Fluid Power (Part 2) Hydraulic

Power Units


Course No: M06-009
Credit: 6 PDH





A. Bhatia








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Stony Point, NY 10980

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NAVEDTRA 12964
Naval Education and July 1990 Training Manual
Training Command 0502-LP-213-2300 (TRAMAN)
Fluid Power
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
Nonfederal government personnel wanting a copy of this document
must use the purchasing instructions on the inside cover.
FLUI D POWER
NAVEDTRA 12964
1990 Edition Prepared by
MWC Albert Beasley, J r.
CHAPTER 4
PUMPS
Pumps are used for some essenti al servi ces i n
the Navy. Pumps suppl y water to the boi l ers, draw
condensati on from the condensers, suppl y sea
water to the fi remai n, ci rcul ate cool i ng water for
cool ers and condensers, pump out bi l ges, transfer
fuel , suppl y water to the di sti l l i ng pl ants, and
serve many other purposes. Al though the pumps
di scussed i n thi s chapter are used pri mari l y i n
hydraul i c systems, the pri nci pl es of operati on
appl y as wel l to the pumps used i n other systems.
PURPOSE
The purpose of a hydraul i c pump i s to suppl y
a fl ow of fl ui d to a hydraul i c system. The pump
does not create system pressure, si nce pressure can
be created onl y by a resi stance to the fl ow. As the
pump provi des fl ow, i t transmi ts a force to the
fl ui d. As the fl ui d fl ow encounters resi stance, thi s
force i s changed i nto a pressure. Resi stance to
fl ow i s the resul t of a restri cti on or obstructi on
i n the path of the fl ow. Thi s restri cti on i s normal l y
the work accompl i shed by the hydraul i c system,
but can al so be restri cti ons of l i nes, fi tti ngs, and
val ves wi thi n the system. Thus, the pressure i s
control l ed by the l oad i mposed on the system or
the acti on of a pressure-regul ati ng devi ce.
OPERATION
A pump must have a conti nuous suppl y of
fl ui d avai l abl e to the i nl et port to suppl y fl ui d to
the system. As the pump forces fl ui d through the
outl et port, a parti al vacuum or l ow-pressure area
i s created at the i nl et port. When the pressure at
the i nl et port of the pump i s l ower than the l ocal
atmospheri c pressure, atmospheri c pressure acti ng
on the fl ui d i n the reservoi r forces the fl ui d i nto
the pumps i nl et. I f the pump i s l ocated at
a l evel l ower than the reservoi r, the force of
gravi ty suppl ements atmospheri c pressure on the
reservoi r. Ai rcraft and mi ssi l es that operate at
hi gh al ti tudes are equi pped wi th pressuri zed
hydr aul i c r eser voi r s to compensate for l ow
atmospher i c pr essur e encounter ed at hi gh
al ti tudes.
PERFORMANCE
Pumps are normal l y rated by thei r vol umetri c
output and pressure. Vol umetri c output i s the
amount of fl ui d a pump can del i ver to i ts outl et
port i n a certai n peri od of ti me at a gi ven speed.
Vol umetri c output i s usual l y expressed i n gal l ons
per mi nute (gpm). Si nce changes i n pump speed
affect vol umetri c output, some pumps are rated
by thei r di spl acement. Pump di spl acement i s the
amount of fl ui d the pump can del i ver per cycl e.
Si nce most pumps use a rotary dri ve, di spl acement
i s usual l y expressed i n terms of cubi c i nches per
revol uti on.
As we stated previ ousl y, a pump does not
create pressure. However, the pressure devel oped
by the restri cti ons i n the system i s a factor that
affects the vol umetri c output of the pump. As the
system pressure i ncreases, the vol umetri c output
decreases. Thi s drop i n vol umetri c output i s the
resul t of an i ncrease i n the amount of i nternal
l eakage from the outl et si de to the i nl et si de of
the pump. Thi s l eakage i s referred to as pump
sl i ppage and i s a factor that must be consi dered
i n al l pumps. Thi s expl ai ns why most pumps are
rated i n terms of vol umetri c output at a gi ven
pressure.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
Many di fferent methods are used to cl assi fy
pumps. Terms such as nonpositive displacement,
posi ti ve di spl acement, fi xed di spl acement,
variable displacement, fixed delivery, variable
delivery, constant volume, and others are used to
descri be pumps. The fi rst two of these terms
descri be the fundamental di vi si on of pumps; that
4-1
i s, al l pumps are ei ther nonposi ti ve di spl acement
or posi ti ve di spl acement.
Basi cal l y, pumps that di scharge l i qui d i n a
conti nuous fl ow are referred to as nonposi ti ve
di spl acement, and those that di scharge vol umes
separated by a peri od of no di scharge are referred
to as posi ti ve di spl acement.
Al though the nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pump
normal l y produces a conti nuous fl ow, i t does not
provi de a posi ti ve seal agai nst sl i ppage; therefore,
the output of the pump vari es as system pressure
var i es. I n other wor ds, the vol ume of fl ui d
del i vered for each cycl e depends on the resi stance
to the fl ow. Thi s type of pump produces a force
on the fl ui d that i s constant for each parti cul ar
speed of the pump. Resi stance i n the di scharge
l i ne produces a force i n a di recti on opposi te the
di recti on of the force produced by the pump.
When these forces are equal , the fl ui d i s i n a state
of equi l i bri um and does not fl ow.
I f the outl et of a nonposi ti ve-di spl acement
pump i s compl etel y cl osed, the di scharge pressure
wi l l i ncrease to the maxi mum for that parti cul ar
pump at a speci fi c speed. Nothi ng more wi l l
happen except that the pump wi l l churn the fl ui d
and produce heat.
I n contrast to the nonposi ti ve-di spl acement
pump, the posi ti ve-di spl acement pump provi des
a posi ti ve i nternal seal agai nst sl i ppage. Therefore,
thi s type of pump del i vers a defi ni te vol ume of
fl ui d for each cycl e of pump operati on, regardl ess
of the resi stance offered, provi ded the capaci ty
of the power uni t dr i vi ng the pump i s not
exceeded. I f the outl et of a posi ti ve-di spl acement
pump were compl etel y cl osed, the pressure woul d
i nstantaneousl y i ncrease to the poi nt at whi ch the
uni t dri vi ng the pump woul d stal l or somethi ng
woul d break.
Posi ti ve-di spl acement pumps ar e fur ther
cl assi fi ed as fi xed di spl acement or var i abl e
di spl acement. The fi xed-di spl acement pump
del i vers the same amount of fl ui d on each cycl e.
The output vol ume can be changed onl y by
changi ng the speed of the pump. When a pump
of thi s type i s used i n a hydraul i c system, a
pressure regul ator (unl oadi ng val ve) must be
i ncorporated i n the system. A pressure regul ator
or unl oadi ng val ve i s used i n a hydraul i c system
to control the amount of pressure i n the system
and to unl oad or rel i eve the pump when the
desi red pressure i s reached. Thi s acti on of a
pressure regul ator keeps the pump from worki ng
agai nst a l oad when the hydraul i c system i s at
maxi mum pressure and not functi oni ng. Duri ng
thi s ti me the pressure regul ator bypasses the fl ui d
from the pump back to the reservoi r. (See chapter
6 for mor e detai l ed i nfor mati on concer ni ng
pressure regul ators.) The pump conti nues to
del i ver a fi xed vol ume of fl ui d duri ng each cycl e.
Such terms as fixed delivery, constant delivery,
and constant volume are al l used to i denti fy the
fi xed-di spl acement pump.
The var i abl e-di spl acement pump i s con-
structed so that the di spl acement per cycl e can be
vari ed. The di spl acement i s vari ed through the use
of an i nternal control l i ng devi ce. Some of these
control l i ng devi ces are descri bed l ater i n thi s
chapter.
Pumps may al so be cl assi fi ed accordi ng to the
speci fi c desi gn used to create the fl ow of fl ui d.
Practi cal l y al l hydraul i c pumps fal l wi thi n three
desi gn cl assi fi cati ons-centr i fugal , r otar y, and
reci procati ng. The use of centri fugal pumps i n
hydraul i cs i s l i mi ted and wi l l not be di scussed i n
thi s text.
ROTARY PUMPS
Al l rotary pumps have rotati ng parts whi ch
trap the fl ui d at the i nl et (sucti on) port and force
i t through the di scharge port i nto the system.
Gears, screws, l obes, and vanes are commonl y
used to move the fl ui d. Rotary pumps are posi ti ve
di spl acement of the fi xed di spl acement type.
Rotary pumps are desi gned wi th very smal l
cl earances between rotati ng parts and stati onary
parts to mi ni mi ze sl i ppage from the di scharge
si de back to the sucti on si de. They are desi gned
to oper ate at r el ati vel y moder ate speeds.
Operati ng at hi gh speeds causes erosi on and
excessi ve wear whi ch r esul ts i n i ncr eased
cl earances.
There are numerous types of rotary pumps
and vari ous methods of cl assi fi cati on. They may
be cl assi fi ed by the shaft posi ti onei ther
verti cal l y or hori zontal l y mounted; the type of
dri veel ectri c motor, gasol i ne engi ne, and so
forth; thei r manufacturers name; or thei r servi ce
appl i cati on. However, cl assi fi cati on of rotary
pumps i s general l y made accordi ng to the type of
rotati ng el ement. A few of the most common
types of r otar y pumps ar e di scussed i n the
fol l owi ng paragraphs.
GEAR PUMPS
Gear pumps are cl assi fi ed as ei ther external
or i nternal gear pumps. I n external gear pumps
the teeth of both gears project outward from thei r
4-2
centers (fi g, 4-1). External pumps may use spur
gears, herri ngbone gears, or hel i cal gears to move
the fl ui d. I n an i nternal gear pump, the teeth of
one gear project outward, but the teeth of the
other gear project i nward toward the center of the
pump (fi g. 4-2, vi ew A). I nternal gear pumps may
be ei ther centered or off-centered.
Spur Gear Pump
The spur gear pump (fi g. 4-1) consi sts of two
meshed gears whi ch revol ve i n a housi ng. The
dri ve gear i n the i l l ustrati on i s turned by a dri ve
shaft whi ch i s attached to the power source. The
cl earances between the gear teeth as they mesh and
between the teeth and the pump housi ng are very
smal l .
The i nl et port i s connected to the fl ui d suppl y
l i ne, and the outl et port i s connected to the
pressure l i ne. I n fi gure 4-1 the dri ve gear i s turni ng
i n a countercl ockwi se di recti on, and the dri ven
(i dl e) gear i s turni ng i n a cl ockwi se di recti on. As
Figure 4-2.Off-centered internal gear pump.
the teeth pass the i nl et port, l i qui d i s trapped
between the teeth and the housi ng. Thi s l i qui d i s
carri ed around the housi ng to the outl et port. As
the teeth mesh agai n, the l i qui d between the teeth
i s pushed i nto the outl et por t. Thi s acti on
produces a posi ti ve fl ow of l i qui d i nto the system.
A shearpi n or shear secti on i s i ncorporated i n the
dri ve shaft. Thi s i s to protect the power source
Figure 4-1.Gear-type rotary pump.
4-3
or reducti on gears i f the pump fai l s because of
i s pumped i n the same manner as i n the spur gear
excessi ve l oad or jammi ng of parts.
pump. However, i n the herri ngbone pump, each
set of teeth begi ns i ts fl ui d di scharge phase before
the pr evi ous set of teeth has compl eted i ts
Herringbone Gear Pump
di scharge phase. Thi s over l appi ng and the
rel ati vel y l arger space at the center of the gears
The herri ngbone gear pump (fi g. 4-3) i s a
tend to mi ni mi ze pul sati ons and gi ve a steadi er
modi fi cati on of the spur gear pump. The l i qui d
fl ow than the spur gear pump.
Figure 4-3.Herringbone gear pump.
4-4
He lic al Ge ar Pump
The helical gear pump (fig. 4-4) is still
another modification of the spur gear pump.
Because of the helical gear design, the
overlapping of successive discharges from
spaces between the teeth is even greater than it
is in the herringbone gear pump; therefore, the
discharge flow is smoother. Since the discharge
flow is smooth in the helical pump, the gears
can be designed with a small number of large
teeththus allowing increased capacity without
sacrificing smoothness of flow.
The pumping gears of this type of pump are
driven by a set of timing and driving gears that
help maintain the required close clearances
without actual metallic contact of the pumping
gears. (Metallic contact between the teeth of the
pumping gears would provide a tighter seal
against slippage; however, it would cause rapid
wear of the teeth, because foreign matter in the
liquid would be present on the contact
surfaces.)
Roller bearings at both ends of the gear shafts
maintain proper alignment and minimize the
friction loss in the transmission of power. Suitable
packings are used to prevent leakage around the
shaft.
Off-c e nt e re d Int e rnal Ge ar Pump
This pump is illustrated in figure 4-2, view B.
The drive gear is attached directly to the drive shaft
of the pump and is placed off-center in relation to
the internal gear. The two gears mesh on one side
of the pump, between the suction (inlet) and
discharge ports. On the opposite side of the
chamber, a crescent-shaped form fitted to a close
tolerance fills the space between the two gears.
The rotation of the center gear by the drive
shaft causes the outside gear to rotate, since the
two are meshed. Everything in the chamber rotates
except the crescent. This causes liquid to be
trapped in the gear spaces as they pass the
crescent. The liquid is carried from the suction port
to the discharge port where it is forced out of the
pump by the meshing of the gears. The size of the
crescent that separates the internal and external
gears determines the volume delivery of the pump.
A small crescent allows more volume of liquid per
revolution than a larger crescent.
Figure 4 -4 . He lic al ge ar pump.
4 -5
Centered Internal Gear Pump
Another desi gn of i nter nal gear pump i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gures 4-5 and 4-6. Thi s pump
consi sts of a pai r of gear-shaped el ements, one
wi thi n the other, l ocated i n the pump chamber.
The i nner gear i s connected to the dri ve shaft of
the power source.
The operati on of thi s type of i nternal gear
pump i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-6. To si mpl i fy the
expl anati on, the teeth of the i nner gear and the
spaces between the teeth of the outer gear are
numbered. Note that the i nner gear has one l ess
tooth than the outer gear. The tooth form of each
gear i s rel ated to that of the other i n such a way
that each tooth of the i nner gear i s al ways i n
sl i di ng contact wi th the surface of the outer gear.
Each tooth of the i nner gear meshes wi th the outer
gear at just one poi nt duri ng each revol uti on. I n
the i l l ustrati on, thi s poi nt i s at the X. I n vi ew A,
tooth 1 of the i nner gear i s meshed wi th space 1
of the outer gear. As the gears conti nue to rotate
i n a cl ockwi se di recti on and the teeth approach
poi nt X, tooth 6 of the i nner gear wi l l mesh wi th
space 7 of the outer gear, tooth 5 wi th space 6,
and so on. Duri ng thi s revol uti on, tooth 1 wi l l
mesh wi th space 2; and duri ng the fol l owi ng
revol uti on, tooth 1 wi l l mesh wi th space 3. As a
resul t, the outer gear wi l l rotate at just si x-sevenths
the speed of the i nner gear.
At one si de of the poi nt of mesh, pockets of
i ncreasi ng si ze are formed as the gears rotate,
whi l e on the other si de the pockets decrease i n si ze.
I n fi gure 4-6, the pockets on the ri ght-hand si de
of the drawi ngs are i ncreasi ng i n si ze toward the
bottom of the i l l ustrati on, whi l e those on the
l eft-hand si de are decreasi ng i n si ze toward the
top of the i l l ustr ati on. The i ntak e si de of
the pump woul d therefore be on the ri ght and the
di scharge si de on the l eft. I n fi gure 4-5, si nce the
ri ght-hand si de of the drawi ng was turned over
to show the ports, the i ntake and di scharge appear
Figure 4-5.Centered internal gear pump.
Figure 4-6.Principles of operation of the internal gear
pump.
reversed. Actual l y, A i n one drawi ng covers A i n
the other.
LOBE PUMP
The l obe
operati on as
pump uses the same pri nci pl e of
the external gear pump descri bed
4-6
Figure 4-7.Lobe pump.
previ ousl y. The l obes are consi derabl y l arger than
gear teeth, but there are onl y two or three l obes
on each rotor. A three-l obe pump i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 4-7. The two el ements are rotated, one
di rectl y dri ven by the source of power, and the
other through ti mi ng gears. As the el ements
rotate, l i qui d i s trapped between two l obes of each
rotor and the wal l s of the pump chamber and
car r i ed ar ound fr om the sucti on si de to the
di scharge si de of the pump. As l i qui d l eaves the
sucti on chamber, the pressure i n the sucti on
chamber i s l owered, and addi ti onal l i qui d i s forced
i nto the chamber from the reservoi r.
The l obes ar e constr ucted so ther e i s a
conti nuous seal at the poi nts where they meet at
the center of the pump. The l obes of the pump
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-7 are fi tted wi th smal l vanes
at the outer edge to i mprove the seal of the pump.
Al though these vanes are mechani cal l y hel d i n
thei r sl ots, they are, to some extent, free to move
outward. Centri fugal force keeps the vanes snug
agai nst the chamber and the other r otati ng
members.
SCREW PUMP
Screw pumps for power transmi ssi on systems
are general l y used onl y on submari nes. Al though
l ow i n effi ci ency and expensi ve, the screw pump
i s sui tabl e for hi gh pressures (3000 psi ), and
del i ver s fl ui d wi th l i ttl e noi se or pr essur e
pul sati on.
Screw pumps are avai l abl e i n several di fferent
desi gns; however, they al l operate i n a si mi l ar
manner. I n a fi xed-di spl acement rotary-type screw
pump (fi g. 4-8, vi ew A), fl ui d i s propel l ed axi al l y
Figure 4-8.Screw pumps.
4-7
i n a constant, uni form fl ow through the acti on
of just three movi ng parts-a power rotor and two
i dl er rotors. The power rotor i s the onl y dri ven
el ement, extendi ng outsi de the pump casi ng for
power connecti ons to an el ectri cal motor. The
i dl er rotors are turned by the power rotor through
the acti on of the meshi ng threads. The fl ui d
pumped between the meshi ng hel i cal threads of
the i dl er and power rotors provi des a protecti ve
fi l m to prevent metal -to-metal contact. The i dl er
rotors perform no work; therefore, they do not
need to be connected by gears to transmi t power.
The encl osures formed by the meshi ng of the
rotors i nsi de the cl ose cl earance housi ng contai n
the fl ui d bei ng pumped. As the rotors turn, these
encl osures move axi al l y, provi di ng a conti nuous
fl ow. Effecti ve per for mance i s based on the
fol l owi ng factors:
1. The rol l i ng acti on obtai ned wi th the thread
desi gn of the rotors i s responsi bl e for the very
qui et pump operati on. The symmetri cal pressure
l oadi ng around the power rotor el i mi nates the
need for radi al beari ngs because there are no
radi al l oads. The cartri dge-type bal l beari ng i n the
pump posi ti ons the power rotor for proper seal
operati on. The axi al l oads on the rotors created
by di scharge pressure are hydraul i cal l y bal anced.
2. The key to screw pump performance i s the
operati on of the i dl er rotors i n thei r housi ng
bores. The i dl er rotors generate a hydrodynami c
fi l m to support themsel ves i n thei r bores l i ke
journal beari ngs. Si nce thi s fi l m i s sel f-generated,
i t depends on three operati ng characteri sti cs of
the pumpspeed, di scharge pressure, and fl ui d
vi scosi ty. The strength of the fi l m i s i ncreased by
i ncreasi ng the operati ng speed, by decreasi ng
pressure, or by i ncreasi ng the fl ui d vi scosi ty. Thi s
i s why screw pump performance capabi l i ti es are
based on pump speed, di scharge pressure, and
fl ui d vi scosi ty.
The suppl y l i ne i s connected at the center of
the pump housi ng i n some pumps (fi g. 4-8, vi ew
B). Fl ui d enters i nto the pumps sucti on port,
whi ch opens i nto chambers at the ends of the
screw assembl y. As the screws turn, the fl ui d fl ows
between the threads at each end of the assembl y.
The threads carry the fl ui d al ong wi thi n the
housi ng toward the center of the pump to the
di scharge port.
VANE PUMP
Vane-type hydraul i c pumps general l y have
ci rcul arl y or el l i pti cal l y shaped i nteri or and fl at
end pl ates. (Fi gure 4-9 i l l ustrates a vane pump
wi th a ci rcul ar i nteri or.) A sl otted rotor i s fi xed
to a shaft that enters the housi ng cavi ty through
one of the end pl ates. A number of smal l
rectangul ar pl ates or vanes are set i nto the sl ots
of the rotor. As the rotor turns, centri fugal force
causes the outer edge of each vane to sl i de al ong
the surface of the housi ng cavi ty as the vanes sl i de
i n and out of the rotor sl ots. The numerous
cavi ti es, formed by the vanes, the end pl ates, the
housi ng, and the rotor, enl arge and shri nk as the
rotor and vane assembl y rotates. An i nl et port i s
i nstal l ed i n the housi ng so fl ui d may fl ow i nto the
cavi ti es as they enl arge. An outl et port i s provi ded
to al l ow the fl ui d to fl ow out of the cavi ti es as
they become smal l .
The pump shown i n fi gure 4-9 i s referred to
as an unbal anced pump because al l of the
pumpi ng acti on takes pl ace on one si de of the
rotor. Thi s causes a si de l oad on the rotor. Some
vane pumps are constructed wi th an el l i pti cal l y
shaped housi ng that forms two separate pumpi ng
areas on opposi te si des of the rotor. Thi s cancel s
out the si de l oads; such pumps are referred to as
bal anced vane.
Usual l y vane pumps are fi xed di spl acement
and pump onl y i n one di r ecti on. Ther e ar e,
however , some desi gns of vane pumps that
provi de vari abl e fl ow. Vane pumps are general l y
restri cted to servi ce where pressure demand does
not exceed 2000 psi . Wear rates, vi brati on, and
noi se l evel s i ncrease rapi dl y i n vane pumps as
pressure demands exceed 2000 psi .
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The term reciprocating i s defi ned as back-and-
forth moti on. I n the reci procati ng pump i t i s thi s
Figure 4-9.Vane pump.
4-8
back -and-for th moti on of pi stons i nsi de of
cyl i nders that provi des the fl ow of fl ui d. Reci pro-
cati ng pumps, l i ke rotary pumps, operate on
the posi ti ve pr i nci pl ethat i s, each str oke
del i ver s a defi ni te vol ume of l i qui d to the
system.
The master cyl i nder of the automobi l e brake
system, whi ch i s descri bed and i l l ustrated i n
chapter 2, i s an exampl e of a si mpl e reci procati ng
pump. Several types of power-operated hydraul i c
pumps, such as the radi al pi ston and axi al pi ston,
are al so cl assi fi ed as reci procati ng pumps. These
pumps are someti mes cl assi fi ed as rotary pumps,
because a rotary moti on i s i mparted to the pumps
by the source of power. However, the actual
pumpi ng i s performed by sets of pi stons reci pro-
cati ng i nsi de sets of cyl i nders.
HAND PUMPS
There are two types of manual l y operated
r eci pr ocati ng pumpsthe si ngl e-acti on and
the doubl e-acti on. The si ngl e-acti on pump
provi des fl ow duri ng every other stroke, whi l e the
doubl e-acti on provi des fl ow duri ng each stroke.
Si ngl e-acti on pumps ar e fr equentl y used i n
hydraul i c jacks.
A doubl e-acti on hand pump i s i l l ustrated i n
fi gure 4-10. Thi s type of pump i s used i n some
ai rcraft hydraul i c systems as a source of hydraul i c
power for emer genci es, for testi ng cer tai n
subsystems dur i ng pr eventi ve mai ntenance
i nspecti ons, and for determi ni ng the causes of
mal functi ons i n these subsystems.
Thi s pump (fi g. 4-10) consi sts of a cyl i nder,
a pi ston contai ni ng a bui l t-i n check val ve (A), a
pi ston rod, an operati ng handl e, and a check val ve
(B) at the i nl et port. When the pi ston i s moved
Figure 4-10.Hydraulic hand pump.
to the l eft, the force of the l i qui d i n the outl et
chamber and spri ng tensi on cause val ve A to cl ose.
Thi s movement causes the pi ston to force the
l i qui d i n the outl et chamber through the outl et
por t and i nto the system. Thi s same pi ston
movement causes a l ow-pressure area i n the i nl et
chamber. The di fference i n pressure between the
i nl et chamber and the l i qui d (at atmospheri c
pressure) i n the reservi or acti ng on check val ve
B causes i ts spri ng to compress; thus, openi ng the
check val ve. Thi s al l ows l i qui d to enter the i nl et
chamber.
When the pi ston compl etes thi s stroke to the
l eft, the i nl et chamber i s ful l of l i qui d. Thi s
el i mi nates the pressure di fference between the i nl et
chamber and the r eser vi or , ther eby al l owi ng
spri ng tensi on to cl ose check val ve B.
When the pi ston i s moved to the ri ght, the
force of the confi ned l i qui d i n the i nl et chamber
acts on check val ve A. Thi s acti on compresses
the spr i ng and opens check val ve A whi ch
al l ows the l i qui d to fl ow fr om the i ntak e
chamber to the outl et chamber. Because of the
ar ea occupi ed by the pi ston r od, the outl et
chamber cannot contai n al l the l i qui d di scharged
from the i nl et chamber. Si nce l i qui ds do not
compress, the extra l i qui d i s forced out of the
outl et port i nto the system.
PISTON PUMPS
Pi ston pumps ar e made i n a var i ety of
types and confi gurati ons. A basi c di sti ncti on
i s made between axi al and radi al pumps. The
axi al pi ston pump has the cyl i nders paral l el
to each other and the dri ve shaft. The radi al
pi ston desi gn has the cyl i nder s extendi ng
r adi al l y outwar d fr om the dr i ve shaft l i ke
the spokes of a wheel . A fur ther di sti ncti on
i s made between pumps that provi de a fi xed
del i very and those abl e to vary the fl ow of the
fl ui d. Vari abl e del i very pumps can be further
di vi ded i nto those abl e to pump fl ui d from zero
to ful l del i very i n one di recti on of fl ow and those
abl e to pump from zero the ful l del i very i n ei ther
di recti on.
Al l pi ston pumps used i n Navy shi pboard
systems have the cyl i nders bored i n a cyl i nder
bl ock that i s mounted on bear i ngs wi thi n a
housi ng. Thi s cyl i nder bl ock assembl y rotates wi th
the pump dri ve shaft.
4-9
Radial Piston Pumps
Fi gure 4-11 i l l ustrates the operati on of the
radi al pi ston pump. The pump consi sts of a pi ntl e,
whi ch remai ns stati onary and acts as a val ve; a
Figure 4-11.Principles of operation of the radial piston
pump.
cyl i nder bl ock, whi ch revol ves around the pi ntl e
and contai ns the cyl i nders i n whi ch the pi stons
operate; a rotor, whi ch houses the reacti on ri ng
of hardened steel agai nst whi ch the pi ston heads
press; and a sl i de bl ock, whi ch i s used to control
the l ength of the pi ston strokes. The sl i de bl ock
does not revol ve but houses and supports the
rotor, whi ch does revol ve due to the fri cti on set
up by the sl i di ng acti on between the pi ston heads
and the r eacti on r i ng. The cyl i nder bl ock i s
attached to the dri ve shaft.
Referri ng to vi ew A of fi gure 4-11, assume that
space X i n one of the cyl i nders of the cyl i nder
bl ock contai ns l i qui d and that the respecti ve pi ston
of thi s cyl i nder i s at posi ti on 1. When the cyl i nder
bl ock and pi ston ar e r otated i n a cl ockwi se
di recti on, the pi ston i s forced i nto i ts cyl i nder as
i t approaches posi ti on 2. Thi s acti on reduces the
vol umetr i c si ze of the cyl i nder and for ces a
quanti ty of l i qui d out of the cyl i nder and i nto the
outl et port above the pi ntl e. Thi s pumpi ng acti on
i s due to the rotor bei ng off-center i n rel ati on to
the center of the cyl i nder bl ock.
I n fi gure 4-11 vi ew B, the pi ston has reached
posi ti on 2 and has forced the l i qui d out of the
open end of the cyl i nder through the outl et above
the pi ntl e and i nto the system. Whi l e the pi ston
moves from posi ti on 2 to posi ti on 3, the open end
of the cyl i nder passes over the sol i d part of the
pi ntl e; therefore, there i s no i ntake or di scharge
of l i qui d duri ng thi s ti me. As the pi ston and
cyl i nder move from posi ti on 3 to posi ti on 4,
centr i fugal for ce causes the pi ston to move
outward agai nst the reacti on ri ng of the rotor.
Duri ng thi s ti me the open end of the cyl i nder i s
open to the i ntake si de of the pi ntl e and, therefore,
fi l l s wi th l i qui d. As the pi ston moves fr om
posi ti on 4 to posi ti on 1, the open end of the
cyl i nder i s agai nst the sol i d si de of the pi ntl e and
no i ntake or di scharge of l i qui d takes pl ace. After
the pi ston has passed the pi ntl e and starts toward
posi ti on 2, another di scharge of l i qui d takes pl ace.
Al ternate i ntake and di scharge conti nues as the
rotor revol ves about i ts axi s-i ntake on one si de
of the pi ntl e and di scharge on the other, as the
pi ston sl i des i n and out.
Noti ce i n vi ews A and B of fi gure 4-11 that
the center poi nt of the rotor i s di fferent from the
center poi nt of the cyl i nder bl ock. The di fference
of these centers produces the pumpi ng acti on. I f
the rotor i s moved so that i ts center poi nt i s the
same as that of the cyl i nder bl ock, as shown i n
fi gure 4-11, vi ew C, there i s no pumpi ng acti on,
si nce the pi ston does not move back and forth i n
the cyl i nder as i t rotates wi th the cyl i nder bl ock.
4-10
The fl ow i n thi s pump can be reversed by
movi ng the sl i de bl ock, and therefore the rotor,
to the ri ght so the rel ati on of the centers of the
rotor and the cyl i nder bl ock i s reversed from the
posi ti on shown i n vi ews A and B of fi gure 4-11.
Vi ew D shows thi s arrangement. Li qui d enters the
cyl i nder as the pi ston travel s from posi ti on 1 to
posi ti on 2 and i s di scharged from the cyl i nder as
the pi ston travel s from posi ti on 3 to 4.
I n the i l l ustrati ons the rotor i s shown i n the
center, the extreme ri ght, or the extreme l eft i n
rel ati on to the cyl i nder bl ock. The amount of
adjustment i n di stance between the two centers
determi nes the l ength of the pi ston stroke, whi ch
control s the amount of l i qui d fl ow i n and out of
the cyl i nder. Thus, thi s adjustment determi nes the
di spl acement of the pump; that i s, the vol ume of
l i qui d the pump del i vers per revol uti on. Thi s
adjustment may be control l ed i n di fferent ways.
Manual control by a handwheel i s the si mpl est.
The pump i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-11 i s control l ed
i n thi s way. For automati c control of del i very
to accommodate varyi ng vol ume requi rements
dur i ng the oper ati ng cycl e, a hydr aul i cal l y
control l ed cyl i nder may be used to posi ti on the
sl i de bl ock. A gear-motor control l ed by a push
button or a l i mi t swi tch i s someti mes used for thi s
purpose.
Fi gure 4-11 i s shown wi th four pi stons for the
sake of si mpl i ci ty. Radi al pumps are actual l y
desi gned wi th an odd number of pi stons (fi g.
4-12). Thi s i s to ensure that no more than one
cyl i nder i s compl etel y bl ocked by the pi ntl e at any
one ti me. I f there were an even number of pi stons
spaced evenl y around the cyl i nder bl ock (for
exampl e, ei ght), there woul d be occasi ons when
two of the cyl i nders woul d be bl ocked by the
pi ntl e, whi l e at other ti mes none woul d be
bl ocked. Thi s woul d cause three cyl i nders to di s-
charge at one ti me and four at one ti me, causi ng
pul sati ons i n fl ow. Wi th an odd number of pi stons
spaced evenl y around the cyl i nder bl ock, onl y one
cyl i nder i s compl etel y bl ocked by the pi ntl e at any
one ti me. Thi s reduces pul sati ons of fl ow.
Figure 4-12.Nine-piston radial piston pump.
4-11
Axial Piston Pumps
I n axi al pi ston pumps of the i n-l i ne type,
where the cyl i nders and the dri ve shaft are paral l el
(fi g. 4-13), the reci procati ng moti on i s created by
a cam pl ate, al so known as a wobbl e pl ate, ti l ti ng
pl ate, or swash pl ate. Thi s pl ate l i es i n a pl ane
that cuts across the center l i ne of the dri ve shaft
and cyl i nder barrel and does not rotate. I n a
fi xed-di spl acement pump, the cam pl ate wi l l be
ri gi dl y mounted i n a posi ti on so that i t i ntersects
the center l i ne of the cyl i nder barrel at an angl e
approxi matel y 25 degrees from perpendi cul ar.
Vari abl e-del i very axi al pi ston pumps are desi gned
so that the angl e that the cam pl ate makes wi th
a perpendi cul ar to the center l i ne of the cyl i nder
barrel may be vari ed from zero to 20 or 25 degrees
to one or both si des. One end of each pi ston rod
i s hel d i n contact wi th the cam pl ate as the cyl i nder
bl ock and pi ston assembl y rotates wi th the dri ve
shaft. Thi s causes the pi stons to reci procate wi thi n
the cyI i nders. The l ength of the pi ston stroke i s
proporti onal to the angl e that the cam pl ate i s set
from perpendi cul ar to the center l i ne of the
cyl i nder barrel .
A var i ati on of axi al pi ston pump i s the
bent-axi s type shown i n fi gure 4-14. Thi s type does
not have a ti l ti ng cam pl ate as the i n-l i ne pump
does. I nstead, the cyl i nder bl ock axi s i s vari ed
fr om the dr i ve shaft axi s. The ends of the
Figure 4-14.Bent-axis axial piston pump.
connecti ng rods are retai ned i n sockets on a di sc
that turns wi th the dri ve shaft. The cyl i nder bl ock
i s turned wi th the dri ve shaft by a uni versal joi nt
assembl y at the i ntersecti on of the dri ve shaft and
the cyl i nder bl ock shaft. I n order to vary the pump
di spl acement, the cyl i nder bl ock and val ve pl ate
are mounted i n a yoke and the enti re assembl y
i s swung i n an are around a pai r of mounti ng
pi ntl es attached to the pump housi ng.
The pumpi ng acti on of the axi al pi ston pump
i s made possi bl e by a uni versal joi nt or l i nk.
Figure 4-13.In-line axial piston pump.
4-12
Fi gure 4-15 i s a seri es of drawi ngs that i l l ustrates
how the uni versal joi nt i s used i n the operati on
of thi s pump.
Fi rst, a rocker arm i s i nstal l ed on a hori zontal
shaft. (See fi g. 4-15, vi ew A.) The arm i s joi ned
to the shaft by a pi n so that i t can be swung back
and forth, as i ndi cated i n vi ew B. Next, a ri ng i s
pl aced around the shaft and secured to the rocker
arm so the ri ng can turn from l eft to ri ght as
shown i n vi ew C. Thi s pr ovi des two r otar y
moti ons i n di fferent pl anes at the same ti me and
i n varyi ng proporti ons as may be desi red. The
rocker arm can swi ng back and forth i n one arc,
and the ri ng can si mul taneousl y move from l eft
Figure 4-15.Relationship of the universal joint in operation
of the axial piston pump.
to ri ght i n another arc, i n a pl ane at ri ght angl es
to the pl ane i n whi ch the rocker arm turns.
Next, a ti l ti ng pl ate i s added to the assembl y.
The ti l ti ng pl ate i s pl aced at a sl ant to the axi s
of the shaft, as depi cted i n fi gure 4-15, vi ew D.
The rocker arm i s then sl anted at the same angl e
as the ti l ti ng pl ate, so that i t l i es paral l el to the
ti l ti ng pl ate. The ri ng i s al so paral l el to, and i n
contact wi th, the ti l ti ng pl ate. The posi ti on of the
ri ng i n rel ati on to the rocker arm i s unchanged
from that shown i n fi gure 4-15, vi ew C.
Fi gure 4-15, vi ew E, shows the assembl y after
the shaft, sti l l i n a hori zontal posi ti on, has been
rotated a quarter turn. The rocker arm i s sti l l i n
the same posi ti on as the ti l ti ng pl ate and i s now
perpendi cul ar to the axi s of the shaft. The ri ng
has turned on the rocker pi ns, so that i t has
changed i ts posi ti on i n rel ati on to the rocker arm,
but i t remai ns paral l el to, and i n contact wi th, the
ti l ti ng pl ate.
Vi ew F of fi gure 4-15 shows the assembl y after
the shaft has been rotated another quarter turn.
The parts are now i n the same posi ti on as shown
i n vi ew D, but wi th the ends of the rocker arm
reversed. The ri ng sti l l bears agai nst the ti l ti ng
pl ate.
As the shaft conti nues to rotate, the rocker
arm and the ri ng turn about thei r pi vots, wi th each
changi ng i ts rel ati on to the other and wi th the ri ng
al ways beari ng on the pl ate.
Fi gure 4-15, vi ew G, shows a wheel added to
the assembl y. The wheel i s pl aced upri ght and
fi xed to the shaft, so that i t rotates wi th the shaft.
I n addi ti on, two r ods, A and B, ar e l oosel y
connected to the ti l ti ng ri ng and extend through
two hol es standi ng opposi te each other i n the fi xed
wheel . As the shaft i s rotated, the fi xed wheel
turns perpendi cul ar to the shaft at al l ti mes. The
ti l ti ng ri ng rotates wi th the shaft and al ways
remai ns ti l ted, si nce i t remai ns i n contact wi th the
ti l ti ng pl ate. Referri ng to vi ew G, the di stance
al ong rod A, from the ti l ti ng ri ng to the fi xed
wheel , i s greater than the di stance al ong rod B.
As the assembl y i s rotated, however, the di stance
al ong rod A decreases as i ts poi nt of attachment
to the ti l ti ng ri ng moves cl oser to the fi xed wheel ,
whi l e the di stance al ong rod B i ncreases. These
changes conti nue unti l after a hal f revol uti on, at
whi ch ti me the i ni ti al posi ti ons of the rods have
been reversed. After another hal f revol uti on, the
two rods wi l l agai n be i n thei r ori gi nal posi ti ons.
As the assembl y rotates, the rods move i n and
out through the hol es i n the fi xed wheel . Thi s i s
the way the axi al pi ston pump works. To get a
pumpi ng acti on, pl ace pi stons at the ends of the
4-13
rods, beyond the fi xed wheel , and i nsert them i nto
cyl i nders. The rods must be connected to the
pi stons and to the wheel by bal l and socket joi nts.
As the assembl y rotates, each pi ston moves back
and forth i n i ts cyl i nder. Sucti on and di scharge
l i nes can be arranged so that l i qui d enters the
cyl i nders whi l e the spaces between the pi ston
heads and the bases of the cyl i nders are i ncreasi ng,
and l eaves the cyl i nders duri ng the other hal f of
each revol uti on when the pi stons are movi ng i n
the opposi te di recti on.
The mai n parts of the pump are the dri ve
shaft, pi stons, cyl i nder bl ock, and val ve and swash
pl ates. There are two ports i n the val ve pl ate.
These ports connect di rectl y to openi ngs i n the
face of the cyl i nder bl ock. Fl ui d i s drawn i nto one
por t and for ced out the other por t by the
reci procati ng acti on of the pi stons.
IN-LINE VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT
AXIAL PISTON PUMP. When the dri ve shaft
i s rotated, i t rotates the pi stons and the cyl i nder
bl ock wi th i t. The swash pl ate pl aced at an angl e
causes the pi stons to move back and forth i n the
cyl i nder bl ock whi l e the shaft, pi ston, cyl i nder
bl ock, and swash pl ate rotate together. (The shaft,
pi ston, cyl i nder bl ock, and swash pl ate together
i s someti mes referred to as the rotati ng group or
assembl y.) As the pi stons r eci pr ocate i n the
cyl i nder bl ock, fl ui d enters one port and i s forced
out the other.
Fi gure 4-13 shows pi ston A at the bottom of
i ts stroke. When pi ston A has rotated to the
posi ti on hel d by pi ston B, i t wi l l have moved
upward i n i ts cyl i nder, forci ng fl ui d through the
outl et port duri ng the enti re di stance. Duri ng the
remai nder of the rotati on back to i t ori gi nal
posi ti on, the pi ston travel s downward i n the
cyl i nder. Thi s acti on creates a l ow-pressure area
i n the cyl i nder. The di fference i n pressure between
the cyl i nder i nl et and the reservoi r causes fl ui d
to fl ow i nto the i nl et port to the cyl i nder. Si nce
each one of the pi stons per for ms the same
operati on i n successi on, fl ui d i s constantl y bei ng
taken i nto the cyl i nder bores through the i nl et port
and di schar ged fr om the cyl i nder bor es i nto
the system. Thi s acti on pr ovi des a steady,
nonpul sati ng fl ow of fl ui d.
The ti l t or angl e of the swash pl ate determi nes
the di stance the pi stons move back and forth i n
thei r cyl i nders; thereby, control l i ng the pump
output.
When the swash pl ate i s at a ri ght angl e to the
shaft, and the pump i s rotati ng, the pi stons do
not reci procate; therefore, no pumpi ng acti on
takes pl ace. When the swash pl ate i s ti l ted away
from a ri ght angl e, the pi stons reci procate and
fl ui d i s pumped.
Si nce the di spl acement of thi s type of pump
i s vari ed by changi ng the angl e of the ti l ti ng box,
some means must be used to control the changes
of thi s angl e. Vari ous methods are used to control
thi s movementmanual , el ectri c, pneumati c, or
hydraul i c.
STRATOPOWER PUMP. Another type of
axi al pi ston pump, someti mes referred to as an
i n-l i ne pump, i s commonl y r efer r ed to as a
Str atopower pump. Thi s pump i s avai l abl e
i n ei ther the fi xed-di spl acement type or the
vari abl e-di spl acement type.
Two major functi ons are performed by the
i nternal parts of the fi xed-di spl acement Strato-
power pump. These functi ons are mechani cal
dri ve and fl ui d di spl acement.
The mechani cal dri ve mechani sm i s shown i n
fi gure 4-16. I n thi s type of pump, the pi stons and
bl ock do not rotate. Pi ston moti on i s caused by
rotati ng the dri ve cam di spl aci ng each pi ston the
ful l hei ght of the dri ve cam duri ng each revol uti on
of the shaft. The ends of the pi stons are attached
to a wobbl e pl ate supported by a freed center pi vot
and are hel d i nconstant contact wi th the cam face.
As the hi gh si de of the r otati ng dr i ve cam
depresses one si de of the wobbl e pl ate, the other
si de of the wobbl e pl ate i s wi thdrawn an equal
amount, movi ng the pi stons wi th i t. The two creep
pl ates are provi ded to decrease wear on the
revol vi ng cam.
A schemati c di agram of the di spl acement of
fl ui d i s shown i n fi gure 4-17. Fl ui d i s di spl aced
by axi al moti on of the pi stons. As each pi ston
advances i n i ts respecti ve cyl i nder bl ock bore,
pressure opens the check val ve and a quanti ty of
fl ui d i s forced past i t. Combi ned back pressure
and check val ve spri ng tensi on cl ose the check
Figure 4-16.Mechanical driveStratopower pump.
4-14
Figure 4-17.Fluid displacementStratopower pump.
val ve when the pi ston advances to i ts foremost
posi ti on. The l ow-pressure area occurri ng i n the
cyl i nder duri ng the pi ston return causes fl ui d to
fl ow from the reservoi r i nto the cyl i nder.
The i nter nal featur es of the var i abl e-
di spl acement Stratopower pump are i l l ustrated i n
fi gure 4-18. Thi s pump operates si mi l arl y to the
fi xed-di spl acement Stratopower pump; however,
thi s pump provi des the addi ti onal functi on of
automati cal l y varyi ng the vol ume output.
Thi s functi on i s control l ed by the pressure i n
the hydraul i c system. For exampl e, l et us take a
pump rated at 3000 psi , and provi di ng fl ow to a
3000 psi system. As system pressure approaches,
say 2850 psi , the pump begi ns to unl oad (del i ver
l ess fl ow to the system) and i s ful l y unl oaded (zero
fl ow) at 3000 psi .
Th e pr es s u r e r egu l ati on an d fl ow ar e
control l ed by i nternal bypasses that automati cal l y
adjust fl ui d del i very to system demands.
The bypass system i s pr ovi ded to suppl y
sel f-l ubri cati on, parti cul arl y when the pump i s i n
nonfl ow operati on. The ri ng of bypass hol es i n
the pi stons are al i gned wi th the bypass passage
each ti me a pi ston reaches the very end of i ts
forward travel . Thi s pumps a smal l quanti ty of
fl ui d out of the bypass passage back to the suppl y
reservoi r and provi des a constant changi ng of
fl ui d i n the pump. The bypass i s desi gned to pump
agai nst a consi derabl e back pressure for use wi th
pressuri zed reservoi rs.
Figure 4-18.Internal features of Stratopower variable-displacement pump.
4-15
CHAPTER 5
FLUID LINES AND FITTINGS
The control and appl i cati on of fl ui d power
woul d be i mpossi bl e wi thout sui tabl e means of
transferri ng the fl ui d between the reservoi r, the
power source, and the poi nts of appl i cati on. Fl ui d
l i nes are used to transfer the fl ui d, and fi tti ngs
are used to connect the l i nes to the power source
and the poi nts of appl i cati on.
Thi s chapter i s devoted to fl ui d l i nes and
fi tti ngs. After studyi ng thi s chapter, you shoul d
have the knowl edge to i denti fy the
monl y used l i nes and fi tti ngs, and
expl ai n the procedure for fabri cati ng,
l abel i ng the l i nes.
TYPES OF LINES
The three types of l i nes used i n
systems ar e pi pe (r i gi d), tubi ng
and hose (fl exi bl e). A number of
consi dered when the type of l i ne i s
most com-
be abl e to
testi ng, and
fl ui d power
(semi ri gi d),
factors are
sel ected for
a parti cul ar fl ui d system. These factors i ncl ude
the type of fl ui d, the requi red system pressure,
and the l ocati on of the system. For exampl e,
heavy pi pe mi ght be used for a l arge stati onary
fl ui d power system, but comparati vel y l i ghtwei ght
tubi ng must be used i n ai r cr aft and mi ssi l e
systems because wei ght and space are cri ti cal
factors. Fl exi bl e hose i s requi red i n i nstal l ati ons
where uni ts must be free to move rel ati ve to each
other.
PIPES AND TUBING
There are three i mportant di mensi ons of any
tubul ar productoutsi de di ameter (OD), i nsi de
di ameter (I D), and wal l thi ckness. Si zes of pi pe
are l i sted by the nomi nal (or approxi mate) I D and
the wal l thi ckness. Si zes of tubi ng are l i sted by
the actual OD and the wal l thi ckness.
SELECTION OF PIPES AND TUBING
The materi al , I D, and wal l thi ckness are
the three pri mary consi derati ons i n the sel ec-
ti on of l i nes for a par ti cul ar fl ui d power
system.
The I D of a l i ne i s i mpor tant, si nce i t
determi nes how much fl ui d can pass through the
l i ne i n a gi ven ti me per i od (r ate of fl ow)
wi thout l oss of power due to excessi ve fri cti on
and heat. The vel oci ty of a gi ven fl ow i s l ess
through a l arge openi ng than through a smal l
openi ng. I f the I D of the l i ne i s too smal l for the
amount of fl ow, excessi ve turbul ence and fri cti on
heat cause unnecessary power l oss and overheated
fl ui d.
Sizing of Pipes and Tubing
Pi pes are avai l abl e i n three di fferent wei ghts:
standard (STD), or Schedul e 40; extra strong
(XS), or Schedul e 80; and doubl e extra strong
(XXS). The schedul e numbers range from 10
to 160 and cover 10 di sti nct sets of wal l
thi ckness. (See tabl e 5-1.) Schedul e 160 wal l
thi ckness i s sl i ghtl y thi nner than the doubl e extra
strong.
As menti oned earl i er, the si ze of pi pes i s
determi ned by the nomi nal (approxi mate) I D. For
exampl e, the I D for a 1/4-i nch Schedul e 40 pi pe
i s 0.364 i nch, and the I D for a 1/2-i nch Schedul e
40 pi pe i s 0.622 i nch.
I t i s i mportant to note that the I Ds of al l pi pes
of the same nomi nal si ze are not equal . Thi s i s
because the OD remai ns constant and the wal l
thi ckness i ncr eases as the schedul e number
i ncreases. For exampl e, a nomi nal si ze 1-i nch
Schedul e 40 pi pe has a 1.049 I D. The same si ze
Schedul e 80 pi pe has a 0.957 I D, whi l e Schedul e
5-1
Table 5-1.Wall Thickness Schedule Designations for Pipe
160 pi pe has a 0.815 I D. I n each case the OD i s
1.315 (tabl e 5-1) and the wal l thi cknesses are
0.133 ( 1315 ; 1M9), 0.179 (1315 ; 9957),
and 0.250 ( 1315~0815) respecti vel y. Note
that the di ffer ence between the OD and I D
i ncl udes two wal l thi cknesses and must be di vi ded
by 2 to obtai n the wal l thi ckness.
Tubi ng di ffers from pi pe i n i ts si ze cl assi -
fi cati on. Tubi ng i s desi gnated by i ts actual OD.
(See tabl e 5-2.) Thus, 5/8-i nch tubi ng has an OD
of 5/8 i nch. As i ndi cated i n the tabl e, tubi ng i s
avai l abl e i n a vari ety of wal l thi cknesses. The
di ameter of tubi ng i s often measur ed and
i ndi cated i n 16ths. Thus, No. 6 tubi ng i s 6/16 or
3/8 i nch, No. 8 tubi ng i s 8/16 or 1/2 i nch, and
so forth.
The wal l thi ckness, materi al used, and I D
determi ne the bursti ng pressure of a l i ne or fi tti ng.
The greater the wal l thi ckness i n rel ati on to the
I D and the stronger the metal , the hi gher the
bursti ng pressure. However, the greater the I D for
a gi ven wal l thi ckness, the l ower the bursti ng
pressure, because force i s the product of area and
pressure.
Materials
The pi pe and tubi ng used i n fl ui d power
systems are commonl y made from steel , copper,
brass, al umi num, and stai nl ess steel . Each of these
metal s has i ts own di sti nct advantages or
di sadvantages i n certai n appl i cati ons.
Steel pi pe and tubi ng are rel ati vel y i nexpensi ve
and are used i n many hydraul i c and pneumati c
systems. Steel i s used because of i ts strength,
sui tabi l i ty for bendi ng and fl angi ng, and
adaptabi l i ty to hi gh pressures and temperatures.
I ts chi ef di sadvantage i s i ts comparati vel y l ow
resi stance to corrosi on.
Copper pi pe and tubi ng are someti mes used
for fl ui d power l i nes. Copper has hi gh resi stance
to corrosi on and i s easi l y drawn or bent. However,
i t i s unsati sfactory for hi gh temperatures and has
a tendency to harden and break due to stress and
vi brati on.
Al umi num has many of the characteri sti cs and
qual i ti es requi red for fl ui d power l i nes. I t has hi gh
resi stance to corrosi on and i s easi l y drawn or bent.
I n addi ti on, i t has the outstandi ng characteri sti c
of l i ght wei ght. Si nce wei ght el i mi nati on i s a vi tal
factor i n the desi gn of ai rcraft, al umi num al l oy
tubi ng i s used i n the majori ty of ai rcraft fl ui d
power systems.
Stai nl ess-steel tubi ng i s used i n certai n areas
of many ai rcraft fl ui d power systems. As a general
rul e, exposed l i nes and l i nes subject to abrasi on
or i ntense heat are made of stai nl ess steel .
An i mpr oper l y pi ped system can l ead to
seri ous power l oss and possi bl e harmful fl ui d
5-2
Table 5-2.Tubing Size Designation
contami nati on. Therefore i n mai ntenance and PREPARATION OF PIPES
repai r of fl ui d power system l i nes, the basi c desi gn AND TUBING
requi rements must be kept i n mi nd. Two pri mary
requi rements are as fol l ows:
1. The l i nes must have the correct I D to
provi de the requi red vol ume and vel oci ty of fl ow
wi th the l east amount of turbul ence duri ng al l
demands on the system.
2. The l i nes must be made of the proper
materi al and have the wal l thi ckness to provi de
suffi ci ent strength to both contai n the fl ui d at the
requi red pressure and wi thstand the surges of
pressure that may devel op i n the system.
Fl ui d power systems are desi gned as compactl y
as possi bl e, to keep the connecti ng l i nes short.
Every secti on of l i ne shoul d be anchored securel y
i n one or more pl aces so that nei ther the wei ght
of the l i ne nor the effects of vi brati on are carri ed
on the joi nts. The ai m i s to mi ni mi ze stress
throughout the system.
Li nes shoul d normal l y be kept as short and
free of bends as possi bl e. However, tubi ng shoul d
not be assembl ed i n a strai ght l i ne, because a bend
tends to el i mi nate strai n by absorbi ng vi brati on
and al so compensates for thermal expansi on and
5-3
contr acti on. Bends ar e pr efer r ed to el bows,
because bends cause l ess of a power l oss. A few
of the correct and i ncorrect methods of i nstal l i ng
tubi ng are i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-1.
Bends are descri bed by thei r radi us measure-
ments. The i deal bend radi us i s 2 1/2 to 3 ti mes
the I D, as shown i n fi gure 5-2. For exampl e, i f
the I D of a l i ne i s 2 i nches, the radi us of the bend
shoul d be between 5 and 6 i nches.
Whi l e fri cti on i ncreases markedl y for sharper
curves than thi s, i t al so tends to i ncrease up to
a certai n poi nt for gentl er curves. The i ncreases
i n fri cti on i n a bend wi th a radi us of more than
3 pi pe di ameters resul t from i ncreased turbul ence
near the outsi de edges of the fl ow. Parti cl es of
fl ui d must travel a l onger di stance i n maki ng the
change i n di recti on. When the radi us of the bend
i s l ess than 2 1/2 pi pe di ameters, the i ncreased
pressure l oss i s due to the abrupt change i n the
di recti on of fl ow, especi al l y for parti cl es near the
i nsi de edge of the fl ow.
Duri ng your career i n the Navy, you may be
r equi r ed to fabr i cate new tubi ng to r epl ace
damaged or fai l ed l i nes. Fabri cati on of tubi ng
consi sts of four basi c oper ati ons: cutti ng,
deburri ng, bendi ng, and joi nt preparati on.
Tube Cutting and Deburring
The objecti ve of cutti ng tubi ng i s to produce
a square end that i s free from burrs. Tubi ng may
be cut usi ng a standard tube cutter (fi g. 5-3), a
chi pl ess cutter (fi g. 5-4), or a fi ne-toothed
hacksaw i f a tube cutter i s not avai l abl e.
When you use the standard tube cutter, pl ace
the tube i n the cutter wi th the cutti ng wheel at the
poi nt where the cut i s to be made. Appl y l i ght
pressure on the tube by ti ghteni ng the adjusti ng
Figure 5-2.Ideal bend radius.
knob. Too much pressure appl i ed to the cutti ng
wheel at oneti me may deform the tubi ng or cause
excessi ve burrs. Rotate the cutter toward i ts open
si de (fi g. 5-3). As you rotate the cutter, adjust the
ti ghteni ng knob after each compl ete turn to
mai ntai n l i ght pressure on the cutti ng wheel .
When you use the chi pl ess cutter, take the
fol l owi ng steps:
1. Sel ect the chi pl ess cutter accordi ng to
tubi ng si ze.
2. Rotate the cutter head to accept the tubi ng
i n the cutti ng posi ti on. Check that the cutter
ratchet i s operati ng freel y and that the cutter wheel
i s cl ear of the cutter head openi ng (fi g. 5-4).
3. Center the tubi ng on two rol l ers and the
cutti ng bl ade.
4. Use the hex key provi ded wi th the
turn the dri ve screw i n unti l the cutter
touches the tube.
Figure 5-1.Correct and incorrect methods of installing tubing.
5-4
ki t to
wheel
Figure 5-3.Tube cutting.
5. Ti ghten the dri ve screw 1/8 to 1/4 turn. Do
not overti ghten the dri ve screw. Overti ghteni ng
can damage soft tubi ng or cause excessi ve wear
or breakage of the cutter wheel i n hard tubi ng.
6. Swi ng the ratchet handl e back and forth
through the avai l abl e cl earance unti l there i s a
noti ceabl e ease of rotati on. Avoi d putti ng si de
force on the cutter handl e. Si de force wi l l cause
the cutter wheel to break.
7. Ti ghten the dri ve screw an addi ti onal 1/8
to 1/4 turn and swi ng the ratchet handl e back and
forth, reti ghteni ng the dri ve screw as needed unti l
the cut i s compl eted. The compl eted cut shoul d
be 1/2 degree square to the tube centerl i ne.
Figure 5-4.Chipless cutter.
After the tubi ng i s cut, remove al l burrs and
sharp edges from i nsi de and outsi de of the tube
(fi g. 5-5) wi th deburri ng tool s. Cl ean out the
tubi ng. Make sure no forei gn parti cl es remai n.
A conveni ent method for cutti ng tubi ng wi th
a hacksaw i s to pl ace the tube i n a fl ari ng bl ock
and cl amp the bl ock i n a vi ce. After cutti ng the
tubi ng wi th a hacksaw, remove al l saw marks by
fi l i ng.
Tube Bending
The objecti ve i n tube bendi ng i s to obtai n a
smooth bend wi thout fl atteni ng the tube. Tube
bendi ng i s usual l y done wi th ei ther a hand tube
bender or a mechani cal l y operated bender.
Figure 5-5.Properly burred tubing.
5-5
Figure 5-6.Bending tubing with hand-operated tube bender.
HAND TUBE BENDER. The hand tube
tubi ng. The radi us bl ock i s marked i n degrees of
bender shown i n fi gure 5-6 consi sts of a handl e,
bend rangi ng from 0 to 180 degrees. The sl i de bar
a radi us bl ock, a cl i p, and a sl i de bar. The handl e
has a mark whi ch i s l i ned up wi th the zero mark
and sl i de bar are used as l evers to provi de the
on the radi us bl ock. The tube i s i nserted i n the
mechani cal advantage necessary to bend the
tube bender, and after the marks are l i ned up, the
5-6
Figure 5-7.Mechanically operated tube bender.
sl i de bar i s moved around unti l the mark on the
sl i de bar reaches the desi red degree of bend on
the r adi us bl ock. See fi gur e 5-6 for the si x
pr ocedur al steps i n
tube bendi ng wi th the
hand-operated tube bender.
MECHANICAL TUBE BENDER. The
tube bender shown i n fi gure 5-7 i s i ssued as a ki t.
The ki t contai ns the equi pment necessary for
bendi ng tubi ng fr om 1/4 i nch to 3/4 i nch i n
di ameter .
Thi s tube bender i s desi gned for use wi th
ai r cr aft gr ade, hi gh-str engths stai nl ess-steel
tubi ng, as wel l as al l other metal tubi ng. I t i s
desi gned to be fastened to a bench or tri pod. The
base i s formed to provi de a secure gri p i n a vi se.
Thi s type of tube bender uses a hand crank
and gears. The formi ng di e i s keyed to the dri ve
gear and i s secured by a screw.
The for mi ng di e on the mechani cal tube
bender i s cal i brated i n degrees, si mi l arl y to the
radi us bl ock of the hand bender. A l ength of
repl acement tubi ng may be bent to a speci fi ed
number of degrees or i t may be bent to dupl i cate
a bend ei ther i n a damaged tube or i n a pattern.
Dupl i cati ng a bend of a damaged tube or of a
pattern i s done by l ayi ng the sampl e or pattern
on top of the tube bei ng bent and sl owl y bendi ng
the new tube to the requi red bend.
Tube Flaring
Tube fl ari ng i s a method of formi ng the end
of a tube i nto a funnel shape so i t can be hel d by
a threaded fi tti ng. When a fl ared tube i s prepared,
a fl are nut i s sl i pped onto the tube and the end
of the tube i s fl ared. Duri ng tube i nstal l ati on, the
fl are i s seated to a fi tti ng wi th the i nsi de of the
fl are agai nst the cone-shaped end of the fi tti ng,
and the fl are nut i s screwed onto the fi tti ng,
pul l i ng the i nsi de of the fl are agai nst the seati ng
surface of the fi tti ng.
Ei ther of two fl ari ng tool s (fi g. 5-8) may be
used. One gi ves a si ngl e fl are and the other gi ves
a doubl e fl are. The fl ari ng tool consi sts of a spl i t
di e bl ock that has hol es for vari ous si zes of tubi ng,
Figure 5-8.Flaring tools.
5-7
a cl amp to l ock the end of the tubi ng i nsi de the
di e bl ock, and a yoke wi th a compressor screw
and cone that sl i ps over the di e bl ock and forms
the 45-degree fl are on the end of the tube. The
screw has a T-handl e. A doubl e fl ari ng tube has
adaptors that turn i n the edge of the tube before
a regul ar 45-degree doubl e fl are i s made.
To use the si ngl e fl ari ng tool , fi rst check to
see that the end of the tubi ng has been cut off
squarel y and has had the burrs removed from
both i nsi de and outsi de. Sl i p the fl are nut onto
the tube before you make the fl are. Then, open
the di e bl ock. I nsert the end of the tubi ng i nto
the hol e correspondi ng to the OD of the tubi ng
so that the end protrudes sl i ghtl y above the top
face of the di e bl ocks. The amount by whi ch the
tubi ng extends above the bl ocks determi nes the
fi ni shed di ameter of the fl are. The fl are must be
l arge enough to seat properl y agai nst the fi tti ng,
but smal l enough that the threads of the fl are nut
wi l l sl i de over i t. Cl ose the di e bl ock and secure
the tool wi th the wi ng nut. Use the handl e of the
yoke to ti ghten the wi ng nut. Then pl ace the yoke
over the end of the tubi ng and ti ghten the handl e
to force the cone i nto the end of the tubi ng. The
compl eted fl are shoul d be sl i ghtl y vi si bl e above
the face of the di e bl ocks.
FLEXIBLE HOSE
Shock-resi stant, fl exi bl e hose assembl i es are
requi red to absorb the movements of mounted
equi pment under both normal operati ng condi -
ti ons and extr eme condi ti ons. They ar e al so
used for thei r noi se-attenuati ng properti es and
to connect movi ng parts of certai n equi pment.
The two basi c hose types are syntheti c rubber
and pol ytetr afl uor oethyl ene (PTFE), such as
Du Ponts Tefl on

fl uorocarbon resi n.
Figure 5-9.Synthetic rubber hoses.
pressure ranges: l ow, medi um, and hi gh. The
outer cover i s desi gned to wi thstand external abuse
and contai ns i denti fi cati on marki ngs.
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi th rubber covers are
i denti fi ed wi th the mi l i tary speci fi cati on number,
the si ze by dash number, the quarter and year of
cure or manufacture, and the manufacturers code
i denti fi cati on number or federal suppl y code
number pri nted al ong thei r l ayl i ne (fi g. 5-10, vi ew
A). The l ayl i ne i s a l egi bl e marki ng paral l el to the
l ongi tudi nal axi s of a hose used i n determi ni ng
the strai ghtness or l ay of the hose.
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi th wi re brai d cover
are i denti fi ed by bands (fi g. 5-10, vi ew B) wrapped
around the hose ends and at i nterval s al ong the
l ength of the hose.
Sizing
Rubber hoses are desi gned for speci fi c fl ui d,
temperature, and pr essur e r anges and ar e
provi ded i n vari ous speci fi cati ons. Rubber hoses
(fi g. 5-9) consi st of a mi ni mum three l ayers; a
seaml ess syntheti c rubber tube rei nforced wi th one
or more l ayers of brai ded or spi ral ed cotton, wi re,
or syntheti c fi ber; and an outer cover. The i nner
tube i s desi gned to wi thstand the attack of the
fl ui d that passes through i t. The brai ded or
spi ral ed l ayers determi ne the strength of the hose.
The greater the number of these l ayers, the greater
i s the pressure rati ng. Hoses are provi ded i n three
5-8
The si ze of a fl exi bl e hose i s i denti fi ed by the
dash (-) number, whi ch i s the I D of the hose
expressed i n 16ths of an i nch. For exampl e, the
I D of a -64 hose i s 4 i nches. For a few hose styl es
thi s i s the nomi nal and not the true I D.
Cure Date
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi l l deteri orate from
agi ng. A cure date i s used to ensure that they do
not deteri orate beyond materi al and performance
speci fi cati ons. The cure date i s the quarter and
year the hose was manufactured. For exampl e,
Techni cal Di recti ve for Pi pi ng Devi ces and
Flexible Hose Assemblies, NAVSEA S6430-AE-
TED-010. vol ume 1. provi de detai l ed i nstructi ons
on di scardi ng and downgradi ng of rubber hoses
exceedi ng thei r shel f l i fe.
PFTE
1Q89 or
the fi rst
Figure 5-10.Hose identification.
1/89 means the hose was made duri ng
quarter (1 Jan to 31 Mar) of 1989.
The cure date l i mi ts the l ength of ti me a rubber
hose can be stored, i n bul k or as an assembl y,
pri or to bei ng pl aced i nto servi ce. The storage or
shel f l i fe for rubber hose i s 4 years. For the hose
manufactured i n 1Q89, the storage or shel f l i fe
wi l l end on the 31st of March 1993. At thi s poi nt,
the hose i s no l onger consi dered usabl e and shoul d
be di scarded or downgraded. The Aviation Hose
and Tube Manual, NAVAI R 01-1A-20, and the
5-9
PFTE hose i s a fl exi bl e hose desi gned to meet
the requi rements of hi gher operati ng pressures and
temperatures i n present fl ui d power systems. Thi s
type of hose i s made from a chemi cal resi n, whi ch
i s processed and extruded i nto a tube shaped to
a desi red si ze. I t i s rei nforced wi th one or more
l ayers of brai ded stai nl ess-steel wi re or wi th an
even number of spi ral wrap l ayers wi th an outer
wi re brai d l ayer.
PTFE hose i s unaffected by al l fl ui ds presentl y
used i n fl ui d power systems. I t i s i nert to aci ds,
both concentrated and di l uted. Certai n PFTE
hose may be used i n systems where operati ng
temper atur es r ange fr om 100F to +500F.
PTFE i s nonfl ammabl e; however , wher e the
possi bi l i ty of open fl ame exi sts, a speci al asbestos
fi re sl eeve shoul d be used.
PFTE hose wi l l not absorb moi sture. Thi s,
together wi th i ts chemi cal i nertness and anti -
adhesi ve characteri sti cs, makes i t i deal for mi ssi l e
fl ui d power systems where noncontami nati on and
cl eanl i ness are essenti al .
I n l i eu of l ayl i ne marki ng, PTFE hoses are
i denti fi ed by metal or pl i abl e pl asti c bands at thei r
ends and at i nterval s al ong thei r l ength. Fi gure
5-10, vi ew C, shows a hose l abel for a PTFE hose.
Usual l y the onl y condi ti on that wi l l shorten the
l i fe of PTFE hose i s excessi ve temperature. For
thi s reason there i s no manufacture date l i sted on
the i denti fi cati on tag.
APPLICATION
As menti oned earl i er, fl exi bl e hose i s avai l abl e
i n three pressure ranges: l ow, medi um, and hi gh.
When repl aci ng hoses, i t i s i mportant to ensure
that the repl acement hose i s a dupl i cate of the one
r emoved i n l ength, OD, mater i al , type and
contour, and associ ated marki ngs. I n sel ecti ng
hose, several precauti ons must be observed. The
sel ected hose must
1.
2.
be compati bl e wi th the system fl ui d,
have a rated pressure greater than the desi gn
pressure of the system,
3. be desi gned to gi ve adequate performance and
servi ce for i nfrequent transi ent pressure peaks
up to 150 percent of the worki ng pressure of
the hose, and
4. have a safety factor wi th a burst pressure at
a mi ni mum of 4 ti mes the rated worki ng
pressure.
There are temperature restri cti ons appl i ed to
the use of hoses. Rubber hose must not be used
where the operati ng temperature exceeds 200F.
PTFE hoses i n hi gh-pressure ai r systems must not
be used where the temperature exceeds 350F.
PTFE hoses i n water and steam drai n appl i cati ons
must not be used where the operati ng temperature
exceeds 380F.
FABRICATION AND TESTING
The fabri cati on of fl exi bl e hose assembl i es i s
covered i n appl i cabl e trai ni ng manual s, techni cal
publ i cati ons, and NAVAI R 01-1A-20. After a
hose assembl y has been compl etel y fabri cated i t
must be cl eaned, vi sual l y i nspected for forei gn
materi al s, and proof tested.
A hose assembl y i s pr oof tested by the
appl i cati on of a nondestructi ve pressure for a
mi ni mum of 1 mi nute but not l onger than 5
mi nutes to ensure that i t wi l l wi thstand normal
worki ng pressures. The test pressure, known as
normal proof pressure, i s twi ce the rated worki ng
pressure. Whi l e the test pressure i s bei ng appl i ed,
the hose must not burst, l eak, or show si gns
of fi tti ng separ ati on. NAVAI R 01-1A-20 and
NAVSEA S6430-AE-TED-010, vol ume 1, provi de
detai l ed i nstructi ons on cl eani ng of hoses, cl eani ng
and test medi a, proof pressure and proof testi ng.
After proof testi ng i s compl eted, the hose must
be fl ushed and dri ed and the ends capped or
pl ugged to keep di rt and other contami nants out
of the hose.
IDENTIFICATION
The fi nal step after fabri cati on and sati sfac-
tory testi ng of a hose assembl y i s the attachment
of i denti fi cati on tags as shown i n fi gure 5-11 (for
shi ps) and i n fi gure 5-12 (for ai rcraft). The tag
shown i n fi gure 5-12, vi ew B, i s used i n areas
where a tag maybe drawn i nto an engi ne i ntake.
Hose assembl i es to be i nstal l ed i n ai rcraft fuel and
oi l tanks are marked wi th an approved el ectri c
engraver on the socket-wrench fl ats wi th the
requi red i nformati on.
Figure 5-11.Hose assembly identification tags (ships).
5-10
Figure 5-12.Hose assembly
INSTALLATION
Fl exi bl e hose must
identification tags (aircraft).
not be twi sted duri ng
i nstal l ati on, si nce thi s reduces the l i fe of the hose
consi derabl y and may cause the fi tti ngs to l oosen
as wel l . You can determi ne whether or not a hose
i s twi sted by l ooki ng at the l ayl i ne that runs al ong
the l ength of the hose. I f the l ayl i ne does not spi ral
around the hose, the hose i s not twi sted. I f the
l ayl i ne does spi ral around the hose, the hose i s
twi sted (fi g. 5-13, vi ew B) and must be untwi sted.
Fl exi bl e hose shoul d be protected from chafi ng
by usi ng a chafe-resi stant coveri ng wherever
necessar y.
The mi ni mum bend radi us for fl exi bl e hose
vari es accordi ng to the si ze and constructi on of
the hose and the pr essur e under whi ch the
system operates. Current appl i cabl e techni cal
publ i cati ons contai n tabl es and graphs showi ng
mi ni mum bend radi i for the di fferent types of
i nstal l ati ons. Bends that are too sharp wi l l reduce
the bursti ng pressure of fl exi bl e hose consi derabl y
bel ow i ts rated val ue.
Fl exi bl e hose shoul d be i nstal l ed so that i t wi l l
be subjected to a mi ni mum of fl exi ng duri ng
operati on. Support cl amps are not necessary wi th
short i nstal l ati ons; but for hose of consi derabl e
l ength (48 i nches for exampl e), cl amps shoul d be
pl aced not more than 24 i nches apart. Cl oser
5-11
Figure 5-13.Correct and incorrect installation of flexible
hose.
supports are desi rabl e and i n some cases may be
requi red.
A fl exi bl e hose must never be stretched ti ghtl y
between two fi tti ngs. About 5 to 8 percent of the
total l ength must be al l owed as sl ack to provi de
freedom of movement under pressure. When
under pressure, fl exi bl e hose contracts i n l ength
and expands i n di ameter. Exampl es of correct and
i ncor r ect i nstal l ati ons of fl exi bl e hose ar e
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-13.
PFTE hose shoul d be handl ed careful l y duri ng
removal and i nstal l ati on. Some PFTE hose i s pre-
formed duri ng fabri cati on. Thi s type of hose tends
to form i tsel f to the i nstal l ed posi ti on i n the sys-
tem. To ensure i ts sati sfactory functi on and reduce
the l i kel i hood of fai l ure, anyone who works wi th
PFTE hose shoul d observe the fol l owi ng rul es:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Do not exceed recommended bend l i mi ts.
Do not exceed twi sti ng l i mi ts.
Do not strai ghten a bent hose that has
taken a permanent set.
Do not hang, l i ft, or support objects from
PFTE hose.
Once fl exi bl e hose assembl i es are i nstal l ed,
there are no servi ci ng or mai ntenance requi re-
ments other than peri odi c i nspecti ons. These
i nspecti ons are conducted accordi ng to mai nte-
nance i nstructi on manual s (MI Ms), mai ntenance
r equi r ement car ds (MRCs), and depot-l evel
speci fi cati ons.
TYPES OF FITTINGS
AND CONNECTORS
Some type of connector or fi tti ng must be
provi ded to attach the l i nes to the components of
the system and to connect secti ons of l i ne to
each other. There are many di fferent types of
connectors and fi tti ngs provi ded for thi s purpose.
The type of connector or fi tti ng requi red for a
speci fi c system depends on several factors. One
determi ni ng factor, of course, i s the type of fl ui d
l i ne (pi pe, tubi ng, or fl exi bl e hose) used i n
the system. Other determi ni ng factors are the
type of fl ui d medi um and the maxi mum operati ng
pressure of the system. Some of the most common
types of fi tti ngs and connectors are descri bed i n
the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
THREADED CONNECTORS
There are several di fferent types of threaded
connectors. I n the type di scussed i n thi s secti on,
both the connector and the end of the fl ui d l i ne
(pi pe) are threaded. These connectors are used i n
some l ow-pressure fl ui d power systems and are
usual l y made of steel , copper, or brass, and are
avai l abl e i n a vari ety of desi gns.
Threaded connectors are made wi th standard
pi pe threads cut on the i nsi de surface. The end
of the pi pe i s threaded wi th outsi de threads.
Standard pi pe threads are tapered sl i ghtl y to
ensure ti ght connecti ons. The amount of taper i s
approxi matel y 3/4 i nch i n di ameter per foot of
thread.
Metal i s removed when a pi pe i s threaded,
thi nni ng the pi pe and exposi ng new and rough
surfaces. Corrosi on agents work more qui ckl y at
such poi nts than el sewhere. I f pi pes are assembl ed
wi th no protecti ve compound on the threads,
corrosi on sets i n at once and the two secti ons
sti ck together so that the threads sei ze when
di sassembl y i s attempted. The resul t i s damaged
threads and pi pes.
To prevent sei zi ng, a sui tabl e pi pe thread
compound i s someti mes appl i ed to the threads.
The two end thr eads must be kept fr ee of
5-12
compound so that i t wi l l not contami nate the
fl ui d. Pi pe compound, when i mproperl y appl i ed,
may get i nsi de the l i nes and components and
damage pumps and control equi pment.
Another materi al used on pi pe threads i s
seal ant tape. Thi s tape, whi ch i s made of PTFE,
pr ovi des an effecti ve means of seal i ng pi pe
connecti ons and el i mi nates the necessi ty of
torqui ng connecti ons to excessi vel y hi gh val ues
i n order to prevent pressure l eaks. I t al so provi des
for ease of mai ntenance whenever i t i s necessary
to di sconnect pi pe joi nts. The tape i s appl i ed over
the mal e threads, l eavi ng the fi rst thread exposed.
After the tape i s pressed fi rml y agai nst the
threads, the joi nt i s connected.
FLANGE CONNECTORS
Bol ted fl ange connector s (fi g. 5-14) ar e
sui tabl e for most pressures now i n use. The
fl anges are attached to the pi pi ng by wel di ng,
brazi ng, tapered threads (for some l ow-pressure
systems), or rol l i ng and bendi ng i nto recesses.
Those i l l ustrated are the most common types of
fl ange joi nts used. The same types of standard
fi tti ng shapes (tee, cross, el bow, and so forth) are
manufactured for fl ange joi nts. Sui tabl e gasket
materi al must be used between the fl anges.
WELDED CONNECTORS
The subassembl i es of some fl ui d power
systems are connected by wel ded joi nts, especi al l y
i n hi gh-pressure systems whi ch use pi pe for fl ui d
l i nes. The wel di ng i s done accordi ng to standard
Figure 5-14.Four types of bolted flange connectors.
speci fi cati ons whi ch defi ne the materi al s and
techni ques.
BRAZED CONNECTORS
Si l ver-brazed connectors are commonl y used
for joi ni ng nonferrous (copper, brass, and soon)
pi pi ng i n the pressure and temperature range
where thei r use i s practi cal . Use of thi s type of
connector i s l i mi ted to i nstal l ati ons i n whi ch the
pi pi ng temperature wi l l not exceed 425F and the
pressure i n col d l i nes wi l l not-exceed 3,000 psi .
The al l oy i s mel ted by heati ng the joi nt wi th an
oxyacetyl ene torch. Thi s causes the al l oy i nsert
to mel t and fi l l the few thousandths of an i nch
annul ar space between the pi pe and the fi tti ng.
A fi tti ng of thi s type whi ch has been removed
from a pi pi ng system can be rebrazed i nto a
system, as i n most cases suffi ci ent al l oy remai ns
i n the i nsert groove for a second joi nt. New al l oy
i nserts may be obtai ned for fi tti ngs whi ch do not
have suffi ci ent al l oy remai ni ng i n the i nsert for
maki ng a new joi nt.
FLARED CONNECTORS
Fl ared connectors are commonl y used i n fl ui d
power systems contai ni ng l i nes made of tubi ng.
These connectors provi de safe, strong, dependabl e
connecti ons wi thout the need for thr eadi ng,
wel di ng, or sol deri ng the tubi ng. The connector
consi sts of a fi tti ng, a sl eeve, and a nut (fi g. 5-15).
The fi tti ngs are made of steel , al umi num al l oy,
or bronze. The fi tti ng used i n a connecti on shoul d
be made of the same materi al as that of the sl eeve,
the nut, and the tubi ng. For exampl e, use steel
connectors wi th steel tubi ng and al umi num al l oy
Figure 5-15.Flared-tube fitting.
connectors wi th al umi num al l oy tubi ng. Fi tti ngs
are made i n uni on, 45-degree and 90-degree
el bow, tee, and vari ous other shapes (fi g. 5-16).
Tees, crosses, and el bows are sel f-expl anatory.
Uni versal and bul khead fi tti ngs can be mounted
sol i dl y wi th one outl et of the fi tti ng extendi ng
through a bul khead and the other outl et(s) posi -
ti oned at any angl e. Uni versal means the fi tti ng
can assume the angl e requi red for the speci fi c
i nstal l ati on. Bul khead means the fi tti ng i s l ong
enough to pass thr ough a bul khead and i s
desi gned so i t can be secur ed sol i dl y to the
bul khead.
For connecti ng to tubi ng, the ends of the
fi tti ngs are threaded wi th strai ght machi ne threads
to correspond wi th the femal e threads of the nut.
I n some cases, however, one end of the fi tti ng may
be threaded wi th tapered pi pe threads to fi t
Figure 5-16.Flared-tube fittings.
5-13
thr eaded por ts i n pumps, val ves, and other
components. Several of these thread combi nati ons
are shown i n fi gure 5-16.
Tubi ng used wi th fl are connectors must be
fl ared pri or to assembl y. The nut fi ts over the
sl eeve and when ti ghtened, i t draws the sl eeve and
tubi ng fl are ti ghtl y agai nst the mal e fi tti ng to form
a seal .
The mal e fi tti ng has a cone-shaped surface
wi th the same angl e as the i nsi de of the fl are. The
sl eeve supports the tube so vi brati on does not
concentrate at the edge of the fl are, and di stri butes
the sheari ng acti on over a wi der area for added
strength. Tube fl ari ng i s covered i n Tools and
Their Uses, NAVEDTRA 10085 (ser i es), and
other appl i cabl e trai ni ng manual s.
Correct and i ncorrect methods of i nstal l i ng
fl ared-tube connectors are i l l ustrated i n fi gure
5-17. Tubi ng nuts shoul d be ti ghtened wi th a
torque wrench to the val ue speci fi ed i n appl i cabl e
techni cal publ i cati ons.
I f an al umi num al l oy fl ared connector l eaks
after bei ng ti ghtened to the requi red torque, i t
must not be ti ghtened further. Overti ghteni ng may
severel y damage or compl etel y cut off the tubi ng
fl are or may resul t i n damage to the sl eeve or nut.
The l eaki ng connecti on must be di sassembl ed and
the faul t corrected.
I f a steel tube connecti on l eaks, i t may be
ti ghtened 1/6 turn beyond the speci fi ed torque i n
an attempt to stop the l eakage; then i f i t sti l l l eaks,
i t must be di sassembl ed and repai red.
Under ti ghteni ng of connecti ons may be
seri ous, as thi s can al l ow the tubi ng to l eak at the
connector bemuse of i nsuffi ci ent gri p on the fl are
by the sl eeve. The use of a torque wrench wi l l
prevent underti ghteni ng.
CAUTION
A nut shoul d never be ti ghtened when
there i s pressure i n the l i ne, as thi s wi l l tend
to damage the connecti on wi thout addi ng
any appreci abl e torque to the connecti on.
Figure 5-17.Correct and incorrect methods of installing flared fittings.
5-14
FLARELESS-TUBE CONNECTORS
Thi s type of connector el i mi nates al l tube
fl ari ng, yet provi des a safe, strong, and depend-
abl e tube connecti on. Thi s connector consi sts
of a fi tti ng, a sl eeve or fer r ul e, and a nut.
(See fi g. 5-18.)
NOTE
Al though the use of fl ar el ess tube
connectors i s wi despread, NAVSEA pol i cy
i s to reduce or el i mi nate use of fl arel ess
fi tti ngs i n newl y desi gned shi ps; the extent
to whi ch fl arel ess fi tti ngs are approved for
use i n a parti cul ar shi p i s refl ected i n
appl i cabl e shi p drawi ngs.
Fl arel ess-tube fi tti ngs are avai l abl e i n many
of the same shapes and thread combi nati ons as
fl ared-tube fi tti ngs. (See fi g. 5-16.) The fi tti ng has
a counterbore shoul der for the end of the tubi ng
to rest agai nst. The angl e of the counterbore
causes the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or ferrul e to
cut i nto the outsi de surface of the tube when the
two are assembl ed.
The nut presses on the bevel of the sl eeve and
causes i t to cl amp ti ghtl y to the tube. Resi stance
to vi brati on i s concentrated at thi s poi nt rather
than at the sl eeve cut. When ful l y ti ghtened, the
sl eeve or ferrul e i s bowed sl i ghtl y at the mi dsecti on
and acts as a spri ng. Thi s spri ng acti on of the
sl eeve or ferrul e mai ntai ns a constant tensi on
between the body and the nut and thus prevents
the nut from l ooseni ng.
Pri or to the i nstal l ati on of a new fl arel ess-tube
connector, the end of the tubi ng must be square,
Figure 5-18.Flareless-tube connector.
concentri c, and free of burrs. For the connecti on
to be effecti ve, the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or
ferrul e must bi te i nto the peri phery of the tube
(fi g. 5-19). Thi s i s ensured by presetti ng the sl eeve
or ferrul e on the tube.
Presetting
Presetti ng consi sts of deformi ng the ferrul e to
bi te i nto the tube OD and deformi ng the end of
the tube to form a shal l ow coni cal ri ng seati ng
surface. The tube and ferrul e assembl y shoul d be
preset i n a presetti ng tool that has an end secti on
i denti cal to a fi tti ng body but whi ch i s made of
speci al l y hardened steel . Thi s tool hardness i s
needed to ensure that al l deformati on at the tube
end seat goes i nto the tube.
Presetti ng i s done wi th a hydraul i c presetti ng
tool or a manual presetti ng tool , ei ther i n the shop
or aboard shi p. The tool vendors i nstructi ons
must be fol l owed for the hydraul i c presetti ng tool .
I f a presetti ng tool i s not avai l abl e, the fi tti ng
body i ntended for i nstal l ati on i s used i n the same
manner as the manual presetti ng tool . (I f an
al umi num fi tti ng i s used, i t shoul d not be reused
i n the system.) The manual tool i s used as fol l ows:
WARNING
Fai l ure to fol l ow these i nstructi ons may
resul t i n i mproperl y preset ferrul es wi th
i nsuffi ci ent bi te i nto the tube. I mproperl y
preset ferrul es have resul ted i n joi nts that
passed hydrostati c testi ng and operated for
weeks or years, then fai l ed catastrophi cal l y
under shock, vi brati on, or normal operat-
i ng l oads. Fl arel ess fi tti ng fai l ures have
Figure 5-19.Unused ferrules.
5-15
caused personnel i njury, damage to equi p-
ment, and unnecessary i nterrupti on of
propul si on power.
1. Cut the tubi ng square and l i ghtl y deburr
the i nsi de and outsi de corners. For corrosi on
resi sti ng steel (CRES) tubi ng, use a hacksaw rather
than a tubi ng cutter to avoi d work hardeni ng the
tube end. For CRES, and i f necessary for other
materi al s, dress the tube end smooth and square
wi th a fi l e. Tube ends wi th i rregul ar cutti ng marks
wi l l not pr oduce sati sfactor y seati ng sur face
i mpressi ons.
2. Test the hardness of the ferrul e by maki ng
a l i ght scratch on the tubi ng at l east 1/2 i nch back
from the tube end, usi ng a sharp corner on the
ferrul e. I f the ferrul e wi l l not scratch the tube,
no bi te wi l l be obtai ned. Thi s test maybe omi tted
for fl ush-type ferrul es where the bi te wi l l be
vi si bl e. Moderate hand pressure i s suffi ci ent for
produci ng the scratch.
3. Lubr i cate the nut thr eads, the fer r ul e
l eadi ng and trai l i ng edges, and the preset tool
threads wi th a thread l ubri cant compati bl e wi th
the system. Sl i de the nut onto the tubi ng so the
threads face the tube end. Note whether the
ferrul e i s a fl ush type or recessed type (fi g. 5-19),
and sl i de the ferrul e onto the tube so the cutti ng
edge i s toward the tube end (l arge end toward the
nut).
4. Bottom the end of the tubi ng i n the
presetti ng tool . Sl i de the ferrul e up i nto the
presetti ng tool , and confi rm that the nut can be
moved down the tube suffi ci entl y to expose at
l east 1/8 i nch of tubi ng past the ferrul e after the
pr esetti ng oper ati on (fi g. 5-20) to al l ow for
i nspecti on of the ferrul e.
5. Whi l e keepi ng the tube bottomed i n the
presetti ng tool , ti ghten the nut onto the fi tti ng
body unti l the ferrul e just gri ps the tube by
fri cti on. Thi s ri ng gri p poi nt may be i denti fi ed by
l i ghtl y turni ng the tube or the presetti ng tool and
sl owl y ti ghteni ng the nut unti l the tube cannot
be tur ned i n the pr esetti ng tool by hand.
Mark the nut and the presetti ng tool at thi s
posi ti on.
6. Ti ghten the nut accordi ng to the number
of turns gi ven i n tabl e 5-3, dependi ng on tube
si ze.
5-16
Figure 5-20.Tube and ferrule assembled for preset-
ting, showing nut position required for inspecting
ferrule.
Inspection
Di sassembl e and i nspect the fi tti ng as fol l ows
(mandatory):
1. Ensure that the end of the tubi ng has an
i mpressi on of the presetti ng tool seat surface
(ci rcul ar appeari ng ri ng) for 360 degrees. A parti al
ci rcl e, a vi si bl y off-center ci rcl e, or a ci rcl e broken
by the roughness of the tube end i s unsati sfactory.
2. Check for proper bi te:
a. For fl ush-type ferrul es, a rai sed ri dge
(fi g. 5-21) of tube metal must be vi si bl e compl etel y
around the tube at the l eadi ng edge of the ferrul e.
The best practi ce i s to obtai n a ri dge about 50
percent of the ferrul e edge thi ckness.
Table 5-3.Number of Turns
Figure 5-21.Ferrules installed on tube, preset and removed
for inspection.
b. For recessed-type ferrul es, the l eadi ng
edge must be snug agai nst the tube OD. Determi ne
thi s vi sual l y and by attempti ng to rock the ferrul e
on the tube.
3. Ensure that the nut end of the ferrul e (both
types) i s col l apsed around the tube to provi de
support agai nst bendi ng l oads and vi brati on.
4. The ferrul e (both types) must have l i ttl e or
no pl ay al ong the di recti on of the tube run. Check
thi s by tryi ng to move the ferrul e back and forth
by hand. The ferrul e wi l l often be free to rotate
on the tubi ng; thi s does not affect i ts functi on.
5. For fl ush-type ferrul es, check that the gap
between the rai sed metal ri dge and the cutti ng end
of the ferrul e stays the same whi l e the ferrul e i s
rotated. (Omi t thi s check for recessed-type ferrul es
or i f the fl ush-type ferrul e wi l l not rotate on the
tube).
6. Check that the mi ddl e porti on of the ferrul e
(both types) i s bowed or sprung i nto an arc. The
l eadi ng edge of the ferrul e may appear fl attened
i nto a cone shape; thi s i s acceptabl e as l ong as
there i s a bowed secti on near the mi ddl e of the
ferrul e. I f the whol e l eadi ng secti on of the ferrul e
i s fl attened i nto a cone wi th no bowed secti on,
the ferrul e (and possi bl y the fi tti ng body, i f used)
has been damaged by overti ghteni ng and wi l l not
seal rel i abl y.
Final Assembly
When you make a fi nal assembl y i n the
system, use the fol l owi ng i nstal l ati on procedure:
1. Lubri cate al l threads wi th a l i qui d that i s
compati bl e wi th the fl ui d to be used i n the system.
2. Pl ace the tube assembl y i n posi ti on and
check for al i gnment.
3. Ti ghten the nut by hand unti l you feel an
i ncrease i n resi stance to turni ng. Thi s i ndi cates
that the sl eeve or ferrul e pi l ot has contacted the
fi tti ng.
4. I f possi bl e, use a torque wrench to ti ghten
fl arel ess tubi ng nuts. Torque val ues for speci fi c
i nstal l ati ons are usual l y l i sted i n the appl i cabl e
techni cal publ i cati ons. I f i t i s not possi bl e to use
a torque wrench, use the fol l owi ng procedures for
ti ghteni ng the nuts:
After the nut i s handti ght, turn the nut 1/6
turn (one fl at on a hex nut) wi th a wrench. Use
a wrench on the connector to prevent i t from
turni ng whi l e ti ghteni ng the nut. After you i nstal l
the tube assembl y, have the system pressure tested.
Shoul d a connecti on l eak, you may ti ghten the
nut an addi ti onal 1/6 turn (maki ng a total of 1/3
turn). I f, after ti ghteni ng the nut a total of 1/3
turn, l eakage sti l l exi sts, remove the assembl y and
i nspect the components of the assembl y for scores,
cracks, presence of forei gn materi al , or damage
from overti ghteni ng.
NOTE: Overti ghteni ng a fl arel ess-tube nut
dri ves the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or ferrul e
deepl y i nto the tube, causi ng the tube to be
weakened to the poi nt where normal vi brati on
coul d cause the tube to shear. After you compl ete
the i nspecti on (i f you do not fi nd any di s-
crepanci es), reassembl e the connecti on and repeat
the pressure test procedures.
CAUTION: Do not i n any case ti ghten the
nut beyond 1/3 turn (two fl ats on the hex nut);
thi s i s the maxi mum the fi tti ng may be ti ghtened
wi thout the possi bi l i ty of permanentl y damagi ng
the sl eeve or the tube.
CONNECTORS FOR
FLEXIBLE HOSE
As stated previ ousl y, the fabri cati on of fl exi bl e
hose assembl i es i s covered i n appl i cabl e trai ni ng
manual s, techni cal publ i cati ons, and NAVAI R
01-1A-20. There are vari ous types of end fi tti ngs
for both the pi pi ng connecti on si de and the hose
5-17
connecti on si de of hose fi tti ngs. Fi gure 5-22 shows
commonl y used fi tti ngs.
Piping Connection Side of Hose Fitting
The pi pi ng si de of an end fi tti ng comes wi th
several connecti ng vari ati ons: fl ange, JI C 37
fl are, O-ri ng uni on, and spl i t cl amp, to name a
few. Not al l vari eti es are avai l abl e for each hose.
Therefore, i nstal l ers must consul t the mi l i tary
s peci fi cati on an d man u factu r er s data to
determi ne the speci fi c end fi tti ngs avai l abl e.
Hose Connection Side of Hose Fitting
Hose fi tti ngs are attached to the hose by
several methods. Each method i s determi ned by
the fi tti ng manufacturer and takes i nto con-
si derati on such thi ngs as si ze, constructi on, wal l
thi ckness, and pressure rati ng. Hoses used for
fl exi bl e connecti ons use one of the fol l owi ng
methods for attachment of the fi tti ng to the
hose.
ONE-PIECE REUSABLE SOCKET. The
socket component of the fi tti ng i s fabri cated as
a si ngl e pi ece. One-pi ece reusabl e sockets are
screwed or rocked onto the hose OD, fol l owed
by i nserti on of the ni ppl e component.
SEGMENTED, BOLTED SOCKET. The
segmented, bol ted socket consi sts of two or more
segments whi ch are bol ted together on the hose
after i nserti on of the ni ppl e component.
Figure 5-22.End fittings and hose fittings.
5-18
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RI NG AND
BAND ATTACHED. The segmented, ri ng and
band attached socket consi sts of three or more
segments. As wi th the bol t-together segments, the
segments, ri ng and band are put on the hose after
i nserti on of the ni ppl e. A speci al tool i s requi red
to compress the segments.
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RING AND BOLT
ATTACHED. The segmented, ri ng and bol t
attached sock et consi sts of thr ee or mor e
segments. As wi th other segmented socket-type
fi tti ngs, the segments, ri ng, and nuts and bol ts
are put on the hose after i nserti on of the ni ppl e.
SOL I D SOCKET, PERMANENTL Y
ATTACHED. Thi s type of socket i s perma-
nentl y attached to the hose by cr i mpi ng or
swagi ng. I t i s not reusabl e and i s onl y found
on hose assembl i es where operati ng condi ti ons
precl ude the use of other fi tti ng types. Hose
assembl i es wi th thi s type of fi tti ng attachment are
purchased as compl ete hose assembl i es from the
manufacturer.
QUICK-DISCONNECT COUPLINGS
Sel f-seal i ng, qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs are
used at var i ous poi nts i n many fl ui d power
systems. These coupl i ngs are i nstal l ed at l ocati ons
where frequent uncoupl i ng of the l i nes i s requi red
for i nspecti on, test, and mai ntenance. Qui ck-
di sconnect coupl i ngs are al so commonl y used i n
pneumati c systems to connect secti ons of ai r hose
and to connect tool s to the ai r pressure l i nes. Thi s
provi des a conveni ent method of attachi ng and
detachi ng tool s and secti ons of l i nes wi thout l osi ng
pressure.
Qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs provi de a means
for qui ckl y di sconnecti ng a l i ne wi thout the l oss
of fl ui d fr om the system or the entr ance of
forei gn matter i nto the system. Several types of
qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs have been desi gned for
use i n fl ui d power systems. Fi gure 5-23 i l l ustrates
Figure 5-23.Quick-disconnect coupling for air lines.
a coupl i ng that i s used wi th portabl e pneumati c
tool s. The mal e secti on i s connected to the tool
or to the l i ne l eadi ng from the tool . The femal e
secti on, whi ch contai ns the shutoff val ve, i s
i nstal l ed i n the pneumati c l i ne l eadi ng from
the pressure source. These connectors can be
separated or connected by very l i ttl e effort on the
part of the operator.
The most common qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ng
for hydraul i c systems consi sts of two parts, hel d
together by a uni on nut. Each part contai ns a
val ve whi ch i s hel d open when the coupl i ng i s
connected, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow i n ei ther
di r ecti on thr ough the coupl i ng. When the
coupl i ng i s di sconnected, a spri ng i n each part
cl oses the val ve, preventi ng the l oss of fl ui d and
entrance of forei gn matter.
MANIFOLDS
Some fl ui d power systems are equi pped wi th
mani fol ds i n the pressure suppl y and/or return
l i nes. A mani fol d i s a fl ui d conductor that
provi des mul ti pl e connecti on ports. Mani fol ds
el i mi nate pi pi ng, reduce joi nts, whi ch are often
a source of l eakage, and conserve space. For
exampl e, mani fol ds may be used i n systems that
contai n several subsystems. One common l i ne
connects the pump to the mani fol d. There are
outl et por ts i n the mani fol d to pr ovi de con-
necti ons to each subsystem. A si mi l ar mani fol d
may be used i n the return system. Li nes from the
control val ves of the subsystem connect to the i nl et
ports of the mani fol d, where the fl ui d combi nes
i nto one outl et l i ne to the r eser voi r . Some
mani fol ds are equi pped wi th the check val ves,
rel i ef val ves, fi l ters, and so on, requi red for the
system. I n some cases, the control val ves are
mounted on the mani fol d i n such a manner that
the ports of the val ves are connected di rectl y to
the mani fol d.
Mani fol ds are usual l y one of three types
sandwi ch, cast, or dri l l ed. The sandwi ch type i s
constructed of three or more fl at pl ates. The
center pl ate (or pl ates) i s machi ned for passages,
and the requi red i nl et and outl et ports are dri l l ed
i nto the outer pl ates. The pl ates are then bonded
together to provi de a l eakproof assembl y. The cast
type of mani fol d i s desi gned wi th cast passages
and dri l l ed ports. The casti ng may be i ron, steel ,
bronze, or al umi num, dependi ng upon the type
of system and fl ui d medi um. I n the dri l l ed type
of mani fol d, al l ports and passages are dri l l ed i n
a bl ock of metal .
5-19
A si mpl e mani fol d i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-24.
Thi s mani fol d contai ns one pressure i nl et port and
several pressure outl et ports that can be bl ocked
off wi th threaded pl ugs. Thi s type of mani fol d
can be adapted to systems contai ni ng vari ous
numbers of subsystems. A thermal rel i ef val ve
may be i ncorporated i n thi s mani fol d. I n thi s case,
the port l abel ed T i s connected to the return l i ne
to provi de a passage for the rel i eved fl ui d to fl ow
to the reservoi r.
Fi gur e 5-25 shows a fl ow di agr am i n a
mani fol d whi ch provi des both pressure and return
passages. One common l i ne provi des pressuri zed
fl ui d to the mani fol d, whi ch di stri butes the fl ui d
to any one of fi ve outl et ports. The return si de
of the mani fol d i s si mi l ar i n desi gn. Thi s mani fol d
i s provi ded wi th a rel i ef val ve, whi ch i s connected
to the pressure and return passages. I n the event
of excessi ve pressure, the rel i ef val ve opens and
al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow from the pressure si de of
the mani fol d to the return si de.
Figure 5-25.Fluid manifoldflow diagram.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
The fabri cati on, i nstal l ati on, and mai ntenance
of al l fl ui d l i nes and connectors are beyond the
scope of thi s trai ni ng manual . However, there are
some general precauti onary measures that appl y
to the mai ntenance of al l fl ui d l i nes.
Regardl ess of the type of l i nes or connectors
used to make up a fl ui d power system, make
certai n they are the correct si ze and strength and
perfectl y cl ean on the i nsi de. Al l l i nes must be
absol utel y cl ean and free from scal e and other
forei gn matter. I ron or steel pi pes, tubi ng, and
fi tti ngs can be cl eaned wi th a boi l er tube
wi re brush or wi th commerci al pi pe cl eani ng
apparatus. Rust and scal e can be removed from
short, strai ght pi eces by sandbl asti ng, provi ded
there i s no danger that sand parti cl es wi l l remai n
l odged i n bl i nd hol es or pockets after the pi ece
Figure 5-24.Fluid manifold.
5-20
i s fl ushed. I n the case of l ong pi eces or pi eces bent Open ends of pi pes, tubi ng, hose, and fi tti ngs
to compl ex shapes, rust and scal e can be removed shoul d be capped or pl ugged when they are to be
by pi ckl i ng (cl eani ng metal i n a chemi cal bath). stored for any consi derabl e peri od. Rags or waste
Parts must be degreased pri or to pi ckl i ng. The must not be used for thi s purpose, because they
manufactur er of the par ts shoul d pr ovi de deposi t harmful l i nt whi ch can cause severe
compl ete pi ckl i ng i nstructi ons. damage to the fl ui d power system.
5-21
CHAPTER 6
VALVES
I t i s al l but i mpossi bl e to desi gn a practi cal
fl ui d power system wi thout some means of
control l i ng the vol ume and pressure of the fl ui d
and di recti ng the fl ow of fl ui d to the operati ng
uni ts. Thi s i s accompl i shed by the i ncorporati on
of di fferent types of val ves. A val ve i s defi ned as
any devi ce by whi ch the fl ow of fl ui d may be
started, stopped, or regul ated by a movabl e part
that opens or obstr ucts passage. As appl i ed
i n fl ui d power systems, val ves ar e used for
contr ol l i ng the fl ow, the pr essur e, and the
di recti on of the fl ui d fl ow.
Val ves must be accurate i n the control of fl ui d
fl ow and pressure and the sequence of operati on.
Leakage between the val ve el ement and the val ve
seat i s r educed to a negl i gi bl e quanti ty by
preci si on-machi ned surfaces, resul ti ng i n careful l y
control l ed cl earances. Thi s i s one of the very
i mportant reasons for mi ni mi zi ng contami nati on
i n fl ui d power systems. Contami nati on causes
val ves to sti ck, pl ugs smal l ori fi ces, and causes
abrasi ons of the val ve seati ng surfaces, whi ch
resul ts i n l eakage between the val ve el ement and
val ve seat when the val ve i s i n the cl osed posi ti on.
Any of these can resul t i n i neffi ci ent operati on
or compl ete stoppage of the equi pment.
Val ves may be control l ed manual l y, el ectri -
cal l y, pneumati cal l y, mechani cal l y, hydraul i cal l y,
or by combi nati ons of two or mor e of these
methods. Factors that determi ne the method of
control i ncl ude the purpose of the val ve, the
desi gn and purpose of the system, the l ocati on of
the val ve wi thi n the system, and the avai l abi l i ty
of the source of power.
The di fferent types of val ves used i n fl ui d
power systems, thei r cl assi fi cati on, and thei r
appl i cati on are di scussed i n thi s chapter.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Val ves are cl assi fi ed accordi ng to thei r use:
fl ow control , pressure control , and di recti onal
control . Some val ves have mul ti pl e functi ons that
fal l i nto more than one cl assi fi cati on.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Fl ow control val ves are used to regul ate the
fl ow of fl ui ds i n fl ui d-power systems. Control of
fl ow i n fl ui d-power systems i s i mportant because
the rate of movement of fl ui d-powered machi nes
depends on the rate of fl ow of the pressuri zed
fl ui d. These val ves may be manual l y, hydrau-
l i cal l y, el ectri cal l y, or pneumati cal l y operated.
Some of the di fferent types of fl ow control
val ves are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
BALL VALVES
Bal l val ves, as the name i mpl i es, are stop
val ves that use a bal l to stop or start a fl ow of
fl ui d. The bal l , shown i n fi gure 6-1, performs the
Figure 6-1.Typical ball valve.
6-1
same functi on as the di sk i n other val ves. As the
val ve handl e i s turned to open the val ve, the bal l
rotates to a poi nt where part or al l of the hol e
through the bal l i s i n l i ne wi th the val ve body i nl et
and outl et, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow through the
val ve. When the bal l i s rotated so the hol e i s
perpendi cul ar to the fl ow openi ngs of the val ve
body, the fl ow of fl ui d stops.
Most bal l val ves are the qui ck-acti ng type.
They requi re onl y a 90-degree turn to ei ther
compl etel y open or cl ose the val ve. However,
many are operated by pl anetary gears. Thi s type
of geari ng al l ows the use of a rel ati vel y smal l
handwheel and operati ng force to operate a fai rl y
l arge val ve. The geari ng does, however, i ncrease
the operati ng ti me for the val ve. Some bal l val ves
al so contai n a swi ng check l ocated wi thi n the bal l
to gi ve the val ve a check val ve feature. Fi gure 6-2
shows a bal l -stop, swi ng-check val ve wi th a
pl anetary gear operati on.
I n addi ti on to the bal l val ves shown i n fi gures
6-1 and 6-2, there are three-way bal l val ves that
are used to suppl y fl ui d from a si ngl e source to
one component or the other i n a two-component
system (fi g. 6-3).
Figure 6-2.Typical ball-stop, swing-check valve.
6-2
Figure 6-3.Three-way ball valve.
GATE VALVES
Gate val ves are used when a strai ght-l i ne fl ow
of fl ui d and mi ni mum fl ow restri cti on are needed.
Gate val ves are so-named because the part that
ei ther stops or al l ows fl ow through the val ve
acts somewhat l i ke a gate. The gate i s usual l y
wedge-shaped. When the val ve i s wi de open the
gate i s ful l y drawn up i nto the val ve bonnet. Thi s
l eaves an openi ng for fl ow through the val ve the
same si ze as the pi pe i n whi ch the val ve i s i nstal l ed
(fi g. 6-4). Therefore, there i s l i ttl e pressure drop
or fl ow restri cti on through the val ve.
Gate val ves are not sui tabl e for throttl i ng
purposes. The control of fl ow i s di ffi cul t because
of the val ves desi gn, and the fl ow of fl ui d
sl appi ng agai nst a par ti al l y open gate can
cause extensi ve damage to the val ve. Except as
speci fi cal l y authori zed, gate val ves shoul d not be
used for throttl i ng.
Gate val ves are cl assi fi ed as ei ther ri si ng-stem
or nonri si ng-stem val ves. The nonri si ng-stem
val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-4. The stem i s threaded
i nto the gate. As the handwheel on the stem i s
rotated, the gate travel s up or down the stem on
the threads whi l e the stem remai ns verti cal l y
stati onary. Thi s type of val ve wi l l al most al ways
have a poi nter i ndi cator threaded onto the upper
end of the stem to i ndi cate the posi ti on of the gate.
Val ves wi th ri si ng stems (fi g. 6-5) are used
when i t i s i mportant to know by i mmedi ate
i nspecti on whether the val ve i s open or cl osed and
when the threads (stem and gate) exposed to the
fl ui d coul d become damaged by fl ui d contami -
nants. I n thi s val ve, the stem ri ses out of the val ve
when the val ve i s opened.
GLOBE VALVES
Gl obe val ves are probabl y the most common
val ves i n exi stence. The gl obe val ve gets i ts name
Figure 6-4.Operation of a gate valve.
6-3
Figure 6-5.Rising stem gate valve.
Figure 6-6.Types of globe valve bodies.
from the gl obul ar shape of the val ve body. Other
types of val ves may al so have gl obul ar-shaped
bodi es. Thus, i t i s the i nternal structure of the
val ve that i denti fi es the type of val ve.
The i nl et and outl et openi ngs for gl obe val ves
ar e ar r anged i n a way to sati sfy the fl ow
requi rements. Fi gure 6-6 shows strai ght-, angl e-,
and cross-fl ow val ves.
The movi ng parts of a gl obe val ve consi st of
the di sk, the val ve stem, and the handwheel . The
stem connects the handwheel and the di sk. I t i s
threaded and fi ts i nto the threads i n the val ve
bonnet.
The part of the gl obe val ve that control s fl ow
i s the di sk, whi ch i s attached to the val ve stem.
(Di sks are avai l abl e i n vari ous desi gns.) The val ve
i s cl osed by turni ng the val ve stem i n unti l the di sk
i s seated i nto the val ve seat. Thi s prevents fl ui d
from fl owi ng through the val ve (fi g. 6-7, vi ew A).
The edge of the di sk and the seat are very
accuratel y machi ned so that they forma ti ght seal
when the val ve i s cl osed. When the val ve i s open
(fi g. 6-7, vi ew B), the fl ui d fl ows through the space
between the edge of the di sk and the seat. Si nce
the fl ui d fl ows equal l y on al l si des of the center
of support when the val ve i s open, there i s no
unbal anced pressure on the di sk to cause uneven
wear. The rate at whi ch fl ui d fl ows through the
val ve i s regul ated by the posi ti on of the di sk i n
rel ati on to the seat. The val ve i s commonl y used
as a ful l y open or ful l y cl osed val ve, but i t may
be used as a throttl e val ve. However, si nce the
seati ng surface i s a rel ati vel y l arge area, i t i s not
sui tabl e as a throttl e val ve, where fi ne adjustments
are requi red i n control l i ng the rate of fl ow.
The gl obe val ve shoul d never be jammed i n
the open posi ti on. After a val ve i s ful l y opened,
the handwheel shoul d be turned toward the cl osed
posi ti on approxi matel y one-hal f turn. Unl ess thi s
i s done, the val ve i s l i kel y to sei ze i n the open
posi ti on, maki ng i t di ffi cul t, i f not i mpossi bl e, to
cl ose the val ve. Many val ves are damaged i n thi s
Figure 6-7.Operation of a globe valve.
6-4
manner. Another reason for not l eavi ng gl obe
val ves i n the ful l y open posi ti on i s that i t i s
someti mes di ffi cul t to determi ne i f the val ve i s
open or cl osed. I f the val ve i s jammed i n the open
posi ti on, the stem may be damaged or broken by
someone who thi nks the val ve i s cl osed, and
attempts to open i t.
I t i s i mportant that gl obe val ves be i nstal l ed
wi th the pressure agai nst the face of the di sk to
keep the system pressure away from the stem
packi ng when the val ve i s shut.
NEEDLE VALVES
Needl e val ves ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn and
operati on to the gl obe val ve. I nstead of a di sk,
a needl e val ve has a l ong tapered poi nt at the end
of the val ve stem. A cross-secti onal vi ew of a
needl e val ve i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-8.
The l ong taper of the val ve el ement permi ts
a much smal l er seati ng surface area than that of
the gl obe val ve; therefore, the needl e val ve i s more
sui tabl e as a throttl e val ve. Needl e val ves are used
to contr ol fl ow i nto del i cate gauges, whi ch
mi ght be damaged by sudden surges of fl ui d under
pressure. Needl e val ves are al so used to control
the end of a work cycl e, where i t i s desi rabl e for
moti on to be brought sl owl y to a hal t, and at other
poi nts where preci se adjustments of fl ow are
necessary and where a smal l rate of fl ow i s
desi r ed.
Al though many of the needl e val ves used i n
fl ui d power systems are the manual l y operated
type (fi g. 6-8), modi fi cati ons of thi s type of val ve
are often used as vari abl e restri ctors. Thi s val ve i s
constructed wi thout a handwheel and i s adjusted
to provi de a speci fi c rate of fl ow. Thi s rate of fl ow
wi l l provi de a desi red ti me of operati on for a
parti cul ar subsystem. Si nce thi s type of val ve can
be adjusted to conform to the requi rements of a
parti cul ar system, i t can be used i n a vari ety of
systems. Fi gure 6-9 i l l ustrates a needl e val ve that
was modi fi ed as a vari abl e restri ctor.
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
GLOBE VALVES
The val ve consi sts of a val ve body and a stem
cartri dge assembl y. The stem cartri dge assembl y
i ncl udes the bonnet, gl and nut, packi ng, packi ng
retai ner, handl e, stem, and seat. On smal l val ves
(1/8 and 1/4 i nch) the stem i s made i n one pi ece,
but on l arger si zes i t i s made of a stem, gui de,
and stem retai ner. The val ve di sk i s made of nyl on
and i s swaged i nto ei ther the stem, for 1/8- and
1/4-i nch val ves, or the gui de, for l arger val ves.
The bonnet screws i nto the val ve body wi th
l eft-hand threads and i s seal ed by an O-ri ng
(i ncl udi ng a back-up ri ng).
Figure 6-8.Cross-sectional view of a needle valve. Figure 6-9.Variable restrictor.
6-5
The val ve i s avai l abl e wi th ei ther a ri si ng stem
or a non-ri si ng stem. The ri si ng stem val ve uses
the same port body desi gn as does the non-ri si ng
stem val ve. The stem i s threaded i nto the gl and
nut and screws outward as the val ve i s opened.
Thi s val ve does not i ncorporate provi si ons for
ti ghteni ng the stem packi ng nor repl aci ng the
packi ng whi l e the val ve i s i n servi ce; therefore,
compl ete val ve di sassembl y i s r equi r ed for
mai ntenance. Fi gure 6-10 i l l ustrates a ri si ng stem
hydraul i c and pneumati c gl obe val ve. Addi ti onal
i nformati on on thi s val ve i s avai l abl e i n Standard
Navy Valves, NAVSHI PS 0948-012-5000.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
The safe and effi ci ent oper ati on of fl ui d
power systems, system components, and rel ated
equi pment r equi r es a means of contr ol l i ng
pressure. There are many types of automati c
pressure control val ves. Some of them merel y
provi de an escape for pressure that exceeds a set
pressure; some onl y reduce the pressure to a l ower
pressure system or subsystem; and some keep the
pressure i n a system wi thi n a requi red range.
RELIEF VALVES
Some fl ui d power systems, even when operat-
i ng normal l y, may temporari l y devel op excessi ve
pressure; for exampl e, when an unusual l y strong
work resi stance i s encountered. Rel i ef val ves are
used to control thi s excess pressure.
Rel i ef val ves are automati c val ves used on
system l i nes and equi pment to prevent over-
pressuri zati on. Most rel i ef val ves si mpl y l i ft (open)
at a preset pressure and reset (shut) when the
pressure drops sl i ghtl y bel ow the l i fti ng pressure.
They do not mai ntai n fl ow or pressure at a gi ven
amount, but prevent pressure from ri si ng above
a speci fi c l evel when the system i s temporari l y
overl oaded.
Mai n system r el i ef val ves ar e gener al l y
i nstal l ed between the pump or pressure source and
the fi rst system i sol ati on val ve. The val ve must
be l arge enough to al l ow the ful l output of the
hydr aul i c pump to be del i ver ed back to the
reservoi r. I n a pneumati c system, the rel i ef val ve
control s excess pressure by di schargi ng the excess
gas to the atmosphere.
Figure 6-10.Hydraulic and pneumatic globe valve (rising stem).
6-6
Smal l er rel i ef val ves, si mi l ar i n desi gn and
operati on to the mai n system rel i ef val ve, are often
used i n i sol ated parts of the system where a check
val ve or di recti onal control val ve prevents pressure
from bei ng rel i eved through the mai n system rel i ef
val ve and where pressures must be rel i eved at a
set poi nt l ower than that provi ded by the mai n
system rel i ef. These smal l rel i ef val ves are al so
used to rel i eve pressures caused by thermal
expansi on (see gl ossary) of the fl ui ds.
Fi gure 6-11 shows a typi cal rel i ef val ve. System
pressure si mpl y acts under the val ve di sk at the
i nl et to the val ve. When the system pressure
exceeds the force exerted by the val ve spri ng, the
val ve di sk l i fts off of i ts seat, al l owi ng some of
the system fl ui d to escape through the val ve outl et
unti l the system pressure i s reduced to just bel ow
the rel i ef set poi nt of the val ve.
Al l r el i ef val ves have an adjustment for
i ncreasi ng or decreasi ng the set rel i ef pressure.
Some rel i ef val ves are equi pped wi th an adjusti ng
screw for thi s purpose. Thi s adjusti ng screw i s
usual l y cover ed wi th a cap, whi ch must be
removed before an adjustment can be made. Some
type of l ocki ng devi ce, such as a l ock nut, i s
usual l y provi ded to prevent the adjustment from
changi ng through vi brati on. Other types of rel i ef
val ves are equi pped wi th a handwheel for maki ng
adjustments to the val ve. Ei ther the adjusti ng
screw or the handwheel i s turned cl ockwi se to
i ncrease the pressure at whi ch the val ve wi l l open.
I n addi ti on, most rel i ef val ves are al so provi ded
Figure 6-11.Relief valve.
wi th an operati ng l ever or some type of devi ce to
al l ow manual cycl i ng or gaggi ng the val ve open
for certai n tasks.
Var i ous modi fi cati ons of the r el i ef val ve
shown i n fi gure 6-11 are used to effi ci entl y serve
the requi rements of some fl ui d power systems;
however, thi s rel i ef val ve i s unsati sfactory for
some appl i cati ons. To gi ve you a better under-
standi ng of the operati on of rel i ef val ves, we wi l l
di scuss some of the undesi rabl e characteri sti cs of
thi s val ve.
A si mpl e r el i ef val ve, such as the one
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-11, wi th a sui tabl e spri ng
adjustment can be set so that i t wi l l open when
the system pressure reaches a certai n l evel , 500
psi for exampl e. When the val ve does open, the
vol ume of fl ow to be handl ed may be greater than
the capaci ty of the val ve; therefore, pressure i n
the system may i ncrease to several hundred psi
above the set pressure before the val ve bri ngs the
pressure under control . A si mpl e rel i ef val ve wi l l
be effecti ve under these condi ti ons onl y i f i t i s very
l arge. I n thi s case, i t woul d operate sti ffl y and the
val ve el ement woul d chatter back and forth. I n
addi ti on, the val ve wi l l not cl ose unti l the system
pressure decreases to a poi nt somewhat bel ow the
openi ng pressure.
The surface area of the val ve el ement must be
l arger than that of the pressure openi ng i f the
val ve i s to seat sati sfactori l y as shown i n fi gure
6-12. The pressure i n the system acts on the val ve
el ement open to i t. I n each case i n fi gure 6-12,
the force exerted di rectl y upward by system
pressure when the val ve i s cl osed depends on the
area (A) across the val ve el ement where the
el ement seats agai nst the pressure tube. The
moment the val ve opens, however, the upward
force exerted depends on the hori zontal area (B)
of the enti re val ve el ement, whi ch i s greater than
area A. Thi s causes an upward jump of the val ve
el ement i mmedi atel y after i t opens, because the
Figure 6-12.Pressure acting on different areas.
6-7
same pressure acti ng over di fferent areas produces
forces proporti onal to the areas. I t al so requi res
a greater force to cl ose the val ve than was requi red
to open i t. As a resul t, the val ve wi l l not cl ose unti l
the system pressure has decreased to a certai n
poi nt bel ow the pressure requi red to open i t.
Let us assume that a val ve of thi s type i s set
to open at 500 psi . (Refer to fi g. 6-12.) When the
val ve i s cl osed, the pressure acts on area A. I f thi s
area i s 0.5 square i nch, an upward force of 250
pounds (500 ~ 0.5) wi l l be exerted on the val ve
at the moment of openi ng. Wi th the val ve open,
however, the pressure acts on area B. I f area B
i s 1 square i nch, the upward force i s 500 pounds,
or doubl e the force at whi ch the val ve actual l y
opened. For the val ve to cl ose, pressure i n the
system woul d have to decrease wel l bel ow the
poi nt at whi ch the val ve opened. The exact
pressure woul d depend on the shape of the val ve
el ement.
I n some hydraul i c systems, there i s a pressure
i n the return l i ne. Thi s back pressure i s caused
by restri cti ons i n the return l i ne and wi l l vary i n
rel ati on to the amount of fl ui d fl owi ng i n the
return l i ne. Thi s pressure creates a force on the
back of the val ve el ement and wi l l i ncrease the
force necessary to open the val ve and rel i eve
system pressure.
I t fol l ows that si mpl e rel i ef val ves have a
tendency to open and cl ose rapi dl y as they hunt
above and bel ow the set pr essur e, causi ng
pressure pul sati ons and undesi rabl e vi brati ons
and produci ng a noi sy chatter. Because of the
unsati sfactory performance of the si mpl e rel i ef
val ve i n some appl i cati ons, compound rel i ef val ves
wer e devel oped.
Compound rel i ef val ves use the pri nci pl es of
operati on of si mpl e rel i ef val ves for one stage of
thei r acti onthat of the pi l ot val ve. Provi si on i s
made to l i mi t the amount of fl ui d that the pi l ot
val ve must handl e, and ther eby avoi d the
weaknesses of si mpl e r el i ef val ves. (A pi l ot
val ve i s a smal l val ve used for operati ng another
val ve.)
The operati on of a compound rel i ef val ve i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-13. I n vi ew A, the mai n
val ve, whi ch consi sts of a pi ston, stem, and spri ng,
i s cl osed, bl ocki ng fl ow from the hi gh-pressure
l i ne to the reservoi r. Fl ui d i n the hi gh-pressure l i ne
fl ows around the stem of the mai n val ves as i t
fl ows to the actuati ng uni t. The stem of the mai n
val ve i s hol l ow (the stem passage) and contai ns
the mai n val ve spri ng, whi ch forces the mai n val ve
agai nst i ts seat. When the pi l ot val ve i s open the
stem passage al l ows fl ui d to fl ow from the pi l ot
Figure 6-13.Operation of compound relief valve,
6-8
val ve, around the mai n val ve spri ng, and down
to the return l i ne.
There i s al so a narrow passage (pi ston passage)
through the mai n val ve pi ston. Thi s passage
connects the hi gh-pr essur e l i ne to the val ve
chamber.
The pi l ot val ve i s a smal l , bal l -type, spri ng-
l oaded check val ve, whi ch connects the top of the
passage from the val ve chamber wi th the passage
through the mai n val ve stem. The pi l ot val ve i s
the control uni t of the rel i ef val ve because the
pressure at whi ch the rel i ef val ve wi l l open
depends on the tensi on of the pi l ot val ve spri ng.
The pi l ot val ve spri ng tensi on i s adjusted by
turni ng the adjusti ng screw so that the bal l wi l l
unseat when system pressure reaches the preset
l i mi t.
Fl ui d at l i ne pr essur e fl ows thr ough the
nar r ow pi ston passage to fi l l the chamber .
Because the l i ne and the chamber are connected,
the pressure i n both are equal . The top and
bottom of the mai n pi ston have equal areas;
therefore, the hydraul i c forces acti ng upward
and downward are equal , and there i s no tendency
for the pi ston to move i n ei ther di r ecti on.
The onl y other force acti ng on the mai n val ve
i s that of the mai n val ve spri ng, whi ch hol ds i t
cl osed.
When the pressure i n the hi gh-pressure l i ne
i ncreases to the poi nt at whi ch the pi l ot val ve
i s set, the bal l unseats (fi g. 6-13, vi ew B).
Thi s opens the val ve chamber thr ough the
val ve stem passage to the l ow-pressure return
l i ne. Fl ui d i mmedi atel y begi ns to fl ow out of the
chamber, much faster than i t can fl ow through
the nar r ow pi ston passage. As a r esul t the
chamber pressure i mmedi atel y drops, and the
pi l ot val ve begi ns to cl ose agai n, r estr i cti ng
the outward fl ow of fl ui d. Chamber pressure
therefore i ncreases, the val ve opens, and the cycl e
repeats.
So far, the onl y part of the val ve that has
moved appreci abl y i s the pi l ot, whi ch functi ons
just l i ke any other si mpl e spri ng-l oaded rel i ef
val ve. Because of the smal l si ze of the pi ston
passage, there i s a severe l i mi t on the amount
of overpressure protecti on the pi l ot can provi de
the system. Al l the pi l ot val ve can do i s l i mi t
fl ui d pressure i n the val ve chamber above the
mai n pi ston to a pr eset maxi mum pr essur e,
by al l owi ng excess fl ui d to fl ow through the
pi ston passage, through the stem passage, and
i nto the return l i ne. When pressure i n the system
i ncreases to a val ue that i s above the fl ow capaci ty
of the pi l ot val ve, the mai n val ve opens,
permi tti ng excess fl ui d to fl ow di rectl y to the
return l i ne. Thi s i s accompl i shed i n the fol l owi ng
manner.
As system pressure i ncreases, the upward force
on the mai n pi ston overcomes the downward
force, whi ch consi sts of the tensi on of the mai n
pi ston spri ng and the pressure of the fl ui d i n the
val ve chamber (fi g. 6-13, vi ew C). The pi ston then
ri ses, unseati ng the stem, and al l ows the fl ui d to
fl ow from the system pressure l i ne di rectl y i nto
the return l i ne. Thi s causes system pressure to
decrease rapi dl y, si nce the mai n val ve i s desi gned
to handl e the compl ete output of the pump. When
the pressure returns to normal , the pi l ot spri ng
forces the bal l onto the seat. Pressures are equal
above and bel ow the mai n pi ston, and the mai n
spri ng forces the val ve to seat.
As you can see, the compound val ve over-
comes the greatest l i mi tati on of a si mpl e rel i ef
val ve by l i mi ti ng the fl ow through the pi l ot val ve
to the quanti ty i t can sati sfactori l y handl e. Thi s
l i mi ts the pressure above the mai n val ve and
enabl es the mai n l i ne pressure to open the mai n
val ve. I n thi s way, the system i s rel i eved when an
overl oad exi sts.
PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pressure regul ators, often r efer r ed to as
unl oadi ng val ves, are used i n fl ui d power systems
to regul ate pressure. I n pneumati c systems, the
val ve, commonl y r efer r ed to as a pr essur e
regul ator, si mpl y reduces pressure. Thi s type of
val ve i s di scussed l ater i n thi s chapter under
pressure-reduci ng val ves. I n hydraul i c systems the
pressure regul ator i s used to unl oad the pump and
to mai ntai n and regul ate system pressure at the
desi red val ues. Al l hydraul i c systems do not
r equi r e pr essur e r egul ator s. The open-center
system (di scussed i n chapter 12) does not requi re
a pressure regul ator. Many systems are equi pped
wi th vari abl e-di spl acement pumps (di scussed i n
chapter 4), whi ch contai n a pressure-regul ati ng
devi ce.
Pressure regul ators are made i n a vari ety of
types and by vari ous manufacturers; however, the
6-9
basi c operati ng pri nci pl es of al l regul ators are
si mi l ar to the one i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-14.
A regul ator i s open when i t i s di recti ng fl ui d
under pressure i nto the system (fi g. 6-14, vi ew A).
I n the cl osed posi ti on (fi g. 6-14, vi ew B), the fl ui d
i n the part of the system beyond the regul ator i s
trapped at the desi red pressure, and the fl ui d from
the pump i s bypassed i nto the return l i ne and back
to the reservoi r. To prevent constant openi ng and
cl osi ng (chatter), the regul ator i s desi gned to open
at a pressure somewhat l ower than the cl osi ng
pressure. Thi s di fference i s known as di fferenti al
or operati ng range. For exampl e, assume that a
pressure regul ator i s set to open when the system
pressure drops bel ow 600 psi , and cl ose when the
pressure ri ses above 800 psi . The di fferenti al or
operati ng range i s 200 psi .
Referri ng to fi gure 6-14, assume that the
pi ston has an area of 1 square i nch, the pi l ot val ve
has a cross-secti onal area of one-fourth square
i nch, and the pi ston spri ng provi des 600 pounds
of force pushi ng the pi ston down. When the
pressure i n the system i s l ess than 600 psi , fl ui d
from the pump wi l l enter the i nl et port, fl ow to
the top of the regul ator, and then to the pi l ot
val ve. When the pressure of the fl ui d at the i nl et
i ncreases to the poi nt where the force i t creates
agai nst the front of the check val ve exceeds the
force created agai nst the back of the check val ve
by system pressure and the check val ve spri ng, the
check val ve opens. Thi s al l ows fl ui d to fl ow i nto
the system and to the bottom of the regul ator
agai nst the pi ston. When the force created by the
system pressure exceeds the force exerted by the
spri ng, the pi ston moves up, causi ng the pi l ot
val ve to unseat. Si nce the fl ui d wi l l take the path
of l east r esi stance, i t wi l l pass thr ough the
regul ator and back to the reservoi r through the
return l i ne.
When the fl ui d from the pump i s suddenl y
al l owed a free path to return, the pressure on the
i nput si de of the check val ve drops and the check
val ve cl oses. The fl ui d i n the system i s then
trapped under pressure. Thi s fl ui d wi l l remai n
pressuri zed unti l a power uni t i s actuated, or unti l
pressure i s sl owl y l ost through normal i nternal
l eakage wi thi n the system.
When the system pressure decreases to a poi nt
sl i ghtl y bel ow 600 psi , the spri ng forces the pi ston
down and cl oses the pi l ot val ve. When the pi l ot
val ve i s cl osed, the fl ui d cannot fl ow di rectl y to
the return l i ne. Thi s causes the pressure to i ncrease
i n the l i ne between the pump and the regul ator.
Thi s pressure opens the check val ve, causi ng the
fl ui d to enter the system.
I n summar y, when the system pr essur e
decreases a certai n amount, the pressure regul ator
wi l l open, sendi ng fl ui d to the system. When the
system pr essur e i ncr eases suffi ci entl y, the
regul ator wi l l cl ose, al l owi ng the fl ui d from the
pump to fl ow through the regul ator and back to
the reservoi r. The pressure regul ator takes the l oad
off of the pump and regul ates system pressure.
Figure 6-14.Hydraulic pressure regulator.
6-10
Figure 6-15.Installation
SEQUENCE VALVES
of sequence valves.
Sequence val ves contr ol the sequence of
operati on between two branches i n a ci rcui t; that
i s, they enabl e one uni t to automati cal l y set
another uni t i nto moti on. An exampl e of the use
of a sequence val ve i s i n an ai rcraft l andi ng gear
actuati ng system.
I n a l andi ng gear actuati ng system, the l andi ng
gear doors must open before the l andi ng gear
starts to extend. Conversel y, the l andi ng gear must
be compl etel y retracted before the doors cl ose. A
sequence val ve i nstal l ed i n each l andi ng gear
actuati ng l i ne performs thi s functi on.
A sequence val ve i s somewhat si mi l ar to a
rel i ef val ve except that, after the set pressure has
been reached, the sequence val ve di verts the fl ui d
to a second actuator or motor to do work i n
another part of the system. Fi gure 6-15 shows an
i nstal l ati on of two sequence val ves that control
the sequence of operati on of three actuati ng
cyl i nders. Fl ui d i s free to fl ow i nto cyl i nder A.
The fi rst sequence val ve (1) bl ocks the passage of
fl ui d unti l the pi ston i n cyl i nder A moves to the
end of i ts stroke. At thi s ti me, sequence val ve 1
opens, al l owi ng fl ui d to enter cyl i nder B. Thi s
acti on conti nues unti l al l three pi stons compl ete
thei r strokes.
There are vari ous types of sequence val ves.
Some are control l ed by pressure and some are
control l ed mechani cal l y.
Pressure-Controlled Sequence Valve
The operati on of a typi cal pressure-control l ed
sequence val ve i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-16. The
openi ng pressure i s obtai ned by adjusti ng the
tensi on of the spri ng that normal l y hol ds the
pi ston i n the cl osed posi ti on. (Note that the top
part of the pi ston has a l arger di ameter than the
l ower part.) Fl ui d enters the val ve through the
i nl et port, fl ows around the l ower part of the
pi ston and exi ts the outl et port, where i t fl ows to
the pri mary (fi rst) uni t to be operated (fi g. 6-16,
vi ew A). Thi s fl ui d pressure al so acts agai nst the
l ower surface of the pi ston.
Figure 6-16.Operation of a pressure-controlled sequence valve.
6-11
When the pri mary actuati ng uni t compl etes i ts
operati on, pressure i n the l i ne to the actuati ng uni t
i ncreases suffi ci entl y to overcome the force of the
spri ng, and the pi ston ri ses. The val ve i s then i n
the open posi ti on (fi g. 6-16, vi ew B). The fl ui d
enteri ng the val ve takes the path of l east resi stance
and fl ows to the secondary uni t.
A drai n passage i s provi ded to al l ow any fl ui d
l eaki ng past the pi ston to fl ow from the top of
the val ve. I n hydraul i c systems, thi s drai n l i ne i s
usual l y connected to the mai n return l i ne.
Mechanically Operated Sequence Valve
The mechani cal l y operated sequence val ve
(fi g. 6-17) i s operated by a pl unger that extends
thr ough the body of the val ve. The val ve i s
mounted so that the pl unger wi l l be operated by
the pri mary uni t.
A check val ve, ei ther a bal l or a poppet, i s
i nstal l ed between the fl ui d ports i n the body. I t
can be unseated by ei ther the pl unger or fl ui d
pr essur e.
Port A (fi g. 6-17) and the actuator of the
pri mary uni t are connected by a common l i ne.
Port B i s connected by a l i ne to the actuator of
the secondary uni t. When fl ui d under pressure
fl ows to the pri mary uni t, i t al so fl ows i nto the
sequence val ve through port A to the seated check
val ve i n the sequence val ve. I n order to operate
the secondary uni t, the fl ui d must fl ow through
the sequence val ve. The val ve i s l ocated so that
the pri mary uni t depresses the pl unger as i t
compl etes i ts operati on. The pl unger unseats
the check val ve and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow
Figure 6-17.Mechanically operated sequence valve.
thr ough the val ve, out por t B, and to the
secondary uni t.
Thi s type of sequence val ve permi ts fl ow i n
the opposi te di recti on. Fl ui d enters port B and
fl ows to the check val ve. Al though thi s i s return
fl ow from the actuati ng uni t, the fl ui d overcomes
spri ng tensi on, unseats the check val ve, and fl ows
out through port A.
PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVES
Pressure-reduci ng val ves provi de a steady
pressure i nto a system that operates at a l ower
pressure than the suppl y system. A reduci ng val ve
can normal l y be set for any desi red downstream
pressure wi thi n the desi gn l i mi ts of the val ve. Once
the val ve i s set, the reduced pressure wi l l be
mai ntai ned r egar dl ess of changes i n suppl y
pressure (as l ong as the suppl y pressure i s at l east
as hi gh as the reduced pressure desi red) and
regardl ess of the system l oad, provi di ng the l oad
does not exceed the desi gn capaci ty of the reducer.
Figure 6-18.Spring-loaded pressure-reducing valve.
6-12
Ther e ar e var i ous desi gns and types of
pr essur e-r educi ng val ves. The spr i ng-l oaded
r educer and the pi l ot-contr ol l ed val ve ar e
di scussed i n thi s text.
Spring-Loaded Reducer
The spri ng-l oaded pressure-reduci ng val ve
(fi g. 6-18) i s commonl y used i n pneumati c
systems. I t i s often referred to as a pressure
regul ator.
The val ve si mpl y uses spri ng pressure agai nst
a di aphragm to open the val ve. On the bottom
of the di aphragm, the outl et pressure (the pressure
i n the reduced-pressure system) of the val ve forces
the di aphragm upward to shut the val ve. When
the outl et pressure drops bel ow the set poi nt of
the val ve, the spri ng pressure overcomes the outl et
pressure and forces the val ve stem downward,
openi ng the val ve. As the outl et pressure i ncreases,
appr oachi ng the desi r ed val ue, the pr essur e
under the di aphragm begi ns to overcome spri ng
pressure, forci ng the val ve stem upwards, shutti ng
the val ve. You can adjust the downstr eam
pressure by turni ng the adjusti ng screw, whi ch
vari es the spri ng pressure agai nst the di aphragm.
Thi s parti cul ar spri ng-l oaded val ve wi l l fai l i n the
open posi ti on i f a di aphragm rupture occurs.
Pilot-Controlled Pressure-Reducing Valve
Fi gure 6-19 i l l ustrates the operati on of a
pi l ot-control l ed pressure-reduci ng val ve. Thi s
val ve consi sts of an adjustabl e pi l ot val ve, whi ch
control s the operati ng pressure of the val ve, and
a spool val ve, whi ch reacts to the acti on of the
pi l ot val ve.
The pi l ot val ve consi sts of a poppet (1), a
spri ng (2), and an adjusti ng screw (3). The val ve
Figure 6-19.Pilot-controlled pressure-reducing valve.
6-13
spool assembl y consi sts of a val ve spool (10) and
a spri ng (4).
Fl ui d under mai n pressure enters the i nl et port
(11) and under al l condi ti ons i s free to fl ow
through the val ve and the outl et port (5). (Ei ther
port 5 or port 11 maybe used as the hi gh-pressure
por t.)
Fi gure 6-19, vi ew A, shows the val ve i n the
open posi ti on. I n thi s posi ti on, the pressure i n the
reduced-pressure outl et port (6) has not reached
the preset operati ng pressure of the val ve. The
fl ui d al so fl ows through passage 8, through smal l er
passage 9 i n the center of the val ve spool , and i nto
chamber 12. The fl ui d pressure at outl et port 6
i s therefore di stri buted to both ends of the spool .
When these pressures are equal the spool i s hydrau-
l i cal l y bal anced. Spri ng 4 i s a l ow-tensi on spri ng
and appl i es onl y a sl i ght downward force on the
spool . I ts mai n purpose i s to posi ti on the spool
and to mai ntai n openi ng 7 at i ts maxi mum si ze.
As the pressure i ncreases i n outl et port 6 (fi g.
16, vi ew B), thi s pressure i s transmi tted through
passages 8 and 9 to chamber 12. Thi s pressure al so
acts on the pi l ot val ve poppet (1). When thi s
pressure i ncreases above the preset operati ng
pressure of the val ve, i t overcomes the force of
pi l ot val ve spri ng 2 and unseats the poppet. Thi s
al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the drai n port (15).
Because the smal l passage (9) restri cts fl ow i nto
chamber 12, the fl ui d pressure i n the chamber
drops. Thi s causes a momentary di fference i n
pressure across the val ve spool (10) whi ch al l ows
fl ui d pressure acti ng agai nst the bottom area of
the val ve spool to overcome the downward force
of spri ng 4. The spool i s then forced upward unti l
the pressures across i ts ends are equal i zed. As the
spool moves upward, i t restri cts the fl ow through
openi ng 7 and causes the pressure to decrease i n
the reduced pressure outl et port 6. I f the pressure
i n the outl et port conti nues to i ncrease to a val ue
above the preset pressure, the pi l ot val ve wi l l open
agai n and the cycl e wi l l repeat. Thi s al l ows the
spool val ve to move up hi gher i nto chamber 12;
thus further reduci ng the si ze of openi ng 7.
These cycl es repeat unti l the desi red pressure i s
mai ntai ned i n outl et 6.
When the pressure i n outl et 6 decreases to a
val ue bel ow the preset pressure, spri ng 4 forces
the spool downward, al l owi ng more fl ui d to fl ow
through openi ng 7.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
The counterbal ance val ve i s normal l y l ocated
i n the l i ne between a di recti onal control val ve and
the outl et of a ver ti cal l y mounted actuati ng
cyl i nder whi ch supports wei ght or must be hel d
6-14
i n posi ti on for a peri od of ti me. Thi s val ve serves
as a hydraul i c resi stance to the actuati ng cyl i nder.
For exampl e, counterbal ance val ves are used i n
some hydraul i cal l y operated forkl i fts. The val ve
offers a resi stance to the fl ow from the actuati ng
cyl i nder when the fork i s l owered. I t al so hel ps
to support the fork i n the UP posi ti on.
Counterbal ance val ves are al so used i n ai r-
l aunched weapons l oaders. I n thi s case the val ve
i s l ocated i n the top of the l i ft cyl i nder. The val ve
requi res a speci fi c pressure to l ower the l oad. I f
adequate pressure i s not avai l abl e, the l oad cannot
be l owered. Thi s prevents col l apse of the l oad due
to any mal functi on of the hydraul i c system.
One type of counterbal ance val ve i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 6-20. The val ve el ement i s a bal anced
spool (4). The spool consi sts of two pi stons
permanentl y fi xed on ei ther end of a shaft. The
i nner surface areas of the pi stons are equal ;
therefore, pressure acts equal l y on both areas
regardl ess of the posi ti on of the val ve and has no
effect on the movement of the val vehence, the
term balanced. The shaft area between the two
pi stons provi des the area for the fl ui d to fl ow
Figure 6-20.Counterbalance valve.
when the val ve i s open. A smal l pi ston (9) i s
attached to the bottom of the spool val ve.
When the val ve i s i n the cl osed posi ti on, the
top pi ston of the spool val ve bl ocks the di scharge
port (8). Wi th the val ve i n thi s posi ti on, fl ui d
fl owi ng from the actuati ng uni t enters the i nl et
port (5). The fl ui d cannot fl ow through the val ve
because di scharge port 8 i s bl ocked. However,
fl ui d wi l l fl ow through the pi l ot passage (6) to the
smal l pi l ot pi ston. As the pressure i ncreases, i t acts
on the pi l ot pi ston unti l i t overcomes the preset
pressure of spri ng 3. Thi s forces the val ve spool
(4) up and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow around the
shaft of the val ve spool and out di scharge port
8. Fi gure 6-20 shows the val ve i n thi s posi ti on.
Duri ng reverse fl ow, the fl ui d enters port 8. The
spri ng (3) forces val ve spool 4 to the cl osed
posi ti on. The fl ui d pressure overcomes the spri ng
tensi on of the check val ve (7). The check val ve
opens and al l ows free fl ow around the shaft of
the val ve spool and out through port 5.
The operati ng pressure of the val ve can be
adjusted by turni ng the adjustment screw (1),
whi ch i ncreases or decreases the tensi on of the
spri ng. Thi s adjustment depends on the wei ght
that the val ve must support.
I t i s normal for a smal l amount of fl ui d to l eak
around the top pi ston of the spool val ve and i nto
the area around the spri ng. An accumul ati on
woul d cause addi ti onal pressure on top of the
spool val ve. Thi s woul d r equi r e addi ti onal
pressure to open the val ve. The drai n (2) provi des
a passage for thi s fl ui d to fl ow to port 8.
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Di recti onal control val ves are desi gned to
di rect the fl ow of fl ui d, at the desi red ti me, to the
poi nt i n a fl ui d power system where i t wi l l do
work. The dri vi ng of a ram back and forth i n i ts
cyl i nder i s an exampl e of when a di recti onal
control val ve i s used. Vari ous other terms are used
to i denti fy di recti onal val ves, such as sel ector
val ve, transfer val ve, and control val ve. Thi s
manual wi l l use the term di recti onal control val ve
to i denti fy these val ves.
Di r ecti onal contr ol val ves for hydr aul i c
and pneumati c systems are si mi l ar i n desi gn
and oper ati on. However , ther e i s one major
di fference. The return port of a hydraul i c val ve
i s ported through a return l i ne to the reservoi r,
whi l e the si mi l ar port of a pneumati c val ve,
commonl y referred to as the exhaust port, i s
usual l y vented to the atmosphere. Any other
di fferences are poi nted out i n the di scussi on of
the val ves.
Di recti onal control val ves may be operated by
di fferences i n pressure acti ng on opposi te si des
of the val vi ng el ement, or they maybe posi ti oned
manual l y, mechani cal l y, or el ectri cal l y. Often two
or more methods of operati ng the same val ve wi l l
be used i n di fferent phases of i ts acti on.
CLASSIFICATION
Di recti onal control val ves may be cl assi fi ed i n
several ways. Some of the di fferent ways are by
the type of control , the number of ports i n the
val ve housi ng, and the speci fi c functi on of the
val ve. The most common method i s by the type
of val vi ng el ement used i n the constructi on of the
val ve. The most common types of val vi ng
el ements are the bal l , cone or sl eeve, poppet,
r otar y spool , and sl i di ng spool . The basi c
operati ng pri nci pl es of the poppet, rotary spool ,
and sl i di ng spool val vi ng el ements are di scussed
i n thi s text.
Poppet
The poppet fi ts i nto the center bore of the seat
(fi g. 6-21). The seati ng surfaces of the poppet and
the seat are l apped or cl osel y machi ned so that
the center bore wi l l be seal ed when the poppet i s
Figure 6-21.Operation of a simple poppet valve.
6-15
seated (shut). The acti on of the poppet i s si mi l ar
to that of the val ves i n an automobi l e engi ne. I n
most val ves the poppet i s hel d i n the seated
posi ti on by a spri ng.
The val ve consi sts pri mari l y of a movabl e
poppet whi ch cl oses agai nst the val ve seat. I n the
cl osed posi ti on, fl ui d pressure on the i nl et si de
tends to hol d the val ve ti ghtl y cl osed. A smal l
amount of movement from a force appl i ed to the
top of the poppet stem opens the poppet and
al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the val ve.
The use of the poppet as a-val vi ng el ement i s
not l i mi ted to di recti onal control val ves.
Rotary Spool
The rotary spool di recti onal control val ve
(fi g. 6-22) has a round core wi th one or more
passages or recesses i n i t. The core i s mounted
wi thi n a stati onary sl eeve. As the core i s rotated
wi thi n the stati onary sl eeve, the passages or
recesses connect or bl ock the ports i n the sl eeve.
The ports i n the sl eeve are connected to the
appropri ate l i nes of the fl ui d system.
Sliding spool
The oper ati on of a si mpl e sl i di ng spool
di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-23.
The val ve i s so-named because of the shape of the
val vi ng el ement that sl i des back and forth to bl ock
and uncover ports i n the housi ng. (The sl i di ng
el ement i s al so referred to as a pi ston.) The i nner
pi ston areas (l ands) are equal . Thus fl ui d under
pressure whi ch enters the val ve from the i nl et ports
CHECK VALVE
Figure 6-22.Parts of a rotary spool directional control
valve.
Figure 6-23.Two-way, sliding spool directional control
valve.
acts equal l y on both i nner pi ston areas regardl ess
of the posi ti on of the spool . Seal i ng i s usual l y
accompl i shed by a ver y cl osel y machi ned fi t
between the spool and the val ve body or sl eeve.
For val ves wi th more ports, the spool i s desi gned
wi th more pi stons or l ands on a common shaft.
The sl i di ng spool i s the most commonl y used type
of val vi ng el ement used i n di recti onal control
val ves.
Check val ves are used i n fl ui d systems to
permi t fl ow i n one di recti on and to prevent fl ow
i n the other di recti on. They are cl assi fi ed as
one-way di recti onal control val ves.
The check val ve may be i nstal l ed i nde-
pendentl y i n a l i ne to al l ow fl ow i n one di recti on
onl y, or i t may be used as an i ntegral part of
gl obe, sequence, counterbal ance, and pressure-
reduci ng val ves.
Check val ves are avai l abl e i n vari ous desi gns.
They are opened by the force of fl ui d i n moti on
fl owi ng i n one di recti on, and are cl osed by fl ui d
attempti ng to fl ow i n the opposi te di recti on. The
force of gravi ty or the acti on of a spri ng ai ds i n
cl osi ng the val ve.
6-16
Figure 6-24.Swing check valve.
Fi gure 6-24 shows a swi ng check val ve. I n the
open posi ti on, the fl ow of fl ui d forces the hi nged
di sk up and al l ows free fl ow through the val ve.
Fl ow i n the opposi te di recti on wi th the ai d of
gravi ty, forces the hi nged di sk to cl ose the passage
and bl ocks the fl ow. Thi s type of val ve i s
someti mes desi gned wi th a spri ng to assi st i n
cl osi ng the val ve.
The most common type of check val ve,
i nstal l ed i n fl ui d-power systems, uses ei ther a bal l
or cone for the seal i ng el ement (fi g. 6-25). As fl ui d
pressure i s appl i ed i n the di recti on of the arrow,
the cone (vi ew A) or bal l (vi ew B) i s forced off
i ts seat, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow freel y through the
val ve. Thi s val ve i s known as a spri ng-l oaded
check val ve.
The spri ng i s i nstal l ed i n the val ve to hol d the
cone or bal l on i ts seat whenever fl ui d i s not
fl owi ng. The spri ng al so hel ps to force the cone
or bal l on i ts seat when the fl ui d attempts to fl ow
i n the opposi te di recti on. Si nce the openi ng and
cl osi ng of thi s type of val ve i s not dependent on
gravi ty, i ts l ocati on i n a system i s not l i mi ted to
the verti cal posi ti on.
A modi fi cati on of the spri ng-l oaded check
val ve i s the ori fi ce check val ve (fi g. 6-26). Thi s
Figure 6-25.Spring-loaded check valves. Figure 6-26.Typical orifice check valves.
6-17
val ve al l ows normal fl ow i n one di recti on and
restri cted fl ow i n the other. I t i s often referred
to as a one-way restri ctor.
Fi gure 6-26, vi ew A, shows a cone-type ori fi ce
check val ve. When suffi ci ent fl ui d pressure i s
appl i ed at the i nl et port, i t overcomes spri ng
tensi on and moves the cone off of i ts seat. The
two ori fi ces (2) i n the i l l ustrati on represent several
openi ngs l ocated around the sl anted ci rcumference
of the cone. These ori fi ces al l ow free fl ow of fl ui d
through the val ve whi l e the cone i s off of i ts seat.
When fl ui d pressure i s appl i ed through the outl et
port, the force of the fl ui d and spri ng tensi on
move the cone to the l eft and onto i ts seat. Thi s
acti on bl ocks the fl ow of fl ui d through the val ve,
except through the ori fi ce (1) i n the center of the
cone. The si ze of the ori fi ce (i n the center of the
cone) determi nes the rate of fl ow through the
val ve as the fl ui d fl ows from ri ght to l eft.
Fi gure 6-26, vi ew B, shows a bal l -type ori fi ce
check val ve. Fl ui d fl ow through the val ve from
l eft to ri ght forces the bal l off of i ts seat and
al l ows normal fl ow. Fl ui d fl ow through the val ve
i n the opposi te di recti on forces the bal l onto i ts
seat. Thus, the fl ow i s restri cted by the si ze of the
ori fi ce l ocated i n the housi ng of the val ve.
NOTE: The di recti on of free fl ow through the
or i fi ce check val ve i s i ndi cated by an ar r ow
stamped on the housi ng.
SHUTTLE VALVE
I n certai n fl ui d power systems, the suppl y of
fl ui d to a subsystem must be from more than one
source to meet system requi rements. I n some
systems an emergency system i s provi ded as a
source of pressure i n the event of normal system
fai l ure. The emergency system wi l l usual l y actuate
onl y essenti al components.
The mai n purpose of the shuttl e val ve i s to
i sol ate the normal system from an al ternate or
emergency system. I t i s smal l and si mpl e; yet, i t
i s a very i mportant component.
Fi gure 6-27 i s a cutaway vi ew of a typi cal
shuttl e val ve. The housi ng contai ns three ports
normal system i nl et, al ternate or emergency
system i nl et, and outl et. A shuttl e val ve used to
operate more than one actuati ng uni t may contai n
addi ti onal uni t outl et ports. Encl osed i n the
housi ng i s a sl i di ng part cal l ed the shuttl e. I ts
purpose i s to seal off ei ther one or the other i nl et
ports. There i s a shuttl e seat at each i nl et port.
6-18
Figure 6-27.Shuttle valve.
When a shuttl e val ve i s i n the nor mal
operati on posi ti on, fl ui d has a free fl ow from the
normal system i nl et port, through the val ve, and
out through the outl et port to the actuati ng uni t.
The shuttl e i s seated agai nst the al ternate system
i nl et por t and hel d ther e by nor mal system
pressure and by the shuttl e val ve spri ng. The
shuttl e remai ns i n thi s posi ti on unti l the al ternate
system i s acti vated. Thi s acti on di rects fl ui d under
pressure from the al ternate system to the shuttl e
val ve and forces the shuttl e from the al ternate
system i nl et port to the normal system i nl et port.
Fl ui d from the al ternate system then has a free
fl ow to the outl et port, but i s prevented from
enteri ng the normal system by the shuttl e, whi ch
seal s off the normal system port.
The shuttl e may be one of four types: (1)
sl i di ng pl unger, (2) spri ng-l oaded pi ston, (3)
spri ng-l oaded bal l , or (4) spri ng-l oaded poppet.
I n shuttl e val ves that are desi gned wi th a spri ng,
the shuttl e i s normal l y hel d agai nst the al ternate
system i nl et port by the spri ng.
TWO-WAY VALVES
The term two-way i ndi cates that the val ve
contai ns and control s two functi onal fl ow control
ports-an i nl et and an outl et. A two-way, sl i di ng
spool di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure
6-23. As the spool i s moved back and forth, i t
ei ther al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the val ve or
prevents fl ow. I n the open posi ti on, the fl ui d
enters the i nl et port, fl ows around the shaft of
the spool , and through the outl et port. The spool
cannot move back and forth by di fference of
forces set up wi thi n the cyl i nder, si nce the forces
there are equal . As i ndi cated by the arrows agai nst
the pi stons of the spool , the same pressure acts
on equal areas on thei r i nsi de surfaces. I n the
cl osed posi ti on, one of the pi stons of the spool
si mpl y bl ocks the i nl et port, thus preventi ng fl ow
through the val ve.
A number of features common to most sl i di ng
spool val ves are shown i n fi gure 6-23. The smal l
ports at ei ther end of the val ve housi ng provi de
a path for any fl ui d that l eaks past the spool to
fl ow to the reservoi r. Thi s prevents pressure from
bui l di ng up agai nst the ends of the pi stons, whi ch
woul d hi nder the movement of the spool . When
spool val ves become worn, they may l ose bal ance
because of greater l eakage on one si de of the spool
than on the other. I n that event, the spool woul d
tend to sti ck when i t i s moved back and forth.
Smal l grooves are therefore machi ned around the
sl i di ng surface of the pi ston; and i n hydraul i c
val ves, l eaki ng l i qui d wi l l enci rcl e the pi stons and
keep the contacti ng sur faces l ubr i cated and
center ed.
THREE-WAY VALVES
Three-way val ves contai n a pressure port, a
cyl i nder port, and a return or exhaust port. The
three-way di recti onal control val ve i s desi gned to
operate an actuati ng uni t i n one di recti on; i t
permi ts ei ther the l oad on the actuati ng uni t or
a spri ng to return the uni t to i ts ori gi nal posi ti on.
Cam-Operated Three-Way Valves
Fi gure 6-28 shows the operati on of a cam-
oper ated, thr ee-way, poppet-type di r ecti onal
control val ve. Vi ew A shows fl ui d under pressure
forci ng the pi ston outward agai nst a l oad. The
upper poppet (2) i s unseated by the i nsi de cam
(5), permi tti ng fl ui d to fl ow from the l i ne (3) i nto
the cyl i nder to actuate the pi ston. The l ower
poppet (1) i s seated, seal i ng off the fl ow i nto the
return l i ne (4). As the force of the pressuri zed fl ui d
extends the pi ston rod, i t al so compresses the
spri ng i n the cyl i nder.
Vi ew B shows the val ve wi th the control
handl e turned to the opposi te posi ti on. I n thi s
posi ti on, the upper poppet (2) i s seated, bl ocki ng
the fl ow of fl ui d from the pressure l i ne (3). The
l ower poppet (1) i s unseated by the outsi de cam
(6). Thi s rel eases the pressure i n the cyl i nder and
al l ows the spri ng to expand, whi ch forces the
pi ston rod to retract. The fl ui d from the cyl i nder
fl ows through the control val ve and out the return
Figure 6-28.Three-way, poppet-type directional control
valve (cam-operated).
6-19
port (4). I n hydraul i c systems, the return port i s
connected by a l i ne to the reservoi r. I n pneumati c
systems, the return port i s usual l y open to the
atmosphere.
Pilot-Operated Three-Way Valves
A pi l ot-oper ated, poppet-type, thr ee-way
di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-29.
Val ves of thi s desi gn are often used i n pneumati c
systems. Thi s val ve i s normal l y cl osed and i s
for ced open by fl ui d pr essur e enter i ng the
pi l ot chamber. The val ve contai ns two poppets
connected to each other by a common stem. The
poppets are connected to di aphragms whi ch hol d
them i n a centered posi ti on.
The movement of the poppet i s control l ed by
the pressure i n the pi l ot port and the chamber
above the upper di aphr agm. When the pi l ot
chamber i s not pressuri zed, the l ower poppet i s
seated agai nst the l ower val ve seat. Fl ui d can fl ow
from the suppl y l i ne through the i nl et port and
through the hol es i n the l ower di aphragm to fi l l
the bottom chamber. Thi s pressure hol ds the
l ower poppet ti ghtl y agai nst i ts seat and bl ocks
fl ow from the i nl et port through the val ve. At the
same ti me, due to the common stem, the upper
poppet i s forced off of i ts seat. Fl ui d from the
actuati ng uni t fl ows through the open passage,
around the stem, and through the exhaust port
to the atmosphere.
When the pi l ot chamber i s pressuri zed, the
force acti ng agai nst the di aphragm forces the
poppet down. The upper poppet cl oses agai nst i ts
seat, bl ocki ng the fl ow of fl ui d from the cyl i nder
to the exhaust port. The l ower poppet opens, and
the passage from the suppl y i nl et port to the
cyl i nder port i s open so that the fl ui d can fl ow
to the actuati ng uni t.
The val ve i n fi gure 6-29 i s a normal l y cl osed
val ve. Normal l y open val ves are si mi l ar i n desi gn.
When no pressure i s appl i ed to the pi l ot chamber,
the upper poppet i s for ced off of i ts seat and the
l ower poppet i s cl osed. Fl ui d i s free to fl ow from
the i nl et port through the cyl i nder to the actuati ng
uni t. When pi l ot pressure i s appl i ed, the poppets
are forced downward, cl osi ng the upper poppet
and openi ng the l ower poppet. Fl ui d can now fl ow
from the cyl i nder through the val ve and out the
exhaust port to the atmosphere.
FOUR-WAY VALVES
Most actuati ng devi ces requi re system pressure
for operati on i n ei ther di recti on. The four-way
di recti onal control val ve, whi ch contai ns four
ports, i s used to control the operati on of such
devi ces. The four-way val ve i s al so used i n some
systems to control the operati on of other val ves.
I t i s one of the most wi del y used di recti onal
control val ves i n fl ui d power systems.
The typi cal four-way di recti onal control val ve
has four ports: a pressure port, a return or exhaust
port, and two cyl i nder or worki ng ports. The
pressure port i s connected to the mai n system
pressure l i ne and the return l i ne i s connected to
the reservoi r i n hydraul i c systems. I n pneumati c
systems the return port i s usual l y vented to the
atmosphere. The two cyl i nder ports are connected
by l i nes to the actuati ng uni ts.
Poppet-Type Four-Way Valves
Fi gure 6-30 shows atypi cal four-way, poppet-
type di recti onal control val ve. Thi s i s a manual l y
oper ated val ve and consi sts of a gr oup of
conventi onal spri ng-l oaded poppets. The poppets
ar e encl osed i n a common housi ng and ar e
i nterconnected by ducts to di rect the fl ow of fl ui d
i n the desi red di recti on.
Figure 6-29.Three-way, poppet-type, normally closed directional control valve (pilot-operated).
6-20
The poppets ar e actuated by cams on a
camshaft (fi g. 6-30). The camshaft i s control l ed
by the movement of the handl e. The val ve may
be operated by manual l y movi ng the handl e, or,
i n some cases, the handl e may be connected by
mechani cal l i nkage to a control handl e whi ch i s
l ocated i n a conveni ent pl ace for the operator
some di stance from the val ve.
The camshaft may be rotated to any one
of thr ee posi ti ons (neutr al and two wor ki ng
posi ti ons). I n the neutral posi ti on the camshaft
l obes are not contacti ng any of the poppets. Thi s
assures that the poppet spri ngs wi l l hol d al l four
poppets fi rml y seated. Wi th al l poppets seated,
there i s no fl ui d fl ow through the val ve. Thi s al so
bl ocks the two cyl i nder ports; so when the val ve
i s i n neutral , the fl ui d i n the actuati ng uni t i s
tr apped. Rel i ef val ves ar e i nstal l ed i n both
worki ng l i nes to prevent overpressuri zati on caused
by thermal expansi on.
NOTE: I n some versi ons of thi s type of val ve,
the cam l obes ar e desi gned so that the two
return/exhaust poppets are open when the val ve
i s i n the neutral posi ti on. Thi s compensates for
thermal expansi on, because both worki ng l i nes are
open to the return/exhaust when the val ve i s i n
the neutral posi ti on.
The poppets are arranged so that rotati on of
the camshaft wi l l open the proper combi nati on
of poppets to di rect the fl ow of fl ui d through the
desi red worki ng l i ne to an actuati ng uni t. At the
same ti me, fl ui d wi l l be di r ected fr om the
actuati ng uni t through the opposi te worki ng l i ne,
through the val ve, and back to the reservoi r
(hydr aul i c) or exhausted to the atmospher e
(pneumati c).
To stop rotati on of the camshaft at an exact
posi ti on, a stop pi n i s secured to the body and
extends through a cutout secti on of the camshaft
fl ange. Thi s stop pi n prevents overtravel by
ensuri ng that the camshaft stops rotati ng at the
poi nt wher e the cam l obes have moved the
poppets the greatest di stance from thei r seats and
wher e any fur ther r otati on woul d al l ow the
poppets to start returni ng to thei r seats.
O-ri ngs are spaced at i nterval s al ong the l ength
of the shaft to prevent external l eakage around
the ends of the shaft and i nternal l eakage from
one of the val ve chamber s to another . The
camshaft has two l obes, or rai sed porti ons. The
shape of these l obes i s such that when the shaft
i s pl aced i n the neutral posi ti on the l obes wi l l not
contact any of the poppets.
When the handl e i s moved i n ei ther di recti on
from neutral , the camshaft i s rotated. Thi s rotates
Figure 6-30.Cutaway view of poppet-type, four-way directional control valve.
6-21
the l obes, whi ch unseat one pressure poppet and
one return/exhaust poppet (fi g. 6-31). The val ve
i s now i n the worki ng posi ti on. Fl ui d under
pressure, enteri ng the pressure port, fl ows through
the verti cal fl ui d passages i n both pressure poppets
seats. Si nce onl y one pressure poppet, I N (2), i s
unseated by the cam l obe, the fl ui d fl ows past the
open poppet to the i nsi de of the poppet seat. From
there i t fl ows through the di agonal passages, out
one cyl i nder port, C2, and to the actuati ng uni t.
Return fl ui d from the actuati ng uni t enters the
other cyl i nder port, C1. I t then fl ows through the
correspondi ng fl ui d passage, past the unseated
return poppet, OUT (1), through the verti cal fl ui d
passages, and out the return/exhaust port. When
the camshaft i s rotated i n the opposi te di recti on
to the neutral posi ti on, the two poppets seat and
the fl ow stops. When the camshaft i s further
rotated i n thi s di recti on unti l the stop pi ns hi ts,
the opposi te pressure and return poppets are
unseated. Thi s reverses the fl ow i n the worki ng
l i nes, causi ng the actuati ng uni t to move i n the
opposi te di recti on.
Rotary Spool Valve
Four-way di recti onal control val ves of thi s
type are frequentl y used as pi l ot val ves to di rect
fl ow to and from other val ves (fi g. 6-32). Fl ui d
i s di rected from one source of suppl y through the
rotary val ve to another di recti onal control val ve,
where i t posi ti ons the val ve to di rect fl ow from
another source to one si de of an actuati ng uni t.
Fl ui d from the other end of the mai n val ve fl ows
through a return l i ne, through the rotary val ve
to the return or exhaust port.
The pri nci pal parts of a rotary spool di rec-
ti onal control val ve are shown i n fi gure 6-22.
Figure 6-31.Working view of a poppet-type, four-way
directional control valve.
Figure 6-32.Sliding spool valve controlled by a rotary spool
valve.
Fi gure 6-33 shows the operati on of a rotary spool
val ve. Vi ews A and C show the val ve i n a posi ti on
to del i ver fl ui d to another val ve, whi l e vi ew B
shows the val ve i n the neutral posi ti on, wi th al l
passages through the val ve bl ocked.
Rotary spool val ves can be operated manual l y,
el ectri cal l y, or by fl ui d pressure.
Sliding Spool Valve
The sl i di ng spool four-way di recti onal control
val ve i s si mi l ar i n operati on to the two-way
val ve previ ousl y descri bed i n thi s chapter. I t i s
si mpl e i n i ts pri nci pl e of operati on and i s the
most durabl e and troubl e-free of al l four-way
di recti onal control val ves.
The val ve descri bed i n the fol l owi ng para-
graphs i s a manual l y operated type. The same
pri nci pl e i s used i n many remotel y control l ed
di recti onal control val ves.
The val ve (fi g. 6-34) consi sts of a val ve body
contai ni ng four fl ui d por tspr essur e (P),
Figure 6-33.Operation of a rotary spool, four-way
directional control valve.
6-22
Figure 6-34.Operation of a sliding spool, four-way directional control valve.
6-23
return/exhaust (R), and two cyl i nder ports (C/1
and C2). A hol l ow sl eeve fi ts i nto the mai n bore
of the body. There are O-ri ngs pl aced at i nterval s
around the outsi de di ameter of the sl eeve. These
O-ri ngs form a seal between the sl eeve and the
body, creati ng chambers around the sl eeve. Each
of the chambers i s l i ned up wi th one of the fl ui d
ports i n the body. The dri l l ed passage i n the body
accounts for a fi fth chamber whi ch resul ts i n
havi ng the two outboard chambers connected to
the return/exhaust port. The sl eeve has a pattern
of hol es dri l l ed through i t to al l ow fl ui d to fl ow
from one port to another. A seri es of hol es are
dri l l ed i nto the hol l ow center sl eeve i n each
chamber.
The sl eeve i s prevented from turni ng by a
sl eeve retai ner bol t or pi n whi ch secures i t to the
val ve body.
The sl i di ng spool fi ts i nto the hol l ow center
sl eeve. Thi s spool i s si mi l ar to the spool i n the
two-way val ve, except that thi s spool has three
pi stons or l ands. These l ands ar e l apped or
machi ne fi tted to the i nsi de of the sl eeve.
One end of the sl i di ng spool i s connected to
a handl e ei ther di rectl y or by mechani cal l i nkage
to a more desi rabl e l ocati on. When the control
handl e i s moved, i t wi l l posi ti on the spool wi thi n
the sl eeve. The l ands of the spool then l i ne up
di ffer ent combi nati ons of fl ui d por ts thus
di recti ng a fl ow of fl ui d through the val ve.
The detent spri ng i s a cl othespi n-type spri ng,
secur ed to the end of the body by a spr i ng
retai ni ng bol t. The two l egs of the spri ng extend
down through sl ots i n the sl eeve and fit i nto the
detents. The spool i s gri pped between the two l egs
of the spri ng. To move the spool , enough force
must be appl i ed to spread the two spri ng l egs and
al l ow them to snap back i nto the next detent,
whi ch woul d be for another posi ti on.
Fi gur e 6-34, vi ew A, shows a manual l y
oper ated sl i di ng spool val ve i n the neutr al
posi ti on. The detent spri ng i s i n the center detent
of the sl i di ng spool . The center l and i s l i ned up
wi th the pressure port (P) preventi ng fl ui d from
fl owi ng i nto the val ve through thi s port. The
return/exhaust port i s al so bl ocked, preventi ng
fl ow through that port. Wi th both the pressure
and return ports bl ocked, fl ui d i n the actuati ng
l i nes i s trapped. For thi s reason, a rel i ef val ve i s
usual l y i nstal l ed i n each actuati ng l i ne when thi s
type of val ve i s used.
Fi gure 6-34, vi ew B, shows the val ve i n the
worki ng posi ti on wi th the end of the sl i di ng spool
retracted. The detent spri ng i s i n the outboard
detent, l ocki ng the sl i di ng spool i n thi s posi ti on.
The l ands have shi fted i nsi de the sl eeve, and the
ports are opened. Fl ui d under pressure enters the
sl eeve, passes through i t by way of the dri l l ed
hol es, and l eaves through cyl i nder port C2. Return
fl ui d, fl owi ng from the actuator enters port C1,
fl ows through the sl eeve, and i s di rected out the
return port back to the reservoi r or exhausted to
the atmosphere. Fl ui d cannot fl ow past the spool
l ands because of the l apped surfaces.
Fi gure 6-34, vi ew C, shows the val ve i n the
opposi te worki ng posi ti on wi th the sl i di ng spool
extended. The detent spri ng i s i n the i nboard
detent. The center l and of the sl i di ng spool i s now
on the other si de of the pressure port, and the
fl ui d under pressure i s di rected through the sl eeve
and out port C1. Return fl ui d fl owi ng i n the other
cyl i nder port i s di rected to the dri l l ed passage i n
the body. I t fl ows al ong thi s passage to the other
end of the sl eeve where i t i s di rected out of the
return/exhaust port.
The di r ecti onal contr ol val ves pr evi ousl y
di scussed are for use i n cl osed-center fl ui d power
systems. Fi gure 6-35 shows the operati on of
Figure 6-35.Open center, sliding spool directional control
valve.
6-24
a r epr esentati ve open-center , sl i di ng spool When the spool i s moved to the ri ght of the
di recti onal control val ve. neutral posi ti on, vi ew B, one worki ng l i ne (C1)
i s al i gned to system pressure and the other
When thi s type of val ve i s i n the neutral worki ng l i ne (C2) i s open through the hol l ow
posi ti on (fi g. 6-35, vi ew A), fl ui d fl ows i nto the spool to the return port. Vi ew C shows the fl ow
val ve through the pressure port (P) through the of fl ui d through the val ve wi th the spool moved
hol l ow spool , and return to the reservoi r. to the l eft of neutral .
6-25
CHAPTER 7
SEALI NG DEVI CES AND MATERI ALS
Recal l from chapter 1 that Pascal s theorem,
from whi ch the fundamental l aw for the sci ence
of hydr aul i cs evol ved, was pr oposed i n the
seventeenth century. One sti pul ati on to make the
l aw effecti ve for practi cal appl i cati ons was a
pi ston that woul d fi t the openi ng i n the vessel
ex actl y . However, i t was not unti l the l ate
ei ghteenth century that Joseph Brahmah i nvented
an effecti ve pi ston seal , the cup packi ng. Thi s l ed
to Brahmah's devel opment of the hydraul i c press.
The packi ng was probabl y the most i mportant
i nventi on i n the devel opment of hydraul i cs as a
l eadi ng method of tr ansmi tti ng power . The
devel opment of machi nes to cut and shape cl osel y
fi tted par ts was al so ver y i mpor tant i n the
devel opment of hydraul i cs. However, regardl ess
of how preci se the machi ni ng process i s, some type
of packi ng i s usual l y requi red to make the pi ston,
and many other parts of hydraul i c components,
fi t exactl y. Thi s al so appl i es to the components
of pneumati c systems.
Through years of research and experi ments,
many di fferent materi al s and desi gns have been
created i n attempts to devel op sui tabl e packi ng
devi ces. Sui tabl e materi al s must be durabl e, must
provi de effecti ve seal i ng, and must be compati bl e
wi th the fl ui d used i n the system.
The packi ng materi al s are commonl y referred
to as seal s or seal i ng devi ces. The seal s used i n
fl ui d power systems and components are di vi ded
i nto two general cl asses-stati c seal s and dynami c
seal s.
The stati c seal i s usual l y referred to as a gasket.
The functi on of a gasket i s to provi de a materi al
that can fl ow i nto the surface i rregul ari ti es of
mati ng areas that requi re seal i ng. To do thi s, the
gasket materi al must be under pressure. Thi s
r equi r es that the joi nt be ti ghtl y bol ted or
otherwi se hel d together.
The dynami c seal , commonl y referred to as
a packi ng, i s used to provi de a seal between two
parts that move i n rel ati on to each other.
These two cl assi fi cati ons of seal sgaskets
and packi ngappl y i n most cases; however ,
devi ati ons are found i n some techni cal publ i -
cati ons. Certai n types of seal s (for exampl e, the
O-ri ng, whi ch i s di scussed l ater) may be used
ei ther as a gasket or a packi ng.
Many of the seal s i n fl ui d power systems
prevent external l eakage. These seal s serve two
purposesto seal the fl ui d i n the system and to
keep forei gn matter out of the system. Other seal s
si mpl y prevent i nternal l eakage wi thi n a system.
NOTE: Al though l eakage of any ki nd resul ts
i n a l oss of effi ci ency, some l eakage, especi al l y
i nternal l eakage, i s desi red i n hydraul i c systems
to provi de l ubri cati on of movi ng parts. Thi s al so
appl i es to some pneumati c systems i n whi ch drops
of oi l are i ntroduced i nto the fl ow of ai r i n the
system.
The fi rst part of thi s chapter deal s pri mari l y
wi th the di fferent types of materi al s used i n the
constructi on of seal s. The next secti on i s devoted
to the di fferent shapes and desi gns of seal s and
thei r appl i cati on as gaskets and/or packi ngs i n
fl ui d power systems. Al so i ncl uded i n thi s chapter
are secti ons concerni ng the functi ons of wi pers
and backup washers i n fl ui d power systems and
the sel ecti on, storage, and handl i ng of seal i ng
devi ces.
SEAL MATERIALS
As menti oned pr evi ousl y, many di ffer ent
materi al s have been used i n the devel opment of
seal i ng devi ces. The materi al used for a parti cul ar
appl i cati on depends on sever al factor s: fl ui d
compati bi l i ty, resi stance to heat, pressure, wear
resi stance, hardness, and type of moti on.
The sel ecti on of the correct packi ngs and
gaskets and thei r proper i nstal l ati on are i mportant
factors i n mai ntai ni ng an effi ci ent fl ui d power
system. The types of seal s to be used i n a
parti cul ar pi ece of equi pment i s speci fi ed by the
equi pment manufacturer.
7-1
Often the sel ecti on of seal s i s l i mi ted to seal s
covered by mi l i tary speci fi cati ons. However, there
are occasi ons when nonstandard or propri etary
seal s refl ecti ng the advanci ng state of the art may
be approved. Thus, i t i s i mportant to fol l ow the
manufacturers i nstructi ons when you repl ace
seal s. I f the proper seal i s not avai l abl e, you
shoul d gi ve careful consi derati on i n the sel ecti on
of a sui tabl e substi tute. Consul t the Naval Ships
Technical Manual, mi l i tary standards, mi l i tary
standardi zati on handbooks, and other appl i cabl e
techni cal manual s i f you have any doubts i n
sel ecti ng the proper seal .
Seal s ar e made of mater i al s that have
been car eful l y chosen or devel oped for spe-
ci fi c appl i cati ons. These mater i al s i ncl ude
tetr afl uor oethyl ene (TFE), commonl y cal l ed
Tefl on; syntheti c r ubber (el astomer s); cor k;
l eather; metal ; and asbestos. Some of the most
common materi al s used to make seal s for fl ui d
power systems are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs.
CORK
Cork has several of the requi red properti es,
whi ch makes i t i deal l y sui ted as a seal i ng materi al
i n certai n appl i cati ons. The compressi bi l i ty of
cork seal s makes them wel l sui ted for confi ned
appl i cati ons i n whi ch l i ttl e or no spread of the
materi al i s al l owed. The compressi bi l i ty of cork
al so makes a good seal that can be cut to any
desi red thi ckness and shape to fi t any surface and
sti l l provi de an excel l ent seal .
One of the undesi rabl e characteri sti cs of cork
i s i ts tendency to crumbl e. I f cork i s used as
packi ng or i n areas where there i s a hi gh fl ui d
pressure and/or hi gh fl ow vel oci ty, smal l parti cl es
wi l l be cast off i nto the system. Cork use i n fl ui d
power systems i s therefore l i mi ted. I t i s someti mes
used as gasket materi al s for i nspecti on pl ates of
hydraul i c reservoi rs.
Cork i s general l y recommended for use where
sustai ned temperatures do not exceed 275
0
F.
CORK AND RUBBER
Cork and rubber seal s are made by combi ni ng
syntheti c rubber and cork. Thi s combi nati on has
the properti es of both of the two materi al s.
Thi s means that seal s can be made wi th the
compressi bi l i ty of cork, but wi th a resi stance to
fl ui d comparabl e to the syntheti c rubber on whi ch
they are based. Cork and rubber composi ti on i s
someti mes used to make gaskets for appl i cati ons
si mi l ar to those descri bed for cork gaskets.
LEATHER
Leather i s a cl osel y kni t materi al that i s
general l y tough, pl i abl e, and rel ati vel y resi stant
to abr asi on, wear , str ess, and the effects of
temperature changes. Because i t i s porous, i t i s
abl e to absorb l ubri cati ng fl ui ds. Thi s porosi ty
makes i t necessary to i mpregnate l eather for most
uses. I n general , l eather must be tanned and
treated i n order to make i t useful as a gasket
mater i al . The tanni ng pr ocesses ar e those
normal l y used i n the l eather i ndustry.
Leather i s general l y resi stant to abrasi on
regardl ess of whether the grai n si de or the fl esh
si de i s exposed to abrasi ve acti on. Leather remai ns
fl exi bl e at l ow temperatures and can be forced
wi th comparati ve ease i nto contact wi th metal
fl anges. When pr oper l y i mpr egnated, i t i s
i mpermeabl e to most l i qui ds and some gases,
and capabl e of wi thstandi ng the effects of
temperatures rangi ng from 70
0
F to +220
0
F.
Leather has four basi c l i mi tati ons. Fi rst, the
si ze of the typi cal hi de l i mi ts the si ze of the seal s
that can be made fr om l eather . A second
l i mi tati on i s the number of seal s that ar e
acceptabl e. Another l i mi tati on i s that under heavy
mechani cal pressures l eather tends to extrude.
Fi nal l y, many of the pr oper ti es (such as
i mper meabi l i ty, tensi l e str ength, hi gh- and
l ow-temper atur e r esi stance, pl i abi l i ty, and
compati bi l i ty wi th envi ronment) depend upon the
type of l eather and i mpregnati on. Leathers not
tanned and i mpregnated for speci fi c condi ti ons
and properti es wi l l become bri ttl e, dry, and
compl etel y degreased by exposure to parti cul ar
chemi cal s. Leather i s never used wi th steam
pressure of any type, nor wi th aci d or al kal i
sol uti ons.
Leather may be used as packi ng. When
mol ded i nto Vs and Us, and cups, and other
shapes, i t can be appl i ed as dynami c packi ng,
whi l e i n i ts fl at form i t can be used as strai ght
compressi on packi ng.
METAL
One of the most common metal seal s used i n
Navy equi pment i s copper. Fl at copper ri ngs are
someti mes used as gaskets under adjusti ng screws
to provi de a fl ui d seal . Mol ded copper ri ngs are
someti mes used as packi ng wi th speed gears
operati ng under hi gh pressures. Ei ther type i s
7-2
Figure 7-1.Spiral-wouna metallic-asbestos gasket.
easi l y bent and requi res careful handl i ng. I n
addi ti on, copper becomes hard when used over
l ong peri ods and when subjected to compressi on.
Whenever a uni t or component i s di sassembl ed,
the copper seal i ng ri ngs shoul d be repl aced.
However, i f new ri ngs are not avai l abl e and the
part must be repai red, the ol d ri ng shoul d be
softened by anneal i ng. (Anneal i ng i s the process
of heati ng a metal , then cool i ng i t, to make i t
more pl i abl e and l ess bri ttl e.)
Metal l i c pi ston ri ngs are used as packi ng i n
some fl ui d power actuati ng cyl i nders. These ri ngs
ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn to the pi ston r i ngs i n
automobi l e engi nes.
Metal i s al so used wi th asbestos to form
spi ral -wound metal l i c-asbestos gaskets (fi g. 7-1).
These gaskets are composed of i nterl ocked pl i es
of pr efor med cor r ugated metal and asbestos
stri ps, cal l ed a fi l l er.
The fi l l er may or may not be encased i n a sol i d
metal outer ri ng. These gaskets are used i n fl anged
connecti ons and for connecti ng the body to the
bonnet i n some val ves, and are usual l y requi red
i n speci fi c hi gh-pr essur e, hi gh-temper atur e
appl i cati ons.
RUBBER
The ter m r ubber
and syntheti c rubbers,
cover s many natur al
each of whi ch can be
compounded i nto numer ous var i eti es. The
characteri sti cs of these vari eti es have a wi de range,
as shown i n tabl e 7-1. The tabl e shows, wi th the
excepti on of a few basi c si mi l ari ti es, that rubbers
have di verse properti es and l i mi tati ons; therefore,
speci fi c appl i cati ons requi re careful study before
the seal i ng materi al i s sel ected.
Natural rubbers have many of the charac-
teri sti cs requi red i n an effecti ve seal . However,
thei r very poor resi stance to petrol eum fl ui ds and
rapi d agi ng when exposed to oxygen or ozone l i mi t
thei r use. Today thei r use has al most ceased.
There are two general cl asses of syntheti c
rubber seal s. One cl ass i s made enti rel y of a certai n
syntheti c rubber. The term homogeneous, whi ch
means havi ng uni form structure or composi ti on
throughout, i s frequentl y used to descri be thi s
cl ass of seal . The other cl ass of seal i s made by
i mpregnati ng woven cotton duck or fi ne-weave
asbestos wi th syntheti c rubber. Thi s cl ass i s
someti mes referred to as fabri cated seal s.
Addi ti onal i nformati on on seal i ng materi al s
i s provi ded i n the Military Handbook, Gasket
Materials (Nonmetalic), MI L-HDBK-212; and
the Naval Ships Technical Manual, chapter 078.
TYPES OF SEALS
Fl ui d power seal s are usual l y typed accordi ng
to thei r shape or desi gn. These types i ncl ude
T-seal s, V-ri ngs, O-ri ngs, U-cups and so on. Some
of the most commonl y used seal s are di scussed
i n the remai nder of thi s chapter.
T-SEALS
The T-seal has an el astomeri c bi di recti onal
seal i ng el ement resembl i ng an i nverted l etter T.
Thi s seal i ng el ement i s al ways pai red wi th two
speci al extrusi on-resi sti ng backup ri ngs, one on
each si de of the T. The basi c T-seal confi gurati on
i s shown i n fi gure 7-2, vi ew A. The backup ri ngs
Fi gur e7-2. T-seal s.
7-3
Table 7-l.Comparison of Physical Properties for Some Hydraulic Fluid Seal Materials
Figure 7-3.V-rings.
7-4
are si ngl e turn, bi as cut, and usual l y made of TFE,
mol ybdenum-di sul fi de-i mpregnated nyl on, or a
combi nati on of TFE and nyl on. Nyl on i s wi del y
used for T-seal backup ri ngs because i t provi des
excel l ent resi stance to extrusi on and has l ow
fri cti on characteri sti cs.
The speci al T-ri ng confi gurati on adds stabi l i ty
to the seal , el i mi nati ng spi ral i ng and rol l i ng.
T-seal s are used i n appl i cati ons where l arge
cl earances coul d occur as a resul t of the expansi on
of the thi n-wal l ed hydraul i c cyl i nder. The T-ri ng
i s i nstal l ed under radi al compressi on and provi des
a posi ti ve seal at zero or l ow pressure. Backup
ri ngs, one on each si de, ri de free of T-ri ng fl anges
and the rod or cyl i nder wal l (fi g. 7-2, vi ew B).
These cl earances keep seal fri cti on to a mi ni mum
at l ow pressure. When pressure i s appl i ed (fi g. 7-2,
vi ew C), the T-ri ng acts to provi de posi ti ve seal i ng
acti on as fl ui d pressure i ncreases. One frequentl y
used T-ri ng, manufactured by Greene, Tweed and
Company, (cal l ed a G-Tri ng
1
), i ncorporates a
uni que, patented backup ri ng feature. One corner
on the I D of each radi us-styl ed backup ri ng on
the G-Tri ng

set has been rounded to mate wi th

the i nsi de corner of the rubber T. Fi gure 7-2, vi ews
B and C, shows the G-Tri ng

.
There i s no mi l i tary standard part numberi ng
system by whi ch T-seal s can be i denti fi ed. I n
general , each manufacturer i ssues propri etary part
numbers to i denti fy seal s. However, i t i s common
practi ce to i denti fy T-seal si zes by the same
dash numbers used for equi val ent O-ri ng si zes
(di scussed l ater i n thi s chapter) as defi ned by
AS568 and MS28775 di mensi on standar ds.
Typi cal l y, an O-ri ng groove that accepts a certai n
O-ri ng dash number wi l l accept the same dash
number T-seal .
I n the absence of an exi sti ng mi l i tary standard
for i denti fyi ng T-seal s, a new and si mpl e
1
G-Tring

is a Greene, Tweed Trademark,

numberi ng system was created to i denti fy T-seal s
requi red for hydraul i c actuators (pi ston seal s onl y)
wi thout reference to a parti cul ar manufacturers
part number. The Navy number i s composed of
the l etters G-T fol l owed by a dash number of three
di gi ts and one l etter, R, S, or T (for exampl e,
G-T-217T). The three di gi ts are the appropri ate
O-ri ng si ze dash number accordi ng to AS568 or
MS28775. The l etters R, S, and T desi gnate the
number of backup ri ngs that the groove of the
T-seal i s desi gned to accommodate: none, one,
or two, respecti vel y.
V-RINGS
The V-ri ng i s one of the most frequentl y used
dynami c seal s i n shi p ser vi ce al though i ts
i denti fi cati on, i nstal l ati on, and performance are
probabl y most mi sunderstood. Properl y sel ected
and i nstal l ed, V-ri ngs can provi de excel l ent servi ce
l i fe; otherwi se, probl ems associ ated wi th fri cti on,
rod and seal wear, noi se, and l eakage can be
expected.
The V-ri ng i s the part of the packi ng set that
does the seal i ng. I t has a cross secti on resembl i ng
the l etter V, (fi g. 7-3) from whi ch i ts name i s
deri ved. To achi eve a seal , the V-ri ng must be
i nstal l ed as part of a packi ng set or stack, whi ch
i ncl udes one mal e adapter, one femal e adapter,
and several V-ri ngs (fi g. 7-4). The mal e adapter
i s the fi rst ri ng on the pressure end of the packi ng
stack and i s fl at on one si de and wedge-shaped
on the other to contai n the V of the adjacent
V-ri ng. The femal e adapter, the l ast ri ng of the
Figure 7-4.Outside packed V-ring installations.
7-5
packi ng stack, i s fl at on one si de and V-shaped
on the other to properl y support the adjacent
V-ri ng. Proper desi gn and i nstal l ati on of the
femal e adapter has si gni fi cant i mpact on the
ser vi ce l i fe and per for mance of the V-r i ngs
because the femal e adapter bri dges the cl earance
gap between the movi ng surfaces and resi sts
extrusi on.
The packi ng set i s i nstal l ed i n a cavi ty that i s
sl i ghtl y deeper than the free stack hei ght (the
nomi nal overal l hei ght of a V-ri ng packi ng set,
i ncl udi ng the mal e and femal e adapter s as
measured before i nstal l ati on) and as wi de as the
nomi nal cross secti on of the V-ri ngs. Thi s cavi ty,
cal l ed a packi ng gl and or stuffi ng box, contai ns
and supports the packi ng around the shaft, rod,
or pi ston. Adjustment of the packi ng gl and depth
through the use of shi ms or spacers i s usual l y
necessar y to obtai n the cor r ect squeeze or
cl earance on the packi ng stack for good servi ce
l i fe.
Two basi c i nstal l ati ons appl y to V-r i ng
packi ngs. The more common i s referred to as an
outsi de packed i nstal l ati on, i n whi ch the packi ng
seal s agai nst a shaft or rod, as shown i n fi gure
7-4. The i nsi de packed i nstal l ati on, i s shown as
a pi ston seal i n fi gure 7-5. When V-ri ng packi ng
i s to be used i n an i nsi de packed i nstal l ati on, onl y
endl ess ri ng packi ng shoul d be used. Where
pr essur es exi st i n both di r ecti ons, as on a
doubl e-acti ng pi ston, opposi ng sets of packi ng
Figure 7-5.Inside packed V-ring installation.
shoul d al ways be i nstal l ed so the seal i ng l i ps face
away from each other as i n fi gure 7-5. Thi s
prevents trappi ng pressure between the sets of
packi ngs. The femal e adapters i n i nsi de packed
i nstal l ati ons shoul d al ways be l ocated adjacent to
a fi xed or ri gi d part of the pi ston.
O-RINGS
An O-ri ng i s doughnut-shaped. O-ri ngs are
usual l y mol ded from rubber compounds; how-
ever, they can be mol ded or machi ned from pl asti c
materi al s. The O-ri ng i s usual l y fi tted i nto a
r ectangul ar gr oove (usual l y cal l ed a gl and)
machi ned i nto the mechani sm to be seal ed. An
O-r i ng seal consi sts of an O-r i ng mounted
i n the gl and so that the O-ri ngs cross secti on
i s compr essed (squeezed) when the gl and i s
assembl ed (fi g. 7-6).
An O-ri ng seal i ng system i s often one of the
fi rst seal i ng systems consi dered when a fl ui d
cl osur e i s desi gned because of the fol l owi ng
advantages of such a system:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Si mpl i ci ty
Ruggedness
Low cost
Ease of i nstal l ati on
Ease of mai ntenance
No adjustment requi red
No cri ti cal torque i n cl ampi ng
Figure 7-6.O-ring installed in a gland.
7-6
8.
9.
10.
11.
Low di storti on of structure
Smal l space requi rement
Rel i abi l i ty
Effecti veness over wi de pr essur e and
temperature ranges
As stated previ ousl y, O-ri ngs are used i n both
stati c (as gaskets) and dynami c (as packi ng)
appl i cati ons. An O-ri ng wi l l al most al ways be the
most sati sfactor y choi ce of seal s i n stati c
appl i cati ons i f the fl ui ds, temperatures, pressure,
and geometry permi t.
Standard O-ri ng packi ngs are not speci fi cal l y
desi gned to be used as r otar y seal s. When
i nfr equent r otar y moti on or l ow per i pher al
vel oci ty i s i nvol ved standard O-ri ng packi ngs may
be used, provi ded consi stent surface fi ni shes over
the enti re gl and are used and eccentri ci ti es are
accuratel y control l ed. O-ri ngs cannot compensate
for out-of-round or eccentri cal l y rotati ng shafts.
As rotary seal s, O-ri ngs perform sati sfactori l y
i n two appl i cati on areas:
1. I n l ow-speed appl i cati ons where the surface
speed of the shaft does not exceed 200 ft/mi n
2. I n hi gh-speed moderate-pressure appl i -
cati ons, between 50 and 800 psi
The use of l ow-fri cti on extrusi on-resi stant
devi ces i s hel pful i n prol ongi ng the l i fe and
i mprovi ng the performance of O-ri ngs used as
rotary seal s.
O-ri ngs are often used as reci procati ng seal s
i n hydraul i c and pneumati c systems. Whi l e best
sui ted for short-stroke, rel ati vel y smal l di ameter
appl i cati ons, O-ri ngs have been used successful l y
i n l ong-str oke, l ar ge di ameter appl i cati ons.
Gl ands for O-ri ngs used as reci procati ng seal s are
usual l y desi gned accordi ng to MI L-G-5514 to
provi de a squeeze that vari es from 8 to 10 percent
mi ni mum and 13.5 to 16 percent maxi mum. A
squeeze of 20 percent i s al l owed on O-ri ngs wi th
a cross secti on of 0.070-i nch or l ess. I n some
reci procati ng pneumati c appl i cati ons, a fl oati ng
O-ri ng desi gn may si mul taneousl y reduce fri cti on
and wear by mai ntai ni ng no squeeze by the gl and
on the O-ri ng. When ai r pressure enters the
cyl i nder, the ai r pressure fl attens the O-ri ng,
causi ng suffi ci ent squeeze to seal duri ng the
stroke. I f the return stroke does not use pneumati c
power, the O-ri ng returns to i ts round cross
secti on, mi ni mi zi ng drag and wear on the return
stroke.
Identification
As a mai ntenance per son or super vi sor
worki ng wi th fl ui d power systems, you must be
abl e to posi ti vel y i denti fy, i nspect, and i nstal l the
correct si ze and type of O-ri ng to ensure the best
possi bl e servi ce. These tasks can be di ffi cul t si nce
part numbers cannot be put di rectl y on the seal s
and because of the conti nual i ntroducti on of new
types of seal s and obsol escence of others. (Naval
Ships Technical Manual, chapter 078, contai ns
a tabl e that cross-references obsol ete and current
O-ri ng speci fi cati ons for shi p appl i cati ons.)
O-ri ngs are packaged i n i ndi vi dual l y seal ed
envel opes. O-ri ng seal s manufactured to govern-
ment speci fi cati ons are marked accordi ng to the
requi rements of the speci fi c mi l i tary speci fi cati on
and standard. The requi red marki ng for each
package i s as fol l ows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Nati onal stock number (NSN)
Nomencl ature
Mi l i tary part number
Materi al speci fi cati on
Manufacturers
Manufacturers
Manufactur er s
name
compound number
batch number
Contract number
Cure date
NOTE: Keep preformed packi ngs i n thei r
ori gi nal envel opes, whi ch provi de preservati on,
protecti on, i denti fi cati on, and cure date.
When you sel ect an O-ri ng for i nstal l ati on,
careful l y observe the i nformati on on the package.
I f you cannot posi ti vel y i denti fy an O-r i ng,
di scar d i t. The par t number on the seal ed
package provi des the most rel i abl e and compl ete
i denti fi cati on.
7-7
Sizes
A standar di zed dash number system for
O-ri ng si zes i s used i n many mi l i tary and i ndustri al
speci fi cati ons. The O-ri ng si ze i s i denti fi ed by a
dash number rather than the actual di mensi ons
for conveni ence. The basi s for the dash numbers
i s contai ned i n Aerospace Standard AS568. For
nongasket O-ri ngs (packi ng), the dash numbers
are di vi ded i nto groups of one hundred. Each
hundred group i denti fi es the cross secti on si ze of
the O-ri ngs wi thi n the group (tabl e 7-2).
The 900 seri es dash numbers contai ned i n
AS568 i denti fy al l the presentl y standardi zed
strai ght thread tube fi tti ng boss gaskets. Wi th the
excepti on of -901, the l ast two di gi ts of the dash
desi gnate the tube si ze i n 16ths of an i nch. For
exampl e, the -904 si ze i s for a 1/4-i nch tube.
Dimensions
The cri ti cal di mensi ons of an O-ri ng are i ts I D,
i ts cross secti onal di ameter (W), and the hei ght
and wi dth of the resi dual mol di ng fl ash (see
fi g. 7-7).
Nomi nal di mensi ons have been used to
descri be O-ri ng si zes, al though thi s practi ce i s
rapi dl y bei ng repl aced by the use of dash numbers.
The actual i nsi de di ameter of a seal wi l l be sl i ghtl y
l ess than the nomi nal I D, but the actual OD wi l l
Table 7-2.O-Ring Dash Numbers Versus Cross Section
Sizes
be sl i ghtl y l arger than the nomi nal OD. For
exampl e, an AS568-429 O-ri ng i s descri bed i n
nomi nal di mensi ons as 5 i nches I D by 5-1/2 i nches
OD by 1/4-i nch W. Actual di mensi ons are 4.975
i nches I D by 5.525 i nches OD by 0.275 i nches W.
Specifications
Mater i al and per for mance r equi r ements
for O-r i ngs ar e often i denti fi ed i n mi l i tar y
speci fi cati ons. The di mensi ons of these O-ri ngs
wi l l usual l y be found i n accompanyi ng sl ash sheets
(whi ch bear the speci fi cati on number and are a
part of the speci fi cati on) or wi l l be i denti fi ed by
vari ous drawi ngs and standards that rel ate to the
speci fi cati on. I ncl uded among the speci fi cati ons
ar e Ai r For ce-Navy Standar ds (AN), Mi l i -
tary Standards (MS), and Nati onal Aerospace
Standards (NAS). I f the speci fi cati on does not
i denti fy si zes, the si zes shoul d be i denti fi ed by the
AS568 dash number . Usual l y, you can use
drawi ngs, techni cal manual s, and al l owance parts
l i sts (APLs) to i denti fy repl acement O-ri ngs.
(Notes 2 and 3 of tabl e 7-1 l i st some of the
frequentl y used mi l i tary speci fi cati ons).
Cure Date
A cure date i s as appl i cabl e to natural or
syntheti c O-ri ngs as i t i s to rubber hoses. Thi s date
i s the basi s for determi ni ng the age of O-ri ngs.
I t i s extremel y i mportant that the cure date be
noted on al l packages.
Shelf Life and Expiration Date
Al l el astomers change gradual l y wi th age;
some change mor e r api dl y than other s. The
shel f l i fe for rubber products i s contai ned i n
MI L-HDBK-695.
Check the age of natural or syntheti c rubber
pr efor med pack i ngs befor e i nstal l ati on to
determi ne whether they are acceptabl e for use.
Make a posi ti ve i denti fi cati on, i ndi cati ng the
source, cure date, and expi rati on date. Ensure that
thi s i nformati on i s avai l abl e for al l packi ng used.
Shel f l i fe requi rements do not appl y once the
packi ng i s i nstal l ed i n a component.
The expi rati on date i s the date after whi ch
packi ng shoul d not be i nstal l ed. The expi rati on
date of al l packi ngs can be determi ned by addi ng
the shel f l i fe to the cure date.
7-8
Replacement
Fi gure 7-8 shows a typi cal O-ri ng i nstal l ati on.
When such an i nstal l ati on shows si gns of i nternal
or exter nal l eakage, the component must be
di sassembl ed and the seal s repl aced. Someti mes
components must be reseal ed because of the age
l i mi tati ons of the seal s. The O-ri ng shoul d al so
be repl aced whenever a gl and that has been i n
servi ce i s di sassembl ed and reassembl ed.
Often a poor O-ri ng i nstal l ati on begi ns when
an ol d seal i s removed. O-ri ng removal i nvol ves
worki ng wi th parts that have cri ti cal surface
fi ni shes. I f hardened-steel , poi nted, or sharp-
edged tool s are used for removal of O-ri ngs or
backup ri ngs, scratches, abrasi ons, dents, and
other deformi ti es on cri ti cal seal i ng surfaces can
resul t i n seal fai l ure whi ch, i n turn, can resul t i n
Figure 7-7.Critical dimensions of an O-ring.
mi ght scratch or mar component surfaces or
damage the O-r i ng. An O-r i ng tool k i t i s
avai l abl e i n the suppl y system for O-ri ng i n-
stal l ati on or removal . I f these tool s are not on
hand, speci al tool s can be made for thi s purpose.
A few exampl es of tool s used i n the removal
and i nstal l ati on of O-ri ngs are i l l ustrated i n
functi onal fai l ure of
When r emovi ng
not use poi nted or
the equi pment.
or i nstal l i ng O-r i ngs, do
sharp-edged tool s whi ch
Figure 7-8.Typical O-ring instalation.
7-9
fi gure 7-9. These tool s shoul d be fabri cated from
soft metal such as brass or al umi num; however,
tool s made from phenol i c rod, wood, or pl asti c
may al so be used.
Tool surfaces must be wel l rounded, pol i shed,
and free of burrs. Check the tool s often, especi al l y
the surfaces that come i n contact wi th O-ri ng
grooves and cri ti cal pol i shed surfaces.
Noti ce i n fi gur e 7-9, vi ew A, how the
hook-type removal tool i s posi ti oned under the
O-ri ng and then l i fted to al l ow the extractor tool ,
as wel l as the removal tool , to pul l the O-ri ng from
i ts cavi ty. Vi ew B shows the use of another type
of extractor tool i n the removal of i nternal l y
i nstal l ed O-ri ngs.
I n vi ew C, noti ce the extractor tool posi ti oned
under both O-ri ngs at the same ti me. Thi s method
of mani pul ati ng the tool posi ti ons both O-ri ngs,
whi ch al l ows the hook-type r emoval tool to
extract both O-ri ngs wi th mi ni mum effort. Vi ew
D shows practi cal l y the same removal as vi ew C,
except for the use of a di fferent type of extractor
tool .
The removal of external O-ri ngs i s l ess di ffi cul t
than the removal of i nternal l y i nstal l ed O-ri ngs.
Vi ews E and F show the use of a spoon-type
extractor, whi ch i s posi ti oned under the seal . After
the O-r i ng i s di sl odged fr om i ts cavi ty, the
spoon i s hel d stati onary whi l e the pi ston i s
si mul taneousl y rotated and wi thdrawn. Vi ew F
i s si mi l ar to vi ew E, except that onl y one O-ri ng
i s i nstal l ed, and a di fferent type of extractor tool
i s used. The wedge-type extractor tool i s i nserted
beneath the O-ri ng; the hook-type removal tool
hooks the O-ri ng. A sl i ght pul l on the l atter tool
removes the O-ri ng from i ts cavi ty.
After removi ng al l O-ri ngs, cl eani ng of the
affected parts that wi l l recei ve new O-ri ngs i s
Figure 7-9.O-ring tools and O-ring removal.
7-10
mandatory. Ensure that the area used for such
i n s tal l ati on s i s cl ean an d fr ee fr om al l
contami nati on.
Remove each O-ri ng that i s to be i nstal l ed
from i ts seal ed package and i nspect i t for defects
such as bl emi shes, abrasi ons, cuts, or punctures.
Al though an O-ri ng may appear perfect at fi rst
gl ance, sl i ght surface fl aws may exi st. These are
often capabl e of preventi ng sati sfactory O-ri ng
performance. O-ri ngs shoul d be rejected for fl aws
that wi l l affect thei r performance.
By rol l i ng the ri ng on an i nspecti on cone or
dowel , the i nner di ameter surface can be checked
for smal l cracks, parti cl es of forei gn materi al , and
other i rregul ari ti es that wi l l cause l eakage or
shorten i ts l i fe. The sl i ght stretchi ng of the ri ng
when i t i s rol l ed i nsi de out wi l l hel p to reveal some
defects not otherwi se vi si bl e. A further check of
each O-ri ng shoul d be made by stretchi ng i t
between the fi ngers, but care must be taken not to
exceed the el asti c l i mi ts of the rubber. Fol l owi ng
these i nspecti on practi ces wi l l prove to be a
mai ntenance economy. I t i s far more desi rabl e to
take care i denti fyi ng and i nspecti ng O-ri ngs than to
repeatedl y overhaul components wi th faul ty seal s.
After i nspecti on and pri or to i nstal l ati on,
l ubri cate the O-ri ng, and al l the surfaces that i t
must sl i de over wi th a l i ght coat of the system fl ui d
or a l ubri cant approved for use i n the system.
Consul t the appl i cabl e techni cal i nstructi on or
Naval Ships Technical Manual for the correct
l ubri cant for pneumati c systems.
Assembl y must be made wi th care so that the
O-ri ng i s properl y pl aced i n the groove and not
damaged as the gl and i s cl osed. Duri ng some
i nstal l ati ons, such as on a pi ston, i t wi l l be
necessary to stretch the O-ri ng. Stretch the O-ri ng
as l i ttl e and as uni forml y as possi bl e. Avoi d rol l i ng
or twi sti ng the O-ri ng when maneuveri ng i t i nto
pl ace. Keep the posi ti on of the O-ri ng mol d l i ne
constant. O-ri ngs shoul d not be l eft i n a twi sted
condi ti on after i nstal l ati on.
I f the O-ri ng i nstal l ati on requi res spanni ng or
i nserti ng through sharp-threaded areas, ri dges,
sl ots, and edges, use protecti ve measures, such as
the O-ri ng enteri ng sl eeve (fi g. 7-10, vi ew A). I f
Figure 7-10.O-ring installation.
7-11
the recommended O-ri ng enteri ng sl eeve (a soft,
thi n wal l , metal l i c sl eeve) i s not avai l abl e, paper
sl eeves and covers may be fabri cated by usi ng the
seal package (gl ossy si de out) or l i nt-free bond
paper (see vi ews B and C of fi g. 7-10).
After you pl ace the O-r i ng i n the cavi ty
provi ded, gentl y rol l the O-ri ng wi th your fi ngers
to remove any twi st that mi ght have occurred
duri ng the i nstal l ati on. After i nstal l ati on, an
O-ri ng shoul d seat snugl y but freel y i n i ts groove.
I f backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed i n the groove, be
certai n the backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed on the
correct si de of the ri ng.
BACKUP RINGS
Backup ri ngs, al so referred to as retai ner ri ngs,
anti extrusi on devi ces, and nonextrusi on ri ngs, are
washer-l i ke devi ces that are i nstal l ed on the
l ow-pressure si de of packi ng to prevent extrusi on
of the packi ng materi al . Backup ri ngs i n dynami c
seal s mi ni mi ze erosi on of the packi ng materi al s
and subsequent fai l ure of the seal . At l ower
pressures, backup ri ngs wi l l prol ong the normal
wear l i fe of the packi ng. At hi gher pressures,
backup ri ngs permi t greater cl earances between
the movi ng parts. Normal l y, backup ri ngs are
requi red for operati ng pressures over 1500 psi .
Backup r i ngs can be made of pol ytetr a-
fl uoroethyl ene, hard rubber, l eather, and other
materi al s. The most common materi al currentl y
used i s tetrafl uoroethyl ene (TFE). Backup ri ngs
are avai l abl e as si ngl e-turn conti nuous (uncut or
sol i d), si ngl e-turn (bi as) cut, and spi ral cut. See
fi gure 7-11. Leather ri ngs are al ways furni shed i n
sol i d r i ng for m (unspl i t). Ri ngs of TFE ar e
avai l abl e i n al l three types.
Packaging and Storing
Backup ri ngs are not col or-coded or otherwi se
marked and must be i denti fi ed from the packagi ng
l abel s. The dash number fol l owi ng the mi l i tary
standard number found on the package i ndi cates
the si ze, and usual l y rel ates di rectl y to the dash
number of the O-ri ngs for whi ch the backup ri ng
i s di mensi onal l y sui ted. Backup ri ngs made of
TFE do not deteri orate wi th age and do not have
shel f l i fe l i mi tati ons. TFE backup r i ngs ar e
provi ded by manufacturer ei ther i n i ndi vi dual l y
seal ed packages or on mandrel s. I f unpackaged
ri ngs are stored for a l ong ti me wi thout the use
of mandrel s, a condi ti on of overl ap may devel op.
Overl ap occurs when the I D of the backup ri ng
becomes smal l er and i ts ends overl ap each other.
To correct thi s overl ap condi ti on, stack TFE ri ngs
on a mandrel of the correct di ameter, and cl amp
the ri ngs wi th thei r coi l s fl at and paral l el . Pl ace
the ri ngs i n an oven at a maxi mum temperature
of 177
0
C (350
0
F) for approxi matel y 10 mi nutes.
Do not over heat them because fumes fr om
decompos i n g TFE ar e tox i c. Remov e an d
water-quench the ri ngs. Store the ri ngs at room
temperature before you use them (preferabl y for
48 hours).
Installation
Care must be taken i n handl i ng and i nstal l i ng
backup ri ngs. Do not i nsert them wi th sharp
tool s. Backup r i ngs must be i nspected pr i or
to usi ng them for evi dence of compr essi on
damage, scratches, cuts, ni cks, or frayed con-
di ti ons. I f O-ri ngs are to be repl aced where
backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed i n the same groove,
never r epl ace the O-r i ng wi thout r epl aci ng
the backup ri ngs, or vi ce versa. Many seal s
use two backup ri ngs, one on ei ther si de of the
O-ri ng (fi g. 7-12). Two backup ri ngs are used
pri mari l y i n si tuati ons (such as a reci procati ng
pi ston seal ) where al ternati ng pressure di recti on
can cause packi ng to be extruded on both si des
of the gl and.
Figure 7-11.Types of backup rings.
7-12
Figure 7-12.Backup ring configuration.
I f onl y one backup ri ng i s used, pl ace the
backup r i ng on the l ow-pr essur e si de of the
packi ng (fi g. 7-13, vi ew A). When a backup ri ng
i s pl aced on the hi gh-pressure si de of the packi ng,
the pressure agai nst the rel ati vel y hard surface of
the backup ri ng forces the softer packi ng agai nst
the l ow-pressure si de of the gl and, resul ti ng i n a
rapi d fai l ure due to extrusi on (fi g. 7-13, vi ew B).
When dual backup ri ngs are i nstal l ed, stagger
the spl i t scarfed ends as shown i n fi gure 7-14.
When i nstal l i ng a spi ral cut backup ri ng (MS28782
or MS28783), be sure to wi nd the ri ng correctl y
to ease i nstal l ati on and ensure opti mum per-
for mance.
When TFE spi ral ri ngs are bei ng i nstal l ed i n
i nternal grooves, the ri ng must have a ri ght-hand
Figure 7-13.Location of a single backup ring.
Figure 7-14.Installation of cut dual backup rings.
7-13
Figure 7-15.Installation of TFE back up rings (internal).
7-14
spi ral . Fi gure 7-15, vi ew A, shows how to change
the di recti on of the spi ral . The ri ng i s then
stretched sl i ghtl y, as shown i n vi ew B pri or to
i nstal l ati on i nto the groove. Whi l e the TFE ri ng
i s bei ng i nserted i nto the groove, rotate the
component i n a cl ockwi se di recti on. Thi s wi l l tend
to expand the ri ng di ameter and reduce the
possi bi l i ty of damagi ng the ri ng.
When TFE spi ral ri ngs are bei ng i nstal l ed i n
external grooves, the ri ng shoul d have a l eft-hand
spi ral . As the ri ng i s bei ng i nserted i nto the
gr oove, r otate the component i n a cl ockwi se
di recti on. Thi s acti on wi l l tend to contract the ri ng
di ameter and reduce the possi bi l i ty of damagi ng
the ri ng.
I n appl i cati ons where a l eather backup ri ng
i s cal l ed for, pl ace the smooth-grai ned si de of the
l eather next to the ri ng. Do not cut l eather backup
ri ngs. Use a l eather backup ri ng as one conti nuous
ri ng and l ubri cate the ri ng pri or to i nstal l i ng i t,
parti cul arl y the smal l er si zes. I f stretchi ng i s
necessary for proper i nstal l ati on, soak the backup
ri ng i n the system fl ui d or i n an acceptabl e
l ubri cant at room temperature for at l east 30
mi nutes.
or two backup ri ngs, dependi ng upon the speci fi c
seal groove appl i cati on and wi dth. The Quad-
Ri ngseal works wel l i n, both hydraul i c and
pneumati c systems.
Many Quad-Ri ng seal si zes have been
assi gned NSNs and are stocked i n the Federal
Suppl y System. Quad-Ri ngseal s i n manu-
facturers si zes desi gnated as Q1 through Q88 are
i nter changeabl e wi th O-r i ngs confor mi ng to
AN6227. Li kewi se, Quad-Ri ngseal s i n com-
mer ci al si zes Q101 thr ough Q152 ar e i nter -
changeabl e wi th O-ri ngs conformi ng to AN6230
i n the respecti ve dash si zes from 1 through52.
Ther efor e, the Quad-Ri ng seal stock par t
number uses the AN standard O-ri ng desi gnati ons
AN6227 and AN6230 and the commerci al Q dash
number desi gnati on. For exampl e, NSNs are
found under such reference part numbers as
AN6227Q10 and AN6230Q103. I f the l etter Q
does not fol l ow AN6227 or AN6230, the part
number i s an O-ri ng not a Quad-Ri ngseal .
I f Quad-Ri ngseal s are not avai l abl e for
mai ntenance acti ons, appropri ate si zed O-ri ngs
can be i nstal l ed and they work sati sfactori l y.
QUAD-O-DYN SEALS
QUAD-RINGS
The Quad-Ri ngseal i s a speci al confi gura-
ti on ri ng packi ng, manufactured by the Mi nnesota
Rubber . As opposed to an O-r i ng, a Quad-
Ri ngseal has a more square cross-secti onal
shape wi th rounded corners (fi g. 7-16). The Quad-
Ri ngseal desi gn offers more stabi l i ty than the
O-r i ng desi gn and pr acti cal l y el i mi nates the
spi ral i ng or twi sti ng that i s someti mes encountered
wi th the O-ri ng.
Quad-Ri ngs seal s ar e compl etel y i nter -
changeabl e wi th O-ri ngs i n the si zes offered by
the manufacturer. They may be i nstal l ed wi th one
The Quad-O-Dyn, al so manufactur ed by
Mi nnesota Rubber , i s a speci al for m of the
Quad-Ri ng. The Quad-O-Dyn di ffers from the
Quad-Ri ng i n confi gurati on (fi g. 7-17), i s harder,
i s subject to greater squeeze, and i s made of a
di fferent materi al . The Quad-O-Dynseal al so
works wel l i n O-ri ngs gl ands.
The Quad-O-Dyni s used i n rel ati vel y few
appl i cati ons. However , for di ffi cul t dynami c
seal i ng appl i cati ons, the Quad-O-Dyn can
perform better than the Quad-Ri ng. Quad-O-
Dynri ngs are i nstal l ed i n submari ne hydraul i c
systems pl ant accumul ators.
Figure 7-16.Quad-Ring.
7-15
Figure 7-17.Quad-O-Dyn seal.
U-CUPS AND U-PACKINGS
Th e di s ti n cti on between U -cu ps a n d
U-packi ngs resul ts from the di fference i n materi al s
used i n thei r fabri cati on. The U-cup i s usual l y
made of h omogen eou s s y n th eti c r u bber ;
U-packi ngs are usual l y made of l eather or fabri c-
rei nforced rubber. Speci al aspects of each type wi l l
be di scussed separatel y. However, al l U-cups and
U-packi ngs have cross secti ons resembl i ng the
l etter U. Both types are bal anced packi ngs, both
seal on the I D and the OD, and both are appl i ed
i ndi vi dual l y, not i n stacks l i ke V-ri ngs. Si ze
di fferences between U-cups and U-packi ngs are
usual l y substanti al enough to pr event i nter -
changeabi l i ty. There are a few si zes wi th smal l er
di ameters and cross secti ons that may appear
to be di mensi onal l y equi val ent but ar e not.
Therefore, U-packi ngs shoul d not be substi tuted
for U-cups (or vi ce versa) i n any i nstal l ati on.
U-CUPS
The U-cup (fi g. 7-18) has been a popul ar
packi ng i n the past because of i nstal l ati on ease
and l ow fri cti on. U-cups are used pri mari l y for
pressures bel ow 1500 psi , but hi gher pressures are
possi bl e wi th the use of anti extrusi on ri ngs. For
doubl e-acti ng pi stons, two U-cups are i nstal l ed
i n separate grooves, back-to-back or heel -to-heel .
Two U-cups are never used i n the same groove.
Thi s heel -to-heel type of i nstal l ati on i s common
for si ngl e-acti ng (monodi recti onal ) seal s, such as
U-cups and V-ri ngs, and i s necessary to prevent
a pressure trap (hydraul i c l ock) between two
packi ngs. I nstal l ati on of two U-cups wi th seal i ng
l i ps faci ng each other can resul t i n hydraul i c l ock
and must be avoi ded.
Leather U-Packings
As a rul e, l eather U-packi ngs are made wi th
strai ght si de wal l s (no fl ared seal i ng l i ps). See
fi gure 7-19. The l eather may be chemi cal l y treated
or otherwi se i mpregnated to i mprove i ts per-
formance. Leather U-packi ngs are avai l abl e i n
standard si zes conformi ng to i ndustri al speci fi ca-
ti ons. For support, the cavi ty of the U-packi ng
shoul d contai n a metal pedestal ri ng or shoul d be
fi l l ed wi th a sui tabl e materi al . Leather U-packi ngs
wi th an i ntegral pedestal support have been
i nstal l ed i n some submari ne steeri ng and di vi ng
ram pi ston seal s.
CUP PACKINGS
Cup packi ngs resembl e a cup or deep di sh wi th
a hol e i n the center for mounti ng (fi g. 7-20). Cup
seal s are used excl usi vel y to seal pi stons i n both
l ow- and hi gh-pr essur e hydr aul i c and pneu-
mati c servi ce. They are produced i n l eather,
homogeneous syntheti c r ubber , and fabr i c-
rei nforced syntheti c rubber. Al though the cup
packi ng l i p fl ares outward, the rubbi ng contact
i s made at the l i p onl y when the fl ui d pressure i s
l ow. As the fl ui d pressure i ncreases, the cup heel
expands outward unti l i t contacts the cyl i nder
wal l , at whi ch poi nt hi gh-pressure seal i ng i s i n
effect. As the pressure l oadi ng shi fts the seal i ng
l i ne to the cup heel , the l i p i s actual l y pul l ed i nto
the cup and away from the cyl i nder wal l . On the
return stroke when the pressure i s rel axed, the heel
wi l l shri nk sl i ghtl y, l eavi ng onl y the l i p i n contact
wi th the wal l , avoi di ng unnecessary wear at the
heel .
For reci procati ng pi stons, two cups i nstal l ed
back-to-back i n separate gl ands are requi red.
FLANGE PACKINGS
Fl ange packi ngs are used excl usi vel y i n l ow-
pressure, outsi de-packed i nstal l ati ons, such as rod
Figure 7-18.Typical U-cup seal. Figure 7-19.U-packing.
7-16
Figure 7-20.Cup packing.
seal s. The fl ange
made of l eather,
(someti mes cal l ed
fabri c-rei nforced
the hat) i s
r ubber , or
homogeneous rubber. Li p seal i ng occurs onl y on
the packi ng I D (fi g. 7-21). Fl ange packi ngs are
general l y used onl y for rod seal s when other
packi ngs such as V-ri ngs or U-seal s cannot be
used.
DIRT EXCLUSION SEALS
(WIPERS AND SCRAPERS)
Di r t excl usi on devi ces ar e essenti al i f a
sati sfactory l i fe i s to be obtai ned from most rod
seal s. The smooth fi ni shed movi ng rod surface,
i f not encl osed or protected by some sort of
coveri ng, wi l l accumul ate a coati ng of dust or
abrasi ve materi al that wi l l be dragged or carri ed
i nto the packi ng assembl y area on the return rod
stroke. Excl usi on devi ces cal l ed wi pers or scrapers
are desi gned to remove thi s coati ng. Whi l e the
ter ms wi per an d scr aper ar e often u s ed
i nterchangeabl y, i t i s useful to reserve scraper
Figure 7-21.Typical flange packing cross section.
for metal l i p-type devi ces that remove heavi l y
encr usted deposi ts of di r t or other abr asi ve
materi al that woul d merel y defl ect a softer l i p and
be carri ed i nto the cyl i nder. Someti mes a rod wi l l
have both a scraper and a wi per, the former to
remove heavy deposi ts and the l atter to excl ude
any dust parti cl es that remai n. Whenever metal l i c
scrapers are used wi th fel t wi pers i n the same
groove, the fel t wi per must not be compressed nor
restri cted i n any way that affects i ts functi on as
a l ubri cator. A wi per i nstal l ed i n a seal assembl y
i n a pneumati c appl i cati on may remove too much
oi l fr om the r od, r equi r i ng some method of
repl aci ng the oi l . A common remedy i s to provi de
a peri odi cal l y oi l ed fel t ri ng between the wi per
and the seal . Fel t wi pers provi de l ubri cati on
to extended oper ati ng r ods, thus i ncr easi ng
component wear l i fe. These wi pers are onl y used
to provi de l ubri cati on to parts.
Much l onger l i fe coul d be obtai ned from most
seal s i f proper attenti on were gi ven to wi pers and
scrapers. Often, wi per or scraper fai l ure i s not
noti ced when a seal packi ng fai l s. As a resul t, onl y
the packi ng i s repl aced, and the same worn wi per
or scr aper i s r ei nstal l ed to destr oy another
packi ng. Check the wi per or scraper condi ti on
upon i ts removal . I f the wi per i s worn, di rty, or
embedded wi th metal l i c parti cl es, repl ace i t wi th
a new one. I t i s usual l y good practi ce to repl ace
the wi per every ti me you repl ace the seal and even
more frequentl y i f the wi per i s readi l y accessi bl e
wi thout component di sassembl y. I f repl acements
are not avai l abl e, wash di rty wi pers that are sti l l
i n good condi ti on wi th sui tabl e sol vent and
rei nstal l them. Remember that a wi per or scraper
i s del i ber atel y i nstal l ed as a sacr i fi ci al par t
to protect and preserve the seal i ng packi ng.
Therefore, from a users standpoi nt, wi pers and
scrapers shoul d be i nspected and repl aced as
necessary.
STORAGE OF SEALS
Proper storage practi ces must be observed to
prevent deformati on and deteri orati on of seal s.
Most syntheti c r ubber s ar e not damaged by
storage under i deal condi ti ons. However, most
syntheti c rubbers wi l l deteri orate when exposed
to heat, l i ght, oi l , grease, fuel s, sol vents, thi nners,
moi sture, strong drafts, or ozone (form of oxygen
formed from an el ectri cal di scharge). Damage by
exposure i s magni fi ed when rubber i s under
tensi on, compressi on, or stress. There are several
7-17
condi ti ons to be avoi ded, whi ch i ncl ude the
fol l owi ng:
1. Defor mati on as a r esul t of i mpr oper
stacki ng of parts and storage contai ners.
2. Creasi ng caused by force appl i ed to corners
and edges, and by squeezi ng between boxes and
storage contai ners.
3. Compressi on and fl atteni ng, as a resul t of
storage under heavy parts.
4. Punctures caused by stapl es used to attach
i denti fi cati on.
5. Deformati on and contami nati on due to
hangi ng the seal s from nai l s or pegs. Seal s shoul d
be kept i n thei r ori gi nal envel opes, whi ch provi de
preservati on, protecti on, i denti fi cati on, and cure
date.
6. Contami nati on by pi er ci ng the seal ed
envel ope to store O-ri ngs on rods, nai l s, or wi re
hangi ng devi ces.
7. Contami nati on by fl ui ds l eaki ng from parts
stored above and adjacent to the seal surfaces.
8. Contami nati on caused by adhesi ve tapes
appl i ed to seal surfaces. A torn seal package
shoul d be secur ed wi th a pr essur e-sensi ti ve
moi stureproof tape, but the tape must not contact
the seal surfaces.
9. Retenti on of overage parts as a resul t
of i mproper storage arrangement or i l l egi bl e
i denti fi cati on. Seal s shoul d be arranged so the
ol der seal s are used fi rst.
7-18