for "nte$ B0B02B0BC an% Di$og DB0 pro#essors in a&out 1<E4. "t
is te pre%e#essor for ";M8s PC :OS an% MS :OS. :OS8s ma>or
#ontri&ution was its '+, fi$e system.
vii. "n te 1<B08s :OS %ominate% te "nte$ &ase% PC8s wi$e te
Ma#intos operating system1 patterne% after F46OF #orporations
ear$y win%ow &ase% %o#ument e%iting operating systems1 provi%e%
#ompetition on te +pp$e p$atform.
f. Computer System Stru#tures ! + mo%ern #omputer #onsists of)
3
i. CP0 ! Centra$ Pro#essing 0nit. "s responsi&$e for e-e#ution of
aritmeti#1 $ogi#a$1 %ata transfer1 an% #ontro$ operations.
ii. :evi#e Contro$$ers
1. %is. %rive #ontro$$er
9. au%io %evi#e #ontro$$er
3. vi%eo #ontro$$er
4. et#.
iii. System ;us ! Serves as a #ommuni#ation #anne$ &etween te various
system #omponents.
iv. Memory ! Storage of instru#tions an% %ata for system an% user
pro#esses.
,e CP0 an% %evi#e #ontro$$ers #an run #on#urrent$y.
+ memory #ontro$$er syn#roni(es te CP08s an% %evi#e #ontro$$er8s
a##ess to memory.

0pon power up)
o ;ootstrap program initia$i(es a$$ system aspe#ts.
CP0 6egisters
:evi#e Contro$$ers
Memory Contents
o 7oa%s OS an% starts its e-e#ution.
7o#ates OS in storage (%is.).
4
7oa%s OS .erne$ (&asi# OS fun#tions)
;egins OS fun#tion (init1 or monitor)
Storage :evi#es)
o Main Memory ! re$ative$y sma$$ in si(e (39. to 4gig)1 re$ative$y
fast a##ess spee%1 ran%om a##ess1 vo$ati$e. ,e on$y $arge storage
area tat te CP0 #an %ire#t$y a##ess. ,e oter memory areas
tat te CP0 #an a##ess are)
6egisters (typi#a$$y 9C= &ytes) rea$$y fast
Ca#e (=4. ! 9C=.) fast
o :is. ! 7arge in si(e1 me%ium a##ess spee%1 ran%om a##ess1 nonG
vo$ati$e
4$e#troni# %is.
Magneti# %is.
Opti#a$ %rive
o Magneti# ,ape ! 6ea$$y 7arge1 $ow spee%1 se5uentia$ a##ess1 nonG
vo$ati$e
g. Operating System Components (Capter 31 Si$&ers#at() ! Main #omponents
are pro#ess1 memory1 fi$e1 "2O system1 an% se#on%ary storage management.
i. Pro#ess Management responsi&i$ities.
1. Creation an% :e$etion of user an% system pro#esses.
9. Suspension an% resumption of pro#esses.
3. Provision of me#anisms for pro#ess syn#roni(ation.
4. Provision of me#anisms for pro#ess #ommuni#ation.
C. Provision of me#anisms for %ea%$o#. an%$ing.
ii. Main Memory Management responsi&i$ities
1. Aeep tra#. of wi# parts of memory are &eing use% an% &y
wat pro#esses.
9. :e#i%e wi# pro#esses are to &e $oa%e% into memory wen
memory spa#e &e#omes avai$a&$e.
3. +$$o#ate an% %eGa$$o#ate memory as nee%e%.
iii. 'i$e Management responsi&i$ities
1. Creation an% %e$etion of fi$es.
9. Creation an% %e$etion of %ire#tories.
3. ,e support of primitives for manipu$ating fi$es an%
%ire#tories.
4. Mapping of fi$es onto se#on%ary storage.
C. ;a#.up of fi$es onto sta&$e storage me%ia.
iv. "2O System Management ! i%es te pe#u$iarities of spe#ifi# ar%ware
%evi#es from te user. ,e su&Gsystem (in 0N"F) #onsists of)
1. Memory management #omponent in#$u%ing &uffering1 #a#ing
an% spoo$ing (spooling refers to putting >o&s in a &uffer1 a
spe#ia$ area in memory1 or on a %is. were a %evi#e #an a##ess
tem wen it is rea%y. Spool is an a#ronym for simultaneous
peripheral operations on-line. 4ar$y mainframe #omputers
a% re$ative$y sma$$ an% e-pensive (&y #urrent stan%ar%s) ar%
C
%is.s. ,ese #osts ma%e it ne#essary to reserve te %is.s for
fi$es tat required ran%om a##ess1 wi$e writing $arge
se5uentia$ fi$es to ree$s of tape. ,ypi#a$ programs wou$% run for
ours an% pro%u#e un%re%s or tousan%s of pages of printe%
output. Perio%i#a$$y te program wou$% stop printing for a
wi$e to %o a $engty sear# or sort. ;ut it was %esira&$e to
.eep te printer(s) running #ontinuous$y. ,us wen a program
was running1 it wou$% write te printa&$e fi$e to a spool of tape1
wi# wou$% $ater &e rea% &a#. in &y te program #ontro$$ing
te printer. Wi.ipe%ia.org)
9. + genera$ %evi#e %river interfa#e.
3. :rivers for spe#ifi# ar%ware %evi#es. On$y te %evi#e %river
.nows te operation spe#ifi#s of te %evi#e to wi# it is
assigne%.
v. Se#on%ary Storage Management
1. 'reeGspa#e management.
9. Storage a$$o#ation
3. :is. s#e%u$ing
. 'irst Operating Systems
i. Simp$e ;at# (One Ho& at a time)
1. ;at# refers to an ear$y type of pro#essing in wi# te user
wou$% su&mit a >o& (program1 %ata1 an% #ontro$ information
a&out te nature of te >o& (usua$$y on #ar%s)) to an operator.
a. ,e operator wou$% group te >o&s into $i.e *&at#es/
(for e-amp$e1 a$$ 'O6,6+N programs may &e groupe%
=
togeter1 saving $oa% time for te #ompi$er) an% put
tem into te #ar% rea%er.
&. + program #a$$e% a *monitor/ signa$s te #ar% rea%er to
rea% a >o&. On#e te >o& is $oa%e%1 te monitor an%s
e-e#ution over to te >o&. Wen >o& #omp$etes1 te
monitor ta.es over an% pro#ess repeats.
i. + monitor tat a$ways is in main memory is
#a$$e% a *resi%ent monitor/.
#. ,e output wou$% &e spoo$e% to a printer. "f te
program fai$e%1 error messages from te #ompi$er or a
memory %ump wou$% &e#ome te output.
9. + %efinitive feature of ;at# Pro#essing is te $a#. of
intera#tion &etween te user an% program wi$e te program is
e-e#uting.
3. Ho&s are usua$$y run one at a time1 first #ome first serve.
4. ,e $anguage tat instru#ts te monitor on te parti#u$ars
($anguage1 tape mounting1 et#) is #a$$e% Ho& Contro$ 7anguage
(HC7).
C. ,e %e$ay &etween >o& su&mission an% #omp$etion is #a$$e%
turnaround time.
=. ;e#ause te CP0 is or%ers of magnitu%e faster tan te #ar%
rea%ers an% printers1 tere is $ots of CP0 i%$e time.
E. ,wo e-e#ution mo%es are often use% to ai% in system
prote#tion)
a. 0ser mo%e) ,e app$i#ation program run in tis mo%e.
"t as a##ess to a su&set of te systems #omman%s an%
memory spa#e. Certain areas of memory (te area in
wi# te monitor resi%es) are off $imits.
&. Aerne$ mo%e) Sometimes #a$$e% privi$ege% mo%e. ,e
monitor as a##ess to a$$ instru#tions an% memory areas
of te system.
ii. Mu$tiGprogramme% &at# ! Simi$ar to simp$e &at# e-#ept tat te
#omputer e-e#utes >o&s from a poo$ of >o&s tat ave &een $oa%e% into
te memory. ,e a%vantage is tat CP0 i%$e time is re%u#e%1 an% "2O
%evi#es %o not sit i%$e.
1. Ho&s are $oa%e% #ontinua$$y from #ar%s into te >o& poo$ (in
memory).
9. ,e OS se$e#ts a >o& to &e run.
3. Wen te >o& as to wait for some tas. (su# as a tape to &e
mounte% or an "2O operation (#ar% rea%1 or print resu$t) te
CP0 swit#es e-e#ution to anoter >o& from te >o& poo$.
4. Wen tat >o& as to wait1 te CP0 is swit#e% to anoter >o&
an% so on. Wen ea# >o& finises its waiting time1 it
eventua$$y gets te CP0 &a#.. "n tis way CP0 i%$e time is
re%u#e%.
C. ,is s#eme intro%u#es two new #on#epts)
E
a. Memory management
&. CP0 s#e%u$ing
iii. ,imesaring (Mu$tiGtas.ing) ! Mainframe #omputers use% time
saring to give users1 $o#ate% at remote termina$s1 (sometimes #a$$e%
*%um& termina$s/) te i$$usion tat ea# user a% te #omputer to
temse$ves.
1. "ntro%u#es user2#omputer intera#tion.
9. "ntera#tion e$ps in)
a. 'in%ing #ompi$er time errors.
&. 'i$e e%iting.
#. :e&ugging #o%e wi$e it is running.
%. 4-e#ution of mu$tiGstep >o&s in wi# $ater >o&s %epen%
on resu$ts of ear$ier >o&s.
3. Mu$tip$e >o&s are e-e#ute% &y te CP0 swit#ing &etween
tem (a swit# from one >o& to anoter is referre% to as
*#onte-t swit#/)1 &ut te swit#es o##ur so fre5uent$y tat te
users may intera#t wit te programs as tey run. CP0 is
*time mu$tip$e-e% &etween te users/.
4. 6e5uires)
a. 0ser a##essi&$e onG$ine fi$e system.
&. :ire#tory system
#. CP0 s#e%u$ing
%. Mu$tiprogramming.
C. Common$y uses)
a. 3irtua$ memory (a te#ni5ue tat a$$ows e-e#ution of a
>o& tat may not &e #omp$ete$y in memory).
9. ;a#.groun% an% ;asi#s
a. Computer System review
i. +r#ite#ture (Sta$$ings1 page <)
1. Pro#essor ! Carries out te operation of te #omputer. ,e
pro#essor #onsists of at $east one +ritmeti# 7ogi# 0nit (+70)
an% severa$ registers. ,e registers are use% for a%%ressing1
#omparisons1 aritmeti# operations et#.
9. Main Memory ! Stores %ata an% programs. Main memory is
usua$$y vo$ati$e (wen power is sut %own1 #ontents are $ost).
3. "2O Mo%u$es ! Moves %ata &etween system an% e-terna$
environment (se#on%ary memory %evi#es G %is.s1 termina$s1
et#)
4. System &us ! Provi%es #ommuni#ation among system
#omponents.
B
:efinitions (e-presse% using C notation)
PC ! Program Counter1 #ontains te a%%ress of te ne-t instru#tion to &e fet#e% from
memory.
"6 ! "nstru#tion 6egister1 #ontains te instru#tion most re#ent$y fet#e%.
M+6 ImemoryJ&uffer 2K +%%ress of &uffer $o#ation for ne-t rea% or write. K2
M;6 (ImemoryJ&uffer) /* Contains %ata to &e written or re#eive% from memory. */
"2O +6 ! :enotes "2O %evi#e
"2O ;6 ! +%%ress in "2O &uffer of %ata to &e move%
ii. "nstru#tion #y#$e
1. + program is a $ist of instru#tions.
9. ,o e-e#ute a program te instru#tions are e-e#ute% se5uentia$$y
(usua$$y) from start to en%.
3. ,e instru#tion e-e#ution pro#ess as two steps.
a. 'et# stage ! ,e instru#tion at te $o#ation pointe% to
&y te PC is $oa%e% in te "6.
&. 4-e#ute stage ! ,e instru#tion in te "6 is e-e#ute% &y
te CP0. "n genera$1 tere are four #ategories of
instru#tions)
i. Pro#essor to Memory transfer
ii. Pro#essor to "2O transfer
iii. :ata Pro#essing ! +n aritmeti# or $ogi#a$
operation is performe% on %ata
<
iv. Contro$ ! ,e se5uen#e of e-e#ution is a$tere%.
'or e-amp$e a *>ump #omman%/.
iii. Pro#ess Contro$ ;$o#. ! 4very program tat is e-e#uting as a Pro#ess
Contro$ ;$o#. (PC;) asso#iate% wit it. ,e PC; is a &$o#. of %ata
tat OS uses to .eep tra#. of te status of te running program. "t
#ontains pro#ess state information1 e-e#ution s#e%u$ing %ata1 memory
management information1 et#.
3. Pro#esses
a. :efinition ! + #omputer program is a passive entity tat is store% in fi$e.
Wen te program is &eing e-e#ute%1 it is #a$$e% a *pro#ess/. + pro#ess is
more tan te #o%e &eing e-e#ute%L it a$so in#$u%es information su# as)
i. ,e #urrent part of te program &eing e-e#ute%.
ii. CP0 register %ata1 program sta#. %ata (temporary %ata use% &y te
program in#$u%ing su&routine parameter1 return a%%resses an%
temporary varia&$es)
iii. + g$o&a$ %ata se#tion.
&. Pro#ess States
i. C state mo%e$
ew ! ,e pro#ess is &eing #reate%. PC; is &eing #reate% an%
initia$i(e%.
!unning ! "nstru#tions are &eing e-e#ute%.
"aiting #$loc%ed& ! ,e pro#ess is waiting for some event to o##ur
(su# as "2O #omp$etion or re#eiving a signa$).
!eady ! ,e pro#ess is waiting for te CP0.
'erminated ! ,e pro#ess as finise% e-e#ution.
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#. Pro#ess stru#ture ! ,e OS .eeps tra#. of ea# pro#ess &y maintaining a %ata
stru#ture #a$$e% a Pro#ess Contro$ ;$o#. (PC;).
i. PC; an% #omponents (typi#a$) (Sta$$ings1 page 111)
1. Pro#ess ": (P":) ! uni5ue i%entifier
9. Pro#ess State ! New1 running1 waiting1 rea%y1 or terminate%.
3. Priority ! Priority $eve$ in re$ation to oter pro#esses.
4. Program Counter (PC) ! +%%ress of te ne-t instru#tion to &e
e-e#ute% in te pro#ess.
C. Conte-t %ata ! Current register va$ues
=. "2O status information ! Outstan%ing "2O re5uests1 "2O %evi#es1
open fi$es use% &y te pro#ess1 et#.
E. +##ounting "nformation ! CP0 time1 e$apse% time1 run time
$imit1 et#.
B. Oter information #ommon$y in#$u%e%)
a. Memory "nformation ! ;ase an% 7imit registers1 page
ta&$e %ata.
&. S#e%u$ing information ! Pointers to s#e%u$ing
5ueues.
%. Operations on Pro#esses
i. Creation
1. +ssign uni5ue P":
9. +$$o#ate memory for te pro#ess. Can use %efau$ts for te type
of pro#ess1 or use spe#ifi# num&ers as re5ueste% &y te pro#ess.
a. Co%e spa#e
&. Sta#. spa#e
3. "nitia$i(e te PC; ! "nitia$i(e te PC; va$ues.
4. Put pro#ess in appropriate 5ueue ! Most new pro#esses are put
into te new pro#ess 5ueue (or 6ea%y2Suspen%e% 5ueue).
C. "nitia$i(e Pro#ess +##ounting Parameters ! 0p%ate system $og
fi$es.
ii. Pro#ess Spawning ! Creation of a pro#ess &y anoter pro#ess.
1. Parent ! Creating pro#ess.
9. Ci$% ! New$y #reate% pro#ess. "t wi$$ nee% resour#es (CP0
time1 memory1 fi$es1 "2O %evi#es). ,ey #ome from eiter te
parent pro#ess or te OS.
3. 4-e#ution of parent an% #i$% #an ta.e severa$ forms)
a. Con#urrent e-e#ution of parent an% #i$%.
&. Parent waits unti$ some or a$$ of its #i$% pro#esses
#omp$ete.
4. Nature of parent2#i$%)
a. Ci$% pro#ess is #opy of parent.
i. 0N"F for. #a$$ #an &e use%. Ci$% is i%enti#a$
e-#ept tat te return #o%e for te parent is 0
an% te return #o%e for te #i$% is non(ero.
ii. 4-amp$e of 0ni- for.)
11
Pi% M for.()L
"f (Pi% N 0) O
Printf(*Ci$% pro#ess #reation fai$e%. Pn/)L
Q
e$se if (Pi% MM 0) O
2K :o parent operations. K2
Q
e$se O
2K :o #i$% operations. K2
Q
iii. :e$etion (,ermination)
1. Norma$ ,ermination G Pro#ess terminates wen $ast instru#tion
is as #omp$ete%. + #a$$ to e-it() re5uests tat te OS %e$etes
te pro#ess.
9. Parent #an terminate #i$% using a&ort #a$$ for te fo$$owing
reasons)
a. Ci$% e-#ee%e% use of its resour#es.
&. Ci$%8s tas. is no $onger nee%e%.
#. Parent is e-iting1 many OS8s %o not a$$ow #i$% pro#ess
to #ontinue after parent terminates.
e. ,rea%s ! Sometimes #a$$e% a *$igtweigt pro#ess/ or 7WP. "t as its own)
i. Program Counter (PC)
ii. 6egister set
iii. Sta#. spa#e
f. 7igtweigt pro#esses sares wit peer trea%s.
i. Co%e se#tion
ii. :ata se#tion
iii. OS resour#e su# as open fi$es an% signa$s
g. ,rea%s are use% wen trea%s wor. on re$ate% >o&s. "t #an &e more effi#ient
to use mu$tip$e trea%s1 for e-amp$e provi%ing %ata to mu$tip$e remote
ma#ines on a networ.. ?aving one pro#ess wit mu$tip$e trea%s1 ea#
e-e#uting te same #o%e1 &ut aving %ifferent %ata an% fi$e se#tions is more
effi#ient tan mu$tip$e eavy weigt pro#esses.
4. CP0 S#e%u$ing
a. CP0 G "2O &urst #y#$e ! Pro#ess e-e#ution a$ternates &etween perio%s of CP0
use an% "2O waiting. ,ese pases are #a$$e% CP0 &urst an% "2O &urst. +
pro#ess starts wit a CP0 &urst an% ten a$ternates &etween "2O &urst an%
CP0 &urst unti$ #omp$etion wit a CP0 &urst1 a system re5uest for
termination of te pro#ess. ,e amount of CP0 &urst an% "2O &urst vary
great$y from pro#ess to pro#ess. Some e-amp$es are &e$ow.
i. :ata&ase program ! "2O intense (%is.)
ii. Simu$ation ! CP0 intense (#a$#u$ation of matemati#a$ mo%e$s)
iii. Pi#ture 6en%ering ! CP0 intense
iv. 4-#e$ ! "2O intense (most$y waits on user to enter %ata)
v. @ames ! &ot CP0 intense (ren%ering of s#enes)1 an% "2O intense
(%isp$ay of s#enes1 an% user inputs)
19
&. Conte-t Swit#ing G Canging of pro#ess states. ,e more #onte-t swit#ing1
te iger te overea%1 meaning $ess app$i#ation wor. is &eing a##omp$ise%.
Conte-t swit#ing invo$ves)
i. Saving te state of te running pro#ess in its PC;.
ii. 7oa%ing a save% pro#ess.
#. S#e%u$ing
i. Sort ,erm ! Wen te CP0 &e#omes i%$e1 a >o& from te 6ea%y
Rueue is se$e#te% to run. ,is is te >o& of te sort term s#e%u$er.
1. Operates very fre5uent$y.
9. Cou$% &e invo.e% at a rate of 10 times a se#on%.
3. ;e#ause it operates often it must &e fast.
4. :ispat#er. "t is te %ispat#er8s >o& to give #ontro$ of te CP0
to te mo%u$e se$e#te% &y te Sort ,erm S#e%u$er.
:ispat#ing invo$ves)
a. Swit#ing Conte-t.
&. Swit#ing to user mo%e.
#. Humping te proper $o#ation in te program (i%entifie%
in te PC;) an% restarting te program.
ii. 7ong ,erm ! "t is te >o& of te $ong term s#e%u$er to se$e#t >o&s from
te >o& poo$ an% $oa% tem into memory for e-e#ution. "n genera$ te
7ong ,erm s#e%u$er wi$$ attempt to &a$an#e te system &etween CP0
an% "2O &oun% pro#esses to ma.e greatest use of avai$a&$e resour#es.
1. Operates $ess fre5uent$y.
9. Cou$% minutes &etween #a$$s.
3. ;e#ause it is #a$$e% infre5uent$y1 it #an ta.e time to %e#i%e
wi# pro#esses sou$% &e se$e#te% for e-e#ution.
4. Some systems %on8t use 7ong ,erm s#e%u$ers1 or tey are
very minima$. ,ime saring systems are a goo% e-amp$e.
,ey >ust put every new pro#ess into te 6ea%y Rueue.
iii. Preemptive ! S#e%u$er %oes not wait for an "2O re5uest or an interrupt
to move a >o& from te running 5ueue to te rea%y 5ueue.
1. ,ime Saring System ! 4a# pro#ess in te running 5ueue gets
an a$$otment of CP0 #y#$es. "f te pro#ess %oes not terminate
or ma.e an "2O re5uest &efore its a$$otment #omp$etes te
s#e%u$er moves to anoter running pro#ess.
%. S#e%u$ing Criteria ! :ifferent s#e%u$ing a$goritms try to optimi(e te
fo$$owing #riteria to %ifferent %egrees)
i. CP0 0ti$i(ation ! Aeep te CP0 as &usy as possi&$e. "n a rea$ system
a $igt $oa% is a&out 40S1 eavy <0S.
ii. ,rougput ! ,e num&er of pro#ess #omp$ete% per time unit. Can
range anywere &etween more tan 10 pro#ess per se#on% to $ess tan
1 per our.
iii. ,urnaroun% time ! ,is is a measure of ow $ong a pro#ess spen%s in
te system. "t is te time from wen te pro#ess is su&mitte% to
#omp$etion.
13
iv. Waiting time ! ,e s#e%u$ing a$goritm %oes not effe#t te amount of
time spent e-e#uting or %oing "2OL it on$y affe#ts te time spent in te
rea%y 5ueue. Waiting time is te sum of time perio%s waiting in te
rea%y 5ueue.
v. 6esponse time ! ,e amount of time tat from su&mission of te >o&
to its first response to te user. @oo% response time is important in
time saring systems.
e. +$goritms
i. 'irst Come 'irst Serve ! Pro#esses are serve% in te or%er tey are
re#eive%. Can &e imp$emente% wit a '"'O 5ueue.
1. Waiting time is ig$y %epen%ent on or%er of >o&s an% #an &e
$ong.
9. NonGPreemptive
3. CP0 intense >o&s #an #ause a$$ "2O &oun% >o&s to wait for tem
to #omp$ete. +s "2O &oun% >o&s wait for "2O tey a$$ move
from te waiting 5ueue to te rea%y 5ueue an% te CP0 intense
>o& %ominates te CP0.
ii. Sortest Ho& 'irst ! ,e >o& in te rea%y 5ueue wit te sortest ne-t
CP0 &urst is se$e#te%. "f two >o&s ave e5ua$ ne-t CP0 &urst1 'C'S
&rea.s te tie.
1. +$goritm is prova&$y optima$. "t gives te minimum waiting
time for a set of pro#esses.
14
9. ,e ma>or %raw&a#. is .nowing wat te $engt of te ne-t
CP0 &urst for ea# pro#ess wi$$ &e.
a. No pra#ti#a$ way to .now its va$ue.
&. 3a$ue #an &e pre%i#te%L #ou$% &e simi$ar in $engt to
previous &ursts.
3. SH' #an &e preemptive or nonGpreemptive.
1C
iii. Priority S#e%u$ing ! "nstea% of $oo.ing at te or%er in wi# >o&s
arrive an%2or teir estimate% CP0 &ursts1 >o&s run in or%er of
importan#e (priority).
1. Ho&s of e5ua$ priority are s#e%u$e% 'C'S
9. SH' is a spe#ia$ #ase of priority s#e%u$ing1 in wi# te
priority is te inverse of te estimate% CP0 &urst.
3. Priority s#e%u$ing #an &e preemptive or nonGpreemptive.
4. Suffers from in%efinite &$o#.ing or starvation. + $ow priority
>o& #an &e #ause% to wait in%efinite$y &y iger priority >o&s.
a. 'rom Si$&ers#at( page 134 *6umor as it tat 1 wen
tey sut %own te ";M E0<4 at M", in 1<E31 tey
foun% a $owGpriority pro#ess tat a% &een su&mitte% in
1<=E an% not yet &een run./
&. *+ging/ is a pro#ess in wi# te priority of pro#esses
tat ave &een waiting for a $ong time is in#rease%.
iv. 6oun% 6o&in ! 'C'S a$goritm in wi# ea# pro#ess in te rea%y
5ueue is preempte% after a sort time (time 5uantum).
1. ,e rea%y 5ueue is treate% as a #ir#u$ar 5ueue.
9. ,e s#e%u$er goes aroun% te rea%y 5ueue a$$o#ating te CP0
ea# pro#ess for a ma-imum of 1 time 5uantum.
3. +verage waiting time #an &e $ong.
4. 0se% in time saring systems were response time is important
(nee%s to &e sort).
f. +ssignment 1 ! Program a s#e%u$er1 imp$ement 'C'S1 SH'1 an% 6oun%
6o&in (:ue in 3 wee.s).
C. Rui( 1 6eview ! 6eview of se#tions 1 troug 4 (Wee. 4)
=. Rui( 1
E. Pro#ess Syn#roni(ation G Wat meto%s are avai$a&$e for #oor%inating #ooperating
pro#esses tat sare resour#es1 su# as memory1 so tat tey e-e#ute #orre#t$y every
timeT
1=
a. "nstru#tions from te pro#esses are inter$eave% in an unpre%i#ta&$e way.
&. Criti#a$ Se#tion Pro&$em ! + region of #o%e in wi# a pro#ess may &e
#anging #ommon varia&$es1 &uffers1 et#. Wi$e te pro#ess is in its #riti#a$
se#tion no oter pro#ess #an &e in teir #orrespon%ing #riti#a$ se#tion. (Mutua$
e-#$usion).
1E
"n te #o%e i$$ustration a&ove a #onte-t swit# from te pro%u#er to te #onsumer is
e-e#ute% wi$e te pro%u#er is e-e#uting te #ount in#rement instru#tion. +s a resu$t an
item is $ost (te pro%u#er wi$$ write over it) &e#ause te #ount varia&$e is %e#remente%
an% in#remente% witout any a#tion %ata transfer a#tions o##urring.
#. So$utions #enter aroun% te fo$$owing strategies)
i. "n#rement2:e#rement operations are atomi# (#annot &e &ro.en %own
into a series of instru#tions)
ii. Prote#t te in#rement an% %e#rement #a$$s in #riti#a$ se#tions.
1. Software so$ution (@enera$ #riti#a$ se#tion so$ution)
9. ?ar%ware so$ution (,est an% set1 semapores1 et#.)
%. ,o so$ve te #riti#a$ se#tion pro&$em1 te fo$$owing re5uirements must &e
satisfie%)
i. Mutua$ 4-#$usion ! "f pro#ess p(i) is e-e#uting its #riti#a$ se#tion1 ten
no oter pro#esses #an &e e-e#uting teir #riti#a$ se#tions.
ii. Progress ! "f te #riti#a$ se#tions are va#ant an% a pro#ess wises to
enter1 ten on$y pro#esses tat wis to enter a #riti#a$ se#tion #an
parti#ipate in te %e#ision a&out wi# pro#ess enters ne-t1 an% tis
pro#ess #annot ta.e an in%efinite amount of time.
iii. ;oun%e% Waiting ! ,ere is a $imit on te num&er of times tat a
pro#ess #an &e as.e% to %efer entry into its #riti#a$ se#tion in favor of
oters.
e. ,wo Pro#ess So$utions
1B
i. Stru#ture of so$ution)
6epeat
Entry into critical section
Criti#a$ se#tion
.
.
.
E(it )rom critical section
0nti$ %one
ii. +$goritm 1
Pro#ess P(i)
Entry* wi$e(turn UM i) O
:o notingL
Q
.
.
.
E(it* turn M (1Gi)
turn M O01 1Q1 initia$$y 0
P0 P1 turn
4nters Waits 0
4-it Wait 0 to 1
wait 4nter 1
Wait e-it 1 to 0
"f P0 uses its turn ten (upon e-it1 turn is set to 1) an% ten P1 %oes not
enter its #riti#a$ se#tion (it never sets turn &a#. to 0) ten if P0 wants
to enter its #riti#a$ se#tion1 it wi$$ wait forever (or at $east unti$ P1
resets turn &a#. to 0). So tis a$goritm vio$ates &oun%e% waiting.
iii. +$goritm 9
Pro#ess P(i)
Entry* f$agViW M ,604L
Wi$e(f$agV1 ! iW) O
:o notingL
Q
.
.
.
E(it* f$agViW M '+7S4L
1<
"n tis a$goritm te pro#ess sets its f$ag in%i#ating tat it is entering
its #riti#a$ se#tion an% ten waits for te oter pro#ess to $eave its
#riti#a$ se#tion. "f &ot pro#esses it te f$agViW M ,604 statement at
te same time %ea%$o#. o##urs. ;ot pro#esses wi$$ wait on ea# oter
forever in te wi$e $oop.
iv. +$goritm 3
Pro#ess P(i)
Entry* f$agViW M ,604L
,urn M 1GiL
Wi$e(f$agViG1W II (turn M 1 ! i)) O
:o notingL
Q
.
.
.
E(it* f$agViW M '+7S4L
"n tis a$goritm te pro#ess in%i#ates tat it %esires to enter te
#riti#a$ region1 &ut %efers to te oter pro#ess. "f &ot pro#ess it te
entry point at te same time1 te $ast pro#ess to %efer to te oter
pro#ess waits. +s soon tat pro#ess #$ears its #riti#a$ se#tion it resets
its f$ag a$$owing te oter pro#ess to enter its #riti#a$ se#tion.
P0 P1
1 '$agV0W M ,604 9 '$agV1W M ,604
3 ,urn M 1 4 ,urn M 0
C Wi$e M '+7S4 C Wi$e M ,604
v. ;a.ery +$goritm ! ,e mu$tip$e pro#ess version of a$goritm 3 is
#a$$e% te ;a.ery +$goritm.
f. Syn#roni(ation ?ar%ware ! ?ar%ware provision #an ma.e #riti#a$ se#tion
so$utions easier. One option is to %isa$$ow interrupts wi$e a pro#ess in a
#riti#a$ se#tion. "nterrupt %isa&$ing is not a goo% so$ution for mu$tiGpro#essor
ma#ines &e#ause it ta.es time to %isa&$e1 an% to pass te message to oter
pro#essors to %isa&$e. +noter %isa%vantage is tat some system #$o#.s are
.ept up%ate% &y interrupts.
i. ,est an% Set G ,e test an% set operation is a ma#ine instru#tion in te
CP08s instru#tion set1 meaning tat it operates atomi#a$$y (as one unG
interrupti&$e unit) . "t8s fun#tion is to pro&e retrieve te #ontents of a
varia&$e1 return it va$ue1 an% at te same time set its va$ue to ,604L
90
,est+n%Set(-)
O
temp M -L
- M ,604L
return tempL
Q
Entry* wi$e(,est+n%Set(-)) O
:o notingL
Q
.
.
.
E(it* - M '+7S4L
"f - is '+7S4 it is set to ,604 an% we fa$$ out of te $oop1 e-e#ute te
#riti#a$ se#tion1 an% up e-it1 reset it to '+7S4.
"f - is ,6041 we it set it to ,604 an% wait in te $oop unti$ anoter
pro#ess sets - to '+7S4L
ii. Swap.
iii. ?omewor. pro&$em ! %efine te swap() fun#tion. 4-p$ain ow it
wor.s. Compare an% #ontrast it to te ,est+n%Set() fun#tion.
g. Semapores
i. ,e previous so$utions are not easy to genera$i(e to mu$tip$e pro#ess
so$utions. Semapores are a too$ to e$p wit tis.
ii. + semapore1 s1 is an integer varia&$e. "n or%er to use semapores1
two atomi# operations are %efine%)
1. Wait(s) M P(s) M test
9. Signa$(s) M 3(s) M in#rement
3. ,ey are sometimes referre% to as P(s) an% 3(s) for te :ut#
wor%s proberen (wait)1 an% verhogen (signa$).
wait(S)
O
wi$e(SNM 0) O
%o notingL
Q
S M SG1L
Q
91
signa$(S)
O
S M SX1L
Q
4. ;ot operations must &e atomi#1 tat is on$y one pro#ess #an
mo%ify te semapore va$ue at any given time.
C. Stru#ture of te so$ution is as &efore)
2K mute- is initia$i(e% to 1 K2
repeat O
wait(mute-)L
#riti#a$ se#tion
signa$(mute-)
unti$ fa$seL
=. Consi%er two pro#esses using semapores to syn#roni(e teir
operations. ,o %o so tey wi$$ sare a #ommon varia&$e1 synch.
a. ,is time1 initia$i(e syn# to 0.
P1()
O
.
.
.
S1L
signa$(syn#)L
.
.
Q
P9()
O
.
.
.
wait(syn#)L
S9L
.
.
Q
99
&. Statements $o#ate% after te wait() statement in P9 wi$$
on$y &e e-e#ute% after te signa$() in P11 meaning a$$
statements &efore te signa$() statement in P1 wi$$
e-e#ute &efore a$$ statements after te wait() statement
in P9.
#. "mp$ementation :etai$s)
i. ,e ear$ier so$utions a$ong wit te semapore
so$ution re$y on busy waiting. ;usy waiting is
wen te pro#ess $oops #ontinuous$y in te
#riti#a$ se#tion entry #o%e.
1. 6eferre% to sometimes as a spinG$o#..
9. "n a sing$e CP0 system tat is mu$tiG
programme%1 spinG$o#.s #an eat va$ua&$e
CP0 s$i#es.
3. ;e#ause tey re5uire no #onte-t swit#
spinG$o#.s #an &e goo%1 as $ong as te
time in tem is sort.
4. ,e #ure)
a. 6e%efine te wait statement to
use &$o#.ing instea% of &usy
waiting.
i. ;$o#.ing means tat te
pro#ess puts itse$f into te
wait 5ueue wen te
wait() is en#ountere%.
ii. Wen a signa$() #a$$ is
ma%e1 &$o#.e% pro#esses
are restarte% &y a
wa.eup() operation tat
puts tem into te rea%y
5ueue. On#e tey are in
te run 5ueue tey #e#.
teir semapore. "f it is Y
0 ten tey pass te
wait() #a$$ is e-ite%1
oterwise tey return
temse$ves to te wait
5ueue.
iii. So &usy waiting (te
wasting of CP0 #y#$es) is
$arge$y e$iminate%1 &ut
not #omp$ete$y. "t %oes so
at te e-pense of rea#tion
time to te signa$.
93
. :ea%$o#.s an% Starvation
i. Wen two or more pro#esses are waiting in%efinite$y for a signa$ tat
#an on$y &e sent &y one of te waiting pro#esses te pro#esses are sai%
to &e *%ea%$o#.e%/. See te e-amp$e &e$ow)
2K "nitia$i(e te semapores to 1. K2
S M 1L
R M 1L
P0 P1
Wait(S)L wait(R)L
Wait(R)L Wait(S)L
. .
. .
. .
signa$(S)L signa$(R)L
signa$(R)L signa$(S)L
,e first series of waits %e#rements te semapores1 S an% R1 to 0 an%
fa$$s out of te wait #a$$s. ,e ne-t set puts &ot pro#esses P0 an% P1
into te wait 5ueue1 resu$ting in a %ea%$o#. &e#ause te on$y way to get
out is to in#rement te S an% R semapores an% te in#rement #a$$ is in
te pro#esses tat are &eing &$o#.e%.
ii. Note) :ea%$o#.s #an &e #ause% &y many oter #on%itions1 su# as
pro#esses #ompeting for resour#es1 et#. More %is#ussion on tat $ater.
i. C$assi# Syn#roni(ation Pro&$ems
i. ;oun%e% &uffer ! ,ere is a #ommon &uffer tat is &eing use% to store
pro%u#e% items tat are to &e #onsume%. ,e semapores fun#tion to
.eep it from overf$owing1 or from &eing a##esse% wen it is empty1
an% to ma.e sure tat on$y one pro#ess a##ess te &uffer at a time.
2K :e#$arations. K2
&uffer is a pie#e of memory of si(e n.
mute-1 empty1 an% fu$$ are semapores.
2K "nitia$i(e varia&$es. K2
mute- M 1L 2K Provi%es mutua$ e-#$usion wen a##essing &uffer. K2
empty M nL 2K Counts te num&er of empty s$ots in te &uffer. K2
fu$$ M 0L 2K Counts te num&er of fu$$ s$ots in te &uffer. K2
94
Pro%u#erPro#ess()
O
repeat
Z
pro%u#e an itemL
Z
wait(empty)L
wait(mute-)L
Z
a%% item to &ufferL
Z
signa$(mute-)L
signa$(fu$$)L
unti$(fa$se)L
Q
ConsumerPro#ess()
O
repeat
wait(fu$$)L
wait(mute-)L
Z
remove item from &ufferL
Z
signa$(mute-)L
signa$(empty)L
Z
#onsume item from &ufferL
Z
unti$(fa$se)L
Q
ii. 6ea%ers2Writers
Wen %ata is to &e sare% &y severa$ pro#esses1 it is o.ay for many to rea% it at on#e1 &ut
on$y one pro#ess may #ange te o&>e#t at on#e. Wen te writing pro#ess is up%ating
te pro#ess1 on$y it #an a##ess it1 no oter rea%ers or writers are permitte% a##ess.
2K :e#$arations. K2
mute-1 wrt are semaporesL
rea%#ount is integerL
2K "nitia$i(ations. K2
mute- M 1L 2K 4nsures mutua$ e-#$usion wen rea%#ount is up%ate%. K2
wrt M 1L 2K 4nsures mutua$ e-#$usion for te writing pro#esses. K2
rea%#ount M 0L 2K ,ra#.s te num&er of pro#esses rea%ing te %ata. K2
9C
WriterPro#ess()
O
wait(wrt)L
Z
2K Writing is performe%. K2
Z
signa$(wrt)L
Q
6ea%erPro#ess()
O
wait(mute-)L
rea%#ount M rea%#ount X 1L
if (rea%#ount MM 1) ten wait(wrt)L 2K Prote#ts o&>e#t from &eing #ange%
wi$e it is &eing rea%. K2
signa$(mute-)L
Z
2K 6ea%ing is performe%. K2
Z
wait(mute-)L
rea%#ount M rea%#ount !1L
if (rea%#ount MM 0) ten signa$(wrt)L 2K Signa$s writers tat a$$ rea%ing is
#omp$ete%. K2
signa$(mute-)L
Q
9=
iii. :ining Pi$osopers ! ,is is a #$assi# pro&$em in wi# mu$tip$e
pro#esses must #oor%inate te use of mu$tip$e resour#es.
1. :es#ription ! C pi$osopers are seate% at a roun% ta&$e. ,eir
wo$e $ife revo$ves aroun% tin.ing an% eating. "n te mi%%$e
of te ta&$e is a &ig &ow$ of ri#e1 te ta&$e is $ai% out wit C
#opsti#.s. Wen a pi$osoper gets ungry1 tey get te two
#opsti#.s #$osest to tem.
9. Simp$e so$ution is represent ea# #opsti#. wit a semapore.
2K :e#$arations. K2
semapore #opsti#.VCWL
repeat
wait(#opsti#.ViW)L
wait(#opsti#.V(iX1)SCW)L
Z
eat
Z
signa$(#ops #opsti#.ViW)L
signa$(#opsti#.V(iX1)SCW)L
Z
tin.
Z
unti$ (fa$se)L
3. ,is so$ution wi$$ en#ounter a %ea%$o#. if a$$ te pi$osopers
get ungry at te same time. Some so$utions are)
a. +$$ow on$y 4 pi$osopers at te ta&$e at on#e.
9E
&. +$$ow a pi$osoper to pi#. #opsti#.s on$y if &ot are
avai$a&$e.
#. 0se an asymmetri# so$ution. O%% pi$osopers pi#. up
$eft #opsti#. ten rigt1 even pi$osopers >ust te
opposite.
4. So$ution must &e %ea%$o#. free1 &ut not a$$ow a pi$osoper to
starve. :ea%$o#. free %oes not guarantee starvation free.
>. "ntro%u#tion to Anoppi-
.. +ssignment 9 ! "nsta$$ Anoppi-
$. +ssignment 3 ! 6un some statisti#s on te rea%ers2writers programs
B. :ea%$o#.s ! "n a mu$tiGprogramming environment tere wi$$ e-ist severa$ pro#esses
an% severa$ resour#es. Wen a pro#ess re5uest a resour#e tat is not avai$a&$e te
pro#ess wi$$ enter a wait state unti$ te resour#e &e#omes avai$a&$e. On#e te
resour#e is a#5uire%1 te pro#ess #an #ontinue it e-e#ution trea%. "t #an appen tat
a pro#ess wi$$ never $eave its wait state &e#ause te resour#es re5ueste% are e$% an%
not re$ease% &y oter waiting pro#esses. ,is situation is #a$$e% a %ea%$o#..
a. 4-amp$e) We are eating stea.s. " ave a .nife1 you ave a for.. " gra& my
.nife an% you gra& your for.. " won8t $et you use my .nife unti$ you give me
your for.1 an% you won8t $et me use your for. unti$ " $oan you my .nife. Wat
appens1 we starve $i.e i%iots.
&. System Mo%e$ ! te system is a finite num&er of resour#es %istri&ute% among
a num&er of #ompeting pro#esses.
i. 6esour#es) severa$ types1 ea# aving some num&er of instan#es.
4-amp$es may in#$u%e memory spa#e1 CP0 #y#$es1 fi$es1 "2O %evi#es
(printers1 tape %rives1 an% watnot).
ii. + pro#ess re5uests a resour#e &efore using it1 uses it1 an% ten re$eases
it.
1. 6e5uest) "f te re5uest #annot &e grante% imme%iate$y (some
oter pro#ess is using it) te re5uesting pro#ess must wait unti$
it #an a#5uire te resour#e.
9. 0se) ,e pro#ess operates using te resour#e.
3. 6e$ease) Wen te pro#ess %oes not nee% te resour#e anymore
it re$eases it.
iii. System #a$$s are use% to re5uest an% re$ease resour#es.
1. 4-amp$es in#$u%e) open1 #$ose1 ma$$o#1 free1 new1 %e$eteZ. et#.
#. Ne#essary Con%itions for a %ea%$o#.
i. Mutua$ 4-#$usion ! at $east one resour#e is e$% in a nonGsara&$e
mo%e1 tat is on$y one pro#ess at a time #an use te resour#e !
e-amp$e1 a #riti#a$ se#tion. "f anoter pro#ess re5uests tat resour#e
wi$e its &eing use%1 tat pro#ess wi$$ ave to wait.
ii. ?o$% an% Wait ! ,ere must e-it a pro#ess tat is o$%ing at $east one
resour#e an% waiting to a#5uire oter resour#es tat are e$% &y oter
pro#esses.
iii. No Preemption ! 6esour#es #annot &e preempte% ($i.e te CP0 is
preempte% in a ,ime Saring system)1 tey are on$y re$ease%
vo$untari$y &y te pro#ess using tem.
9B
iv. Cir#u$ar wait ! ,ere must &e a set of pro#esses OP01 P1Z.PnQ su#
tat P0 is waiting on a resour#e e$% &y P11 P1 is waiting on a pro#ess
e$% &y P9 Z..PnG1 is waiting for a resour#e e$% &y Pn1 an% Pn is
waiting on a pro#ess e$% &y P0. Cir#u$ar wait imp$ies ?o$% an% Wait.
%. 6esour#e +$$o#ation @raps ! a set of verti#es 31 an% e%ges 4. ,e verti#es
represent pro#esses an% resour#es1 te e%ges represent re5uests an%
assignments (a$$o#ations of resour#es).
i. 3 #onsists of pro#esses1 P1 an% resour#es1 6.
ii. 4 #onsists of %ire#te% e%ges tat go from a pro#ess to a resour#e1
in%i#ating a re5uest1 or from a resour#e to a pro#ess1 in%i#ating an
assignment of te resour#e to te pro#ess (assignment)1 or tin. of it as
te resour#e is a$$o#ate% to te pro#ess.
iii. 4-amp$e) ,e grap is %efine% &y te sets1 P (pro#esses)1 6
(resour#es)1 an% 4 (e%ges).
1. P M OP11 P91 P3Q
9. 6 M O611 691 631 64Q
3. 4 M OP1 611 P9 631 61 P91 69 P91 69 P11 63
P3Q
4. Noti#e tat in te a&ove e-amp$e tere are no #y#$es in te
grap. + resour#e a$$o#ation grap wit out #y#$es in%i#ates
tat no %ea%$o#.s e-ist.
9<
C. P11 P91an% P3 are %ea%$o#.e%. ,ere are two #y#$es)
a. OP11 611 P91 631 P31 691 P1Q
&. OP91 631 P31 691 P9Q
#. ,e %ea%$o#. e-ists &e#ause no pro#ess #an re$ease a
resour#e &e#ause tey #annot run &e#ause tey are
waiting for resour#es e$% &y oter pro#esses.
=. ?ere is a grap wit a #y#$e tat is not %ea%$o#.e%.
30
E. Cy#$e is)
a. OP11 611 P31 691 P1Q
B. ,ere is no %ea% $o#. &e#ause P9 or P4 #an #omp$ete
pro#essing an% re$ease instan#es of 61 an% 691 a$$owing P1
an% P3 to a#5uire te resour#es nee%e% to #omp$ete.
<. Meto%s for an%$ing %ea%$o#.s an% te ;an.ers a$goritm.
e. +ssignment C ! So$ve te 6esour#e +$$o#ation @raps
f. ?an%$ing :ea%$o#.s ! Meto%s of for %ea$ing wit te %ea%$o#. pro&$em)
i. :ea%$o#. Prevention) 0se of a proto#o$ to ensure tat system never
enters a %ea%$o#. state. ,is meto% tries to ensure tat at $east one of
te #on%itions for %ea%$o#. #annot o##ur &y #onstraining ow
resour#es re5uests are ma%e.
1. Mutua$ 4-#$usion) ,is must o$% for nonGsara&$e resour#es1
su# as printers1 &ut resour#es su# as rea%Gon$y fi$es #an &e
sare%1 tus &rea.ing mutua$ e-#$usion. "n genera$ toug
%ea%$o#. prevention #annot &e a##omp$ise% &y %enying
mutua$ e-#$usionL some resour#es are not sara&$e.
9. ?o$% an% Wait) Pro#esses #an &e as.e% to re5uest an% a#5uire
a$$ resour#es &efore tey &eginL a$$ resour#es are o&taine% &y
using system #a$$s1 wi# are move% to te &eginning of te
pro#ess. +$ternative$y tey #an &e for#e% to re5uest resour#es
on$y wen tey ave none. Pro&$ems wit tese meto%s)
31
a. Starvation) + pro#ess may ave to wait in%efinite$y for
resour#es &efore it #an start.
3. No Preemption) ,o ensure tat tis #on%ition %oes not o$%1 te
fo$$owing $ogi# #an &e use%. "f a pro#ess is o$%ing resour#es
an% as outstan%ing re5uests for more resour#es tat #annot &e
satisfie%1 ten it #an &e for#e% to re$ease te resour#es it is
o$%ing. ,e pro#ess wi$$ &e restarte% on$y wen it #an regain
its o$% resour#es an% te oter ones tat it nee%e%. Or wen a
pro#ess is starting1 te OS #e#.s to see if te resour#es te
pro#ess nee%s are avai$a&$e. "f so tey are a$$o#ate%1 if not1 te
OS #e#.s to see if te nee%e% resour#es are &eing e$% &y
oter waiting pro#esses. "f so1 tese resour#es are preempte%
an% te pro#ess runs1 oterwise1 te pro#ess wit its partia$ $ist
of resour#es is put into te wait 5ueue1 were its resour#es #an
&e preempte% &y oter pro#esses.
4. Cir#u$ar Wait) +n of resour#e types is impose% an% ea#
pro#ess re5uests resour#es in an in#reasing or%er of
enumeration.
ii. :ea%$o#. +voi%an#e) OS is given information a&out a pro#esses
re5uire% resour#es of a pro#ess %uring its $ifetime. 'or ea# resour#e
re5uest1 te system must #onsi%er wi# resour#es are #urrent$y
avai$a&$e1 te resour#es #urrent$y a$$o#ate% to ea# pro#ess1 an% te
future re5uests an% re$eases of ea# pro#ess1 to %e#i%e if te resour#e
re5uest sou$% &e satisfie% or %e$aye%. ,ese a$goritms avoi%
%ea%$o#.s &y using te resour#e state information to avoi% #ir#u$ar
wait #on%itions.
1. Safe State) + state is safe if te system #an a$$o#ate resour#es
up to its ma-imum in some or%er an% sti$$ avoi% a %ea%$o#..
9. ,e system is in a safe state if tere e-ists a safe se5uen#e.
3. Safe Se5uen#e) 'or ea# P(i)1 te resour#es nee%e% #an &e
satisfie% &y #urrent$y avai$a&$e resour#es an% te resour#es e$%
&y te pro#esses P(>) tat #ame &efore it. P(>)) > N "
Se5uen#e of Pro#esses) OP11 P91 P3Z..PnQ +$$ te resour#es
Pi wi$$ nee% are avai$a&$e (not a$$o#ate% to any pro#ess) or are
e$% &y P1 to P(iG1).
39
;an.ers +$goritm !
n ! num&er of Pro#esses
m ! num&er of resour#e types
+vai$ViW ! num&er of resour#es of type i avai$a&$e
Ma-Vi1 >W ! ma- [ of resour#es of type > tat pro#ess i wi$$ nee%
+$$o#Vi1>W ! pro#ess i as tis man resour#es of type >
Nee%Vi1 >W M ma-V"1 >W ! a$$o#Vi1 >WL
Wor. M +vai$
'inisViW M '+7S4L
Wi$e tere e-ist i su# tat)
'inisViW M '+7S4
Nee%ViW NM Wor.
O
Wor. M Wor. X +$$o#L
'inisViW M ,604L
Q
"f a$$ of 'inis M ,6041 ten system is in a safe state.
(4nter my e-amp$e ere)
iii. System is a$$owe% to enter a %ea%$o#. state an% re#over. +n a$goritm
monitors system state to %etermine if a %ea%$o#. as o##urre%1 an%
uses a %ea%$o#. re#overy a$goritm wen one is %ete#te%.
iv. "gnore te pro&$em a$$ togeter. @ive te responsi&i$ity for an%$ing
%ea%$o#.s to te users. Many systems1 in#$u%ing 0N"F ave use% tis
strategy. "n some systems %ea%$o#.s o##ur infre5uent$y (may&e on#e a
year). Wen tis is te #ase1 it may ma.e more e#onomi# sense to
ignore te pro&$em.
<. Rui( 9 6eview (Wee. B)
10. Rui( 9
11. Memory Management ! Main memory is a $arge array of &ytes1 ea# wit its own
a%%ress.
a. Memory &asi#s
i. One unit ($i.e a swit#) ;it (021)
ii. Ni&&$e ! 4 &its
iii. ;yte ! B &its
33
iv. Wor% ! B1 1=1 391 =4 &its
v. Memory a%%ressing G ,e sma$$est pie#e of spa#e tat a CP0 #an
usua$$y a%%ress is a &yte. + wor% is 4 &ytes1 some CP0s a%%ress on
wor% or a$f wor% &oun%aries. +##ess to an% from memory is an%$e%
&y te memory unit (memory #ontro$$er).
1. &yte a%%ressa&$e ! a$$ &ytes are a%%ressa&$e
9. wor% a%%ressa&$e ! #an on$y a%%ress on wor% &oun%aries
3. &us error ! attempt to a##ess memory on in#orre#t &oun%ary.
a. ?ow %o we get aroun% tisT We use mas.ing an%
sifting.
&. ;in%ing ! a mapping from one a%%ress spa#e to anoter.
#. Pro#ess of &in%ing)
%. 7in.ing types)
i. Stati# ! $i&rary routines in#$u%e% in #o%e.
ii. :ynami# ! $i&raries $in.e% in at runtime. ,e :77 is $o#ate% &y
$oo.ing at a stu& inserte% at #ompi$e time. Saves memory1 &ut more
#omp$e-1 ta.es $onger to #ome up initia$$y1 an% is not as porta&$e.
e. +%%ress types)
i. Sym&o$i# ! a%%ress in a program1 $i.e a varia&$e name (CO0N,)
34
ii. 6e$o#ata&$e ! ,ese a%%ress are #a$#u$ate% from a referen#e point1 $i.e
te &eginning of te program. ,e #ompi$er wi$$ generate tese at
#ompi$e time.
1. offset ! is position of a%%ress #a$#u$ate% from program start.
9. Pysi#a$ +%%ress M Program Start a%%ress X offset.
iii. +&so$ute (unre$o#ata&$e) ! ,ese are pysi#a$ a%%resses of te
ma#ines main memory.
iv. Position in%epen%ent ! runs anywere. 3aria&$es use re$ative
$o#ations1 re$ative to PC. ;ase an% 7imit meto%.
f. +%%ress ;in%ing
i. Compi$e time ! 0sua$$y te #ompi$er turns sym&o$i# a%%resses into
re$o#ata&$e a%%resses1 &ut if it is .nown aea% of time were a pro#ess
as to resi%e in memory1 pysi#a$ a%%ress #an &e generate%. +&so$ute
#o%e is generate%.
ii. 7oa% time ! "f at #ompi$e time it is not .nown were te pro#ess wi$$
pysi#a$$y resi%e in memory te #ompi$er generates re$o#ata&$e #o%e.
,e $oa%er #onverts tis to a&so$ute a%%resses wen te program is
$oa%e% into pysi#a$ memory.
iii. 4-e#ution time ! Wen pro#esses are move% aroun% %uring teir
e-e#ution1 fina$ &in%ing is save% for wen tey run. ,is &in%ing is
%one &y te memory management unit (MM0)
g. :ynami# 7oa%ing ! "n some #ases (many in fa#t) te entire program may not
fit in pysi#a$ memory. "f noting is %one a&out tis1 pro#ess si(es are $imite%
to te si(e of memory. + wor. aroun% tis is :ynami# 7oa%ing.
i. "n tis te#ni5ue1 routines are .ept on %is. in re$o#ata&$e format.
ii. Program starts1 main routine is in memory. Wen a su& routine is
#a$$e%1 te #a$$ing routine #e#.s for its presen#e in memory1 if tere it
#ontro$ transfers to it1 oterwise1 te re$o#ata&$e $in.ing $oa%er is #a$$e%
an% te routine is $oa%e% from %is..
iii. @oo% wen program #ontains $arge amounts of #o%e tat are rare$y
#a$$e%.
iv. :oes not re5uire support from OS. Programmers responsi&i$ity to
%esign program to use s#eme. OS provi%es $i&rary routines in support
of %ynami# $oa%ing sometimes.
. :ynami# 7in.e% 7i&raries ! Wi%e$y supporte%. 7in.ing of system $i&raries is
postpone% unti$ run time. + stu& is in#$u%e% in te &inary image tat in%i#ates
ow to $o#ate or $oa% te appropriate routine if te routines is not a$rea%y
present.
i. 0n%er tis s#eme a$$ pro#esses tat use te :77s e-e#ute on$y one
#opy of te #o%e.
ii. +%vantages in#$u%e)
1. Co%e savings.
9. 4asier to imp$ement up%ates an% &ug fi-es trougout te
system. (saves reG$in.ing of a$$ programs using new $i&raries.
iii. 0sua$$y re5uires OS support.
3C
i. Over$ays ! + programmer imp$emente% te#ni5ue of e-e#uting #o%e tat is
&igger tan te pysi#a$ memory. "n tis meto% te programmer %ivi%es te
#o%e into se#tions tat wi$$ fit into memory. Wen te program as to swit#
#o%e se#tions an Over$ay %river swaps in te nee%e% part of te #o%e an%
restarts te program.
>. 4-amp$e) 9 pass assem&$er tat re5uires 900. memory. "f on$y 1C0 . is
avai$a&$e1 te over$ays #an &e %esigne% wit te fo$$owing memory
re5uirements.
Pass 1 ! E0.
Pass 9 ! B0.
Sym&o$ ta&$e ! 90.
Common routines ! 30.
Over$ay %river ! 10.
Pass 1 wit nee%e% routines M E0. X 90. X 30. M 190. wit over$ay %river !
130.
Pass 9 wit nee%e% routines M B0. X 90. X 30. M 130. wit over$ay %river !
140.
So te assem&$er #an &e run wit 1C0. of memory. ,is s#eme %oes not
re5uire spe#ia$ OS support &ut %oes re5uire te programmer to ave a goo%
.now$e%ge of te program stru#ture.
.. 7ogi#a$ versus Pysi#a$ +%%ress Spa#e ! CP0 generates a $ogi#a$ a%%ress
(sometimes #a$$e% a virtua$ a%%ress)1 memory management unit MM0 turns
te $ogi#a$ a%%ress into a pysi#a$ a%%ress an% $oa%s it into te M+6 (memory
a%%ress register).
i. ,e set of a$$ a%%resses generate% &y a program is #a$$e% te $ogi#a$
a%%ress spa#e. ,e ar%ware memory a%%resses #orrespon%ing to
tese a%%resses are referre% to as pysi#a$ a%%ress spa#e.
ii. Compi$e time &in%ing an% $oa% time &in%ing resu$t in $ogi#a$ a%%resses
tat are te same as pysi#a$ a%%resses.
iii. 4-e#ution time &in%ing ! $ogi#a$ an% pysi#a$ a%%resses are %ifferent
from one anoter.
iv. +%%ress trans$ation an%$e% &y te MM0.
1. Pysi#a$ +%%ress M 7ogi#a$ X &ase register (sometimes #a$$e%
re$o#ation register)
9. ,e program on$y wor.s wit $ogi#a$ a%%resses (0 to program
ma- a%%ress). ,ey are mappe% to 6 X ma- program a%%ress
in pysi#a$ memory1 were 6 is te va$ue for te &ase register.
3. 7ogi#a$ to Pysi#a$ a%%ress mapping is te #entra$ #on#ept in
memory management.
v. 0ser Mo%e ! a##esses virtua$ a%%ress spa#e
vi. Supervisor Mo%e ! a##esses pysi#a$ a%%ress spa#e
3=
$. Swapping ! Pro#ess are memory resi%ent wen tey are running. "f tere are
more pro#esses tan te memory #an o$%1 ten te OS swaps tem in an% out
of memory from %is. so tey #an run.
i. Wit a%%ress &in%ing is %one at #ompi$e or $oa% time1 te pro#ess must
resi%e at a spe#ifi# p$a#e in pysi#a$ memory to run1 an% must &e
swappe% &a#. an% fort from %is. to tat p$a#e.
ii. ,is re5uirement is re$a-e% wit e-e#ution time &in%ing.
iii. Pro#esses tat are swappe% out are tra#.e% &y te OS.
iv. Swapping ta.es time. ,e time is proportiona$ to te amount of %ata
tat must &e move% from %is. to memory. 4-amp$e)
1. a 100. pro#ess at 1000. per se#on% wit a B ms %is. $aten#y
wou$% ta.e)
a. 100.21000. X B ms M 10Bms.
&. ,o swap watever was in memory out an% tis pro#ess
&a#. in wou$% ta.e) 9 K 10Bms M 91=ms.
v. 'or effi#ien#y reasons time in memory an% running sou$% &e $ong
#ompare% to te time to swap te pro#ess from %is. to memory.
m. Contiguous +$$o#ation ! Main memory a##ommo%ates te OS an% te user
pro#esses. OS resi%es in one partition1 user pro#ess in te oter. OS is
#ommon$y p$a#e% in $ow memory (a%%ress num&ers starting at 0) &e#ause
interrupt ve#tors is often in $ow memory. +%vantages) Simp$e1 'ast.
:isa%vantages) 'ragments memory1 tere may &e programs too &ig for
memory.
i. Sing$e Partition ! OS resi%es in $ow memory. 0ser pro#esses resi%e in
ig memory.
1. Pro#esses an% OS are prote#te% from ea# oter &y using te
&ase an% $imit register s#eme.
9. 4very a%%ress te CP0 generates is #e#.e% against tese
registers. ?ar%ware is use% so it #an &e %one 5ui#.$y.
3. "t provi%es OS an% user programs prote#tion from running
pro#esses.
3E
ii. Mu$tip$e Partition ! "n te most &asi# #ase of mu$tip$e partition
memory management memory is %ivi%e% into n e5ua$ si(e partitions
(";M 3=0 use% tis s#eme). ,e num&er of partitions in te memory
%etermines te %egree of mu$tiprogramming. Wen a partition is free1
te OS se$e#ts a pro#ess from te input 5ueue an% $oa%s into tat
partition.
iii. 7ater1 te e5ua$ num&er of partitions was %roppe% for a %ynami#
system in wi# memory is .ept tra#. of &y using a ta&$e tat te$$s
wi# part of memory is empty an% wi# is o##upie%.
1. "nitia$$y a$$ pro#ess memory is empty.
9. +s pro#esses are s#e%u$e%1 tey are move% into *o$es/ (areas
of uno##upie% memory). ,e OS fin%s a o$e $arge enoug to
o$% te pro#ess. Memory is a$$o#ate% unti$ tere is no o$e
$arge enoug to o$% te ne-t pro#ess. ,e OS ten must wait
unti$ a pro#ess #omp$etes an% frees its memory or s.ip %own
te input 5ueue unti$ it fin%s a pro#ess sma$$ enoug to fit in
one of te o$es. +%>a#ent o$es #an &e merge% to form $arger
o$es. ,ere are severa$ a$$o#ation s#emes)
a. 'irstG'it ! Put te pro#ess in te first o$e foun% tat
wi$$ a##ommo%ate its memory re5uirements. Sear#ing
stops as soon as a wo$e is foun% tat wor.s.
3B
&. ;estG'it ! Put te pro#ess in to te sma$$est o$e tat
wi$$ a##ommo%ate its memory re5uirements. ,is
strategy pro%u#es te sma$$est remaining o$e2o$es.
#. WorstG'it ! Put te pro#ess in to te $argest o$e tat
wi$$ a##ommo%ate its memory re5uirements. ,is
strategy pro%u#es te $argest remaining o$e2o$es.
3. Simu$ations sow tat firstGfit an% &estGfit wor. &est in terms of
%e#reasing time an% storage uti$i(ation. Neiter is #$ear$y
&etter1 &ut firstGfit is genera$$y faster.
iv. "nterna$ an% 4-terna$ 'ragmentation
1. 4-terna$ 'ragmentation is wen te sum of te memory of te
o$es is enoug to satisfy a memory re5uest &ut it not
#ontiguous1 it is fragmente% into a $arge num&er of sma$$ o$es.
,o so$ve tis pro&$em (#an waste up to a tir% of te memory)
#ompa#tion #an &e use%. Perio%i#a$$y suff$e te memory an%
#reate a &ig &$o#. of free memory.
9. "nterna$ 'ragmentation ! Sometimes a o$e may &e &are$y
$arger tan te pro#ess it is a$$o#ate% to. "n or%er to avoi% te
overea% of tra#.ing very sma$$ o$es (te memory re5uire% to
tra#. te tiny o$e wou$% &e more tan te o$e itse$f) more
memory tan is re5uire% wou$% &e a$$o#ate% so tat te tra#.ing
pro&$em #an &e $essene% (a$$o#ate te tiny o$e as part of te
$arger re5uest). ,e memory tat is te %ifferen#e &etween te
o$e si(e an% pro#ess si(e is interna$ fragmentation.
19. Paging an% 3irtua$ Memory ! 0se% to avoi% fragmentation.
a. ;asi#s ! 4a# pro#ess as a page ta&$e.
PageNum M $ogi#a$ a%%ress2pageSi(eL
'rameNum M page,a&$eVpageNumW.page
Offset M $ogi#a$ a%%ress ! pageNumKpageSi(e
Pysi#a$ +%%ress M 'rameNum K 'rameSi(e X Offset

3<
Page si(es are usua$$y .ept to &e a power of 91 typi#a$$y &etween C19 &ytes an% 1= megs.
,is ma.es page an% offset #a$#u$ation a matter of sifting &its.
40
41
Paging attri&utes)
'orm of %ynami# re$o#ation.
7ogi#a$ a%%resses &oun% &y paging ar%ware to pysi#a$ a%%resses.
No e-terna$ fragmentation.
+ny free frame #an &e a$$o#ate% to any pro#ess tat nee%s it.
Wi$$ ave interna$ fragmentation on $ast frame of pro#ess.
Page si(e is a #ompromise &etween wanting to minimi(e interna$ page
fragmentation an% minimi(ing te num&er of %is. a##esses1 an% te overea%
re5uire% to store te paging ta&$es.
Narrative of Paging Pro#ess )
Pro#ess arrives in system
o "ts si(e is e-presse% in pages.
o "f it re5uires n pages1 tere must &e n frames avai$a&$e in memory.
"f te frames are avai$a&$e1 tey are a$$o#ate% to te pro#ess1 ea# frame $o#ation
&eing re#or%e% in te pro#esses page ta&$e.
0ser program views memory as one #ontiguous pie#e even toug it is pysi#a$$y
s#attere% trougout memory.
+s program runs $ogi#a$ a%%resses are #onverte% to pysi#a$ a%%resses.
49
OS .eeps tra#. of wi# frames are use% an% wi# are avai$a&$e in te 'rame
ta&$e.
"ssues wit Paging)
,o a##ess a &yte of memory it ta.es 9 memory a##esses1 one for te page ta&$e1
one for te a##ess to memory.
o ,rans$ation $oo.Gasi%e &uffers (,7;) are use% to a$$eviate tis pro&$em.
,7; is a sma$$ fast pie#e of asso#iative memory tat o$%s part of te page
ta&$e in it.
7ogi#a$ a%%ress generate% &y CP01 page num&er presente% to
,7;. "f te page num&er is foun%1 ,7; outputs te mat#ing
frame num&er. Pro#ess ta.es 10S $onger tan a %ire#t memory
referen#e.
"f page num&er not in ,7;1 page ta&$e is referen#e% an% a%%ress is
forme%. ,7; up%ate%1 if fu$$ one of te entries is rep$a#e%.
,e per#ent of times tat a page num&er is foun% in ta&$e is te it
ratio. 0sing te it ratio we #an #a$#u$ate te effe#tive memory
a##ess time.
B0 per#ent it ratio
90 nanose#on% ,7; sear# time
100 nanose#on% memory a##ess time.
4ffe#tive a##ess time M .B0 #+, - .,,& - /+,(90 X 100 X
100) M 140 nanose#on%s
o Wen memory is fu$$ (page ta&$e fu$$) pages must &e swappe% in an% out
from %is..
13. Paging imp$ementation an% a$goritms
a. 7o#a$ity of referen#e ! programs ten% to wor. in a parti#u$ar memory area an%
move s$ow$y troug tem.
&. :eman% Paging ! pages are on$y &rougt in wen tey are nee%e%.
#. Page 'au$t ! event tat o##urs wen a page is not in 6+M
%. :irty ;it ! in%i#ates if te page as &een #ange% sin#e it #ame into memory.
"f it as1 wen it is e>e#te%1 it nee%s to &e written &a#. to %is. &efore it is
.i#.e% out.
e. Page 6ep$a#ement
f. Page 6ep$a#ement +$goritms
i. '"'O ! 'irst "n 'irst Out
1. ;e$a%y8s anoma$y ! give a system more resour#es (memory
frames) an% it ma.es more fau$ts. '"'O is sus#epti&$e1 760 is
not.
ii. Optima$ (;e$a%y) ! fartest in te future. ,is is goo%1 &ut we ave a
ar% time .nowing wat te future wi$$ &ring.
iii. 760 ! 7east 6e#ent$y 0se%. @oo% in teory an% in pra#ti#e. (:irty
&it set wen page #ange%1 ea# time page a##esse%1 time stamp
43
up%ate% or referen#e &it set. "f using referen#e &it1 ea# time 5uanta
sifts referen#e wor% to te rigt.
g. 4-amp$e of '"'O1 7601 an% optima$L page2frame si(e M 100L ma-frames M C
e$$o tv $an%U
num+%%s M 90
+%%ress Stream.
E91
43
191
999
44
39E
4C
49B
993
39B
4C
39<
994
199
99C
4=
193
E99
4E
194
Page rep$a#ement ('"'O)
'rame ,a&$e G E [ [ [ [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 [ [ [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 [ [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3 YYY page fau$t
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 E 1 9 3 YYY page fau$t
44
'rame ,a&$e G 4 E 0 9 3 YYY page fau$t
'rame ,a&$e G 4 E 0 1 3 YYY page fau$t
page'au$ts M 4
Page rep$a#ement (760)
'rame ,a&$e G E [ [ [ [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 [ [ [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 [ [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 [
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3 YYY page fau$t
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G 4 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 3 YYY page fau$t
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 3
'rame ,a&$e G E 0 1 9 3
page'au$ts M 9
?ere is an optima$ (;e$a%y) e-amp$e.
E [ [ [ [
E 0 [ [ [
E 0 1 [ [
E 0 1 9 [
E 0 1 9 [
E 0 1 9 3
E 0 1 9 3
4 0 1 9 3 YYY page fau$t
.
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
4C
E 0 1 9 3 YYY page fau$t
E 0 1 9 3
E 0 1 9 3
. ;e$a%y8s anoma$y ! sometimes wit '"'O1 aving more resour#es resu$ts in
more page fau$ts.
i. Page referen#e string ! 11 91 31 41 11 91 C1 11 91 31 41 C
1. '"'O ! wit 4 frames resu$ts in 10 page fau$ts
1 9 3 4 1 9 C 1 9 3 4 C
1 1 1 1 C C C C 4 4
9 9 9 9 1 1 1 1 C
3 3 3 3 9 9 9 9
4 4 4 4 3 3 3
9. '"'O ! wit 3 frames resu$ts in < page fau$ts.
1 9 3 4 1 9 C 1 9 3 4 C
1 1 1 4 4 4 C C C
9 9 9 1 1 1 3 3
3 3 3 9 9 9 4
i. Counting a$goritms
i. 7'0 ! 7east fre5uent$y use%.
ii. M'0 ! Most fre5uenty use%.
14. +ssignment C ! Program a page swapper1 imp$ement '"'O an% 7601 sow some run
statisti#s for various provi%e% %ata sets. (:ue in 9 wee.s)
1C. Pure :eman% Paging ! initia$$y a$$ pages on &a#.ing store (fast %is. or fast part of
%is.). On initia$ startup1 or restarting after a #onte-t swit#1 many page fau$ts o##ur.
1=. :eman% Paging wit preGpaging ! #ompi$er te$$s system wi# pages are nee%e% for
startup. +fter startup pages use% #an &e swappe%. ,is meto% e$ps to re%u#e te
amount of page fau$ts on startup.
1E. ,rasing ! Wen a pro#ess #annot &e a$$o#ate% te minimum num&er of pages it
nee%s to run it #an generate many page fau$ts. +t some point te OS is spen%ing most
of te CP0 #y#$es servi#ing page fau$ts1 instea% of e-e#uting user pro#esses.
1B. Storage
a. 'i$es Systems ! + fi$e is a #o$$e#tion of re$ate% %ata items (program1 te-t1
imageZ.)
&. ,wo ways of %e#i%ing wat is in a fi$e)
i. 0ser #onvention (K.o$% in 0ni- is usua$$y an o$% version of a fi$e1
wi$e K.#o$% wou$% usua$$y &e an o$% C sour#e #o%e fi$e. )
ii. OS %efine% (K.%o# in win%ows is a wor% fi$e)
#. +##ess Meto%s)
i. Se5uentia$
4=
ii. "n%e-e% ! Consists of an in%e- fi$e an% a %ata fi$e
%. +ttri&utes
i. name
ii. type
iii. $o#ation (on %is.)
iv. si(e (num&er of re#or%s1 or &ytes)
v. prote#tion info
vi. owner
vii. $ast mo%ifie%
e. Operations
i. #reation
ii. trun#ate
iii. %e$ete
iv. open
v. #$ose
vi. appen%
vii. rea%
viii. write
i-. see.
-. te$$
f. :ire#tory ! #o$$e#tion of fi$es. "n :OS $in.s #an on$y go to $eaves. ,is
.eeps #y#$es from o##urring.
i. ,ree Stru#ture% ! a#y#$i# graps
ii. + fi$e is %e$ete% on$y wen tere are no more $in.s to it. + fi$e may &e
referen#e% from more tan one %ire#tory.
g. Patnames
i. +&so$ute ! &a#. to root
ii. 6e$ative ! re$ative to #urrent wor.ing %ire#tory
. Prote#tion
i. +gainst oter users
ii. +gainst se$f
iii. Contro$
1. wat ! rea%2write2e-e#ute1 appen%2%e$ete2$ist
9. wo ! you1 your group1 everyone
1<. 'i$e System "mp$ementation
a. 'i$e Contro$ ;$o#. ! 'C;) :ire#tory ;$o#.1 %ata
&. 'i$e System ! Consists of a$$ fi$es ('C;1 %ata)1 ar%ware1 %ire#tories1 format
information (&$o#. si(e1 free &$o#.s)
i. ;$o#.s ! ea# &$o#. as pysi#a$ a%%ress (tra#.1 se#tor)
ii. :is. is a&stra#te% to an array of &$o#.s (B. ! 1=.)
1. ,o get %ata from %is. ! move ea% (see. time)1 wait for p$atter
to spin aroun% to rigt p$a#e (rotationa$ $aten#y).
9. ,o rea%2write 5ui#.$y ! group &$o#.s of fi$e #$ose to ea# oter.
We wou$% $i.e to a$$o#ate #ontiguous$y in ar%ware an%
software.
#. Meto%s of +$$o#ation
4E
i. Contiguous ! suffers from e-terna$ fragmentation
ii. 7in.e% a$$o#ation
1. 4$iminates e-terna$ fragmentation
9. 7ea%s to nonG#ontiguous fi$e %ata %istri&ution
3. On$y goo% for se5uentia$ a##esse% fi$es.
4. 7ost fi$e pointers #an #ause a fi$e to &e %amage%.
C. :ire#tory wi$$ store)
a. Name
&. first &$o#.
#. $ast &$o#.
%. 4a# &$o#. as a pointer to te ne-t &$o#..
iii. '+, ('i$e +ttri&ute ,a&$e)
1. Simp$e an% effi#ient
9. 7in.e% a$$o#ation meto%.
3. "f '+, is not #a#e%1 it #an $ea% to $ots of %is. see.s.
4. '+, !
a. '+, at &eginning of ea# %is. partition.
&. "t as one entry for ea# %is. &$o#. an% is in%e-e% &y
num&er.
#. ,e %ire#tory entry as entry for first fi$e &$o#.1 '+,
as entry for te ne-t &$o#..
%. ,e $ast &$o#. in fi$e is signa$e% &y 4O' va$ue.
e. 4mpty &$o#.s mar.e% &y 08s.
f. "f '+, ta&$e gets wipe% out1 $oo. out.
iv. "n%e-e%
1. :ire#tory as fi$e name an% $o#ation in%e- &$o#.. "n%e- &$o#.
is a se5uentia$ $ist of te &$o#.s in te fi$e.
v. 'ree Spa#e ! $in.e% into on fi$e. ;it 3e#tor (1 per &$o#. in%i#ates if
te &$o#. is free or not.
vi. :ire#tories ! simp$est way is to ma.e $inear ta&$e1 some systems use a
as ta&$e.
90. "2O Systems
a. 7ots of OS %ea$s wit fi$es (E0S)
i. ?ar%ware %evi#es)
1. po$$ing
9. interrupt
3. interrupt wit :M+
ii. :evi#e types
1. ;$o#.
a. :is.
&. ,ape
9. Cara#ter
a. Aey&oar%
&. Seria$ i2o (COMM port)
&. :is.s
i. Stru#ture
4B
ii. ?ea% S#e%u$ing
1. 'C'S ! 'irst Come 'irst Serve
9. SS,' ! Sortest See. ,ime 'irst
3. SC+N ! (e$evator a$goritm) ! serve a$$ re5uests going one
way1 ten go te oter.
a. Cy#$i# e$evator ! goes one %ire#tion1 ten ea% moves
&a#. to start.
91. Rui( 3 review
99. Rui( 3
4<