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1
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to describe
their specificity on substrates
Metabolism- The sum of all chemical reactions in the body is called our metabolism. It simply means change or
transformation
Denature- The process that occurs when the active site of the enzyme is changed and is no longer functional.
Denaturing of an enzyme renders it useless, as the substrate cannot bind with the active site. Denaturing occurs
when an enzyme is subject to conditions outside of its optimal range.
Definitions
Catabolic reactions involve the breaking down of a substance into its reactants. E.g. The breakdown of glucose to
release energy.
Anabolic reactions involve the building up of larger molecules from smaller ones. E.g. making a protein from
several amino acids.
Metabolic Reactions
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts which are present in living organisms. A catalyst is a substance that increases/regulates the
rate of a chemical reaction without being changed or altered itself. Enzymes bind with substrates, the reactants of an
enzyme-catalysed reaction, to make products in a chemical reaction
[1]
.One such enzyme is catalase, an extremely important
enzyme that is found in nearly all living organisms. Catalase converts the substrate hydrogen peroxide, which is toxic to
cells, to the harmless products water and oxygen, thus preventing cell damage. Enzymes like catalase play an essential role
in metabolism as they enable reactions to take place efficiently under the moderate conditions found in cells.
[1]
Carolyn Jeffery & Pauline Ross, NSW Biology, Macmillan Education Australia Ltd, 2007, p.285.
Denature- The process that occurs when the active site of the enzyme is changed and is no longer functional.
Denaturing of an enzyme renders it useless, as the substrate cannot bind with the active site. Denaturing occurs
when an enzyme is subject to conditions outside of its optimal range.
9.2.1 (Section 1)
Saturday, 3 May 2014 11:10 AM
Maintaining a Balance Page 1
when an enzyme is subject to conditions outside of its optimal range.
The presence of an enzyme results in the depreciation of activation energy required; thus enabling the reaction to take
place at a much faster rate. This can be seen in the following graph:
Induced Fit theory- Scientists found that the lock and key hypothesis cannot explain many of the reactions that take place
using enzymes thus leading to the proposal of the induced fit theory. The induced fit theory assumes that the substrate
plays a role in determining the final shape of the enzyme substrate complex and the active site is more flexible than was
first thought. The substrate enters in and binds to the enzyme, shaping the active site for the reaction to take place.
9.2.1.2
Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance
Maintaining a Balance Page 3
9.2.1.3
Explain why the maintenance of a constant environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency
The maintenance of a constant environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency as proper function of enzymes requir es
certain environmental conditions. When an enzyme is subject to conditions outside of its optimum range, it denatures and
renders it useless, as the substrate cannot bind with the active site.
9.2.1.4
Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a steady state in the body despite changes in the external environment. The
steady state is the optimum level for the body functions
Definitions
9.2.1.5
Detecting changes from the stable state
Counteracting changes from the stable state
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
Receptors- A group of cells or nerve endings that detect stimuli. They are organs that contain neurons, which
detect changes to parts of the body such as the skin, the eye or the ear
Effector Organs- A cell or tissue/organ that produces a response to a stimulus from central nervous system.
Definitions
Optimum- The perfect conditions (ie temperature
and pH levels) where an enzyme functions in the
body
determines its optimum temperature and pH range.)
Stimulus- The agent or factor that initiates the beginning of a nervous response in an organism
Negative Feedback System- When the body's response is to reduce and counteract the stimulus is called a
negative feedback system. This causes the body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of a change occurs.
Positive Feedback System- A positive feedback system is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify the
change instead of reducing it. This does not result in homeostasis.
9.2.1.6
Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord transmits messages
from the receptor organs such as the eye, ear or skin via the sensory neurons to special regions in the brain. The
hypothalamus is one of these regions.
The hypothalamus receives stimuli from sensory neurons and then coordinates the correct response necessary
to counteract the change by sending out messages to the effector organs via the motor neurons. It also controls
the release of many hormones that produce slow-acting changes in the body, which also contribute to
homeostasis.
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is composed of all the neurons outside the CNS. These include sensory
neurons which transmit messages from the receptor organs such as the eyes to the CNS. Motor neurons transmit
messages from the CNS to the effector organs such as the muscles to activate a response.
The nervous system enables the detection of changes to the body and then coordinates the responses the body will
undertake to counteract these changes. The nervous system is made up of two interacting elements - CNS and PNS
9.2.1.7
Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for individual
species
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Definitions
Ambient- Temperature of the external environment
Optimum- Ideal conditions
Ectotherm- Organisms that have approximately the same body temperature as the ambient temperature. E.g.
reticulated python, alligator, salamander. Ectotherms have a limited ability to maintain their body temperature at
the one level, as it fluctuates according to the surrounding environment. These animals are often called
'thermoconformers'.
Endotherms- Animals that have physiological structures that enable them to maintain their body temperature
within a narrow range irrespective of the ambient temperature. They use the heat produced from their
metabolism to maintain their body temperatures. They are commonly known as 'warm blooded', homeotherms
or thermoregulators. E.g. humans, dogs and birds.
9.2.1.8
Definitions
Physiological Adaptation- A feature that helps to regulate a function within an organism. E.g. sweating and
shivering
Structural Adaptations- Physical features of an organism. I.e. the length of a bird's beak or the shape of an
animal's body
Behavioural Adaptations- The ways an animal behaves that helps it to survive in its natural environment.
Migration, nocturnal activity
Compare the responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature in regulation
Australian Ectotherm- Diamond Python
Australian Endotherm- Red Kangaroo
9.2.1.9
Identify some responses of plants to temperature change
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Identify some responses of plants to temperature change
Plants are ectothermic- they are unable to maintain a constant temperature and thus they have a range of
adaptations which allow them to survive in a variety of temperatures
Leaf Fall- Many plants in hot conditions will reduce the surface area that is exposed to heat by dropping their
leaves. This reduces the amount of water lost through excessive transpiration
Radiation- Some plants living in very exposed areas, such as sand dunes, reduce the amount of heat being
absorbed by having shiny leaves that reflect solar radiation
Heat-shock Proteins- Produced by plants when they are under stress from very high temperatures. These
molecules are thought to stop the denaturing of the enzymes (proteins) within a cell, so normal cell reactions can
continue.
Transpiration- The movement of water up the plant from the roots to the leaves via transpiration stream serves
to cool the plant in hot conditions. The evaporation of the water from the stomates of the leaf also serves to cool
the plant
Die back- Often in harsh conditions the shoots of leaves of a plant may die, but left in the soil are bulbs, roots or
rhizoids that will begin to grow again when favourable conditions return
Orientation of Leaves- The vertical orientation of plants as the advantage of reducing the surface area exposed
to light rays, therefore reducing the amount of heat it is exposed to
Seed Dispersal- Some Australian native plants rely on extremely high temperatures, such as those produced by a
faire, to germinate their seeds
Vernalisation- The process whereby plants must be exposed to cold conditions for them to produce flowers and
therefore reproduce. The presence of cold conditions in winter will stimulate the flowers to grow and by the time
they are mature, spring should be near
Adaptations
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9.2.2.1
Carbon dioxide -
Oxygen -
Water -
Salts -
Lipids -
Nitrogenous waste -
Other products of digestion -
Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
Components of Blood
Component Role/Function
Plasma Makes up 55% of the blood
Carries blood cells
Main role is to carry blood cells and many dissolved substances i.e. proteins and carbon dioxide
Red blood cells
(Erythrocytes)
Make up approximately 45%
AKA erythrocytes (erythro means red, cyte means cell)
Carry haemoglobin, a molecule that incorporates iron and thus allowing red blood cells to carry oxygen
and carbon dioxide
Cellular respiration: the chemical reaction that provides cells with energy.
How does oxygen enter the body?
1) Oxygen enters the bloodstream at the lungs and goes into many thousands of alveoli (tiny air sacs inside each lung)
2) Oxygen moves via diffusion from the inhaled air (where there is a higher concentration of oxygen) into the red blood cells
(where there is a lower concentration of oxygen)
3) Here it binds to haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin and is carried via the arteries and capillaries to the tissues of the body.
Why is the removal of Carbon dioxide important?
9.2.2 (Section 2)
Sunday, 4 May 2014 5:47 PM
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Why is the removal of Carbon dioxide important?
Just as essential the oxygen is to the body, it is vital that the Carbon dioxide is removed. If allowed to accumulate, the CO
2
would
combine with water to form carbonic acid - not allowing enzymes to function properly and eventually causing the cell to die.
Therefore it is necessary for blood to continually take CO
2
away from cells, keeping the pH within a tolerable range for the body's
tissues.
How is CO
2
removed from the body as a waste product?
The CO
2
produced by cells as a waste product of respiration is transported via the opposite route. The CO
2
diffuses across to the
blood stream and travels in the blood to the lungs. Here it diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli and is exhaled by the lungs.
Cool fact: The level of CO
2
in the blood is what provides the physiological trigger for breathing. The brain responds to an increase
in the concentration of CO
2
in the blood by increasing both the rate and depth of breathing. This is one of many examples of how
the body 'maintains a balance' to ensure normal functioning.
9.2.2.2
Explain the advantage of Haemoglobin
The structures of red blood cells and haemoglobin maximise the amount of oxygen that can be carried in the blood. Haemoglobin
can thus be considered an adaptive advantage of organisms with large oxygen requirements i.e. mammals.
The amount of oxygen bound to haemoglobin depends on:
Oxygen concentration in the solution (the higher the concentration -->the greater the saturation) -
Carbon dioxide concentration in the solution (higher concentration --> lower saturation) -
pH of the solution (lower pH --> lower saturation) -
9.2.2.3
Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
Circulatory System- The circulatory system is composed of the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins. It serves to transport blood low in
oxygen from the body to the lungs and heart, and oxygenated blood from the lungs and heart throughout the body (arteries).
Important!
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and once to get pumps to the rest of the body
Blood
Vessel
General Information Structure
Arteries The blood in the arteries travels away from the heart to the
furthest reaches of the body
Thinner walls
Wider diameters and valves to prevent the blood from flowing
backwards
Wastes such as CO
2
move from the tissues to the capillaries
to the venules. In this way, the body's tissues are efficiently
supplied with essential substances and rid of unwanted
wastes
9.2.2.4
Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues in which
these changes occur
The chemical composition of blood changes as it moves around the body- results from the continuous exchange of
substances between the blood and the surrounding tissues
Blood moving through the body's tissues delivers oxygen and glucose (essential for respiration) as well as other nutrients,
while CO
2
and nitrogenous wastes are taken away
Runs all the way through the roots, the stem and into the
leaves. Transportation--> upwards
Two main types of conducting cells:
Tracheids
Elongated cells that taper at each end, where the come in
contact with each other they overlap. The walls of tracheids
are reinforced with a strengthening material called lignin but
contain numerous small pits through which water molecules
and dissolved ions are allowed to pass from one tracheid to
another
Vessels
Chief water-conducting tubes of xylem
Wider than tracheids, have no end walls
Marked by characteristic patterns of lignin reinforcement
which often form spirals or rings around the inner surface of
the tube walls.
Phloem Phloem is the tissue in plants that carries organic nutrients Pressure-flow theory (Source to sink)- states that sources of
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Phloem Phloem is the tissue in plants that carries organic nutrients
including carbohydrates, amino acids and hormones.
- Sieve Cells
- Companion Cells
Sieve cells- Main conducting cells of the phloem. These are
elongated which join together to form vertical columns called
sieve tubes. At the end of each cell is a perforated sieve
plate- a specialised membrane with many small openings or
pores to allow substances to pass through from one cell to
the other
-Apoplastic Loading
-Symplastic Loading
Apoplastic loading suggests that the materials move between the
cell walls (apoplast) of cells until they read a sieve element
Related Diagrams
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Screen clipping taken: 10/05/2014 2:46 PM
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9.2.3.1
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow
range for optimal function
Isotonic- When the concentration within the solution is the same as the outside
environment. No overall movement of water
Hypotonic- Concentration of solutes is greater inside than out . Water tends to move
inside the cell
Hypertonic- Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell. Water tends to move
outside of the cell
Definitions
Water Significance
Water is the medium that transports and distributes many substances (such as
nutrients and wastes) in and between cells
It is the solvent in which many important ions and molecules required for metabolic
reactions are dissolved. The aqueous solution allows these substances to diffuse
across and cells
Metabolic reactions that occur within cells can only occur in solution
Water itself is a reactant or product of many cellular reactions, for example, it is a
product of cellular respiration
Definitions
9.2.3 (Section 3)
Saturday, 10 May 2014 2:32 PM
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energy (ATP)'
Removal of Metabolic Wastes
Metabolic reactions keep cells functioning, and in turn keep organisms alive and healthy.
Paradoxically, many metabolic reactions produce wastes that, if left to accumulate, would
poison and eventually kill the cell.
9.2.3.9
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
The kidney filters the blood of metabolic wastes such as urea and maintains a stable
concentration of water in the bloodstream
Mammals of two kidneys that are located on either side of the abdomen. They are
connected to the renal artery, which carries blood from the heart to the kidney, and
Definitions
Transport and Adequacy
In unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, the excretion of dissolved nitrogenous
Maintaining a Balance Page 17
In unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, the excretion of dissolved nitrogenous
wastes occurs solely by the processes of diffusion and osmosis. The cell membrane is
selectively permeable; allowing water molecules to enter via osmosis when necessary,
and nitrogenous wastes to exit via diffusion. The large surface area to volume ratio of
unicellular organisms ensures these processes occur easily and effectively
Multicellular organisms are too large to rely on the processes of diffusion and osmosis
to excrete their nitrogenous wastes. Complex organisms made of thousands or
millions of cells must therefore find other ways to rid themselves of their wastes i.e.
active transport.
Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron
regulate body fluid composition
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, which has millions of nephrons
contained in its cortex and medulla. The nephron functions to filter the blood of
metabolic wastes, make and secrete urine, and absorb water to maintain homeostasis.
The nephron consists of 4 parts (in order of movement) THAT are heavily surrounded by
capillaries:
Bowmans capsule--> Proximal convoluted tubule --> Loop of Henle --> Distal
tubule --> Collecting Duct
Process Description
Filtration Occurs in the glomerulus
The movement of small molecules from the blood in the glomerulus into the
Bowman's capsule is by filtration
Blood pressure forces small molecules such as urea, glucose, amino acids,
salts and water across into the Bowman's capsule
Blood cells and large molecules (i.e. proteins) cannot pass through the pores
of the capillary and capsule membranes. Thus no proteins or blood cells
should be found in the urine as their presence indicates kidney damage or
The cells have a large number of mitochondria to produce energy for active
transport and large surface areas for maximum absorption
9.2.3.8
Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentration
Homeostasis- the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable (constant) or almost
constant, internal
Definitions
Enantiostasis- the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to
variations in the
environment.
Estuarine environments- areas where a freshwater river meets and mixes with saltwater sea.
Euryhaline organisms- organisms with the ability to tolerate changing levels of salinity
Stenohaline organisms- Organisms that can tolerate little to no change in salinity- includes
organisms that live in the open sea
environment. The difference between the two, is the fact that homeostasis requires only a
SPECIFIC internal condition for an organism to function properly, whereas enantiostasis is for a
VARIETY of internal conditions which the organism can function properly at. E.g. diving birds rely
on enantiostasis to function properly at extremely high and low pressure sky levels. In homeostasis
heat is 'acted against' by sweating etc, the pressure for birds isn't 'acted against'; it is 'adapted' to.
Osmoregulation: is the control of the levels of water and mineral salts in the blood. E.g. crabs
the concentration of their internal solutes to match the external environment. Their
metabolism can handle it.
9.2.3.9
Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising
water loss
Transpiration- loss of water through the leaves of a plant; the movement of water up
the plant via evaporation of water from the surface to the leaves
Definitions
Maintaining a Balance Page 19
the plant via evaporation of water from the surface to the leaves
Xerophytes- Plants that have evolved adaptations to help them survive in
environments with very little free water
Adaptation Description
Phyllodes Green and able to photosynthesise like a leaf but contains fewer stomatas per square
centimeter than normal
Leaf Shape The native pig face has triangular shaped leaves to reduce the surface exposed to sunlight;
hence decreasing water loss