Here a few examples of polynomial functions:

f(x) = 4x
3
+ 8x
2
+ 2x + 3
g(x) = 2.5x
5
+ 5.2x
2
+ 7
h(x) = 3x
2

i(x) = 22.6
Polynomial functions are functions that have this form:
f(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ ... + a
1
x + a
0

The value of n must be an nonnegative integer. That is, it must be whole number;
it is equal to zero or a positive integer.
The coefficients, as they are called, are a
n
, a
n-1,
..., a
1
, a
0
. These are real numbers.
The degree of the polynomial function is the highest value for n where a
n
is not
equal to 0.
So, the degree of g(x) = 2.5x
5
+ 5.2x
2
+ 7 is 5.

Notice that the second to the last term in this form actually has x raised to an
exponent of 1, as in:
f(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ ... + a
1
x
1
+ a
0

Of course, usually we do not show exponents of 1.

Notice that the last term in this form actually has x raised to an exponent of 0, as
in:
f(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ ... + a
1
x + a
0
x
0

Of course, x raised to a power of 0 makes it equal to 1, and we usually do not show
multiplications by 1.

So, in its most formal presentation, one could show the form of a polynomial
function as:
f(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ ... + a
1
x
1
+ a
0
x
0


Here are some polynomial functions; notice that the coefficients can be positive or
negative real numbers.
f(x) = 2.4x
5
+ 1.7x
2
- 5.6x + 8.1
f(x) = 4x
3
+ 5.6x
f(x) = 3.7x
3
- 9.2x
2
+ 0.1x - 5.2
Factor = Root
Make sure you arent confused by the terminology. All of these are the same:
Solving a polynomial equation p(x) = 0
Finding roots of a polynomial equation p(x) = 0
Finding zeroes of a polynomial function p(x)
Factoring a polynomial function p(x)
Theres a factor for every root, and vice versa. (xr) is a factor if and only if r is a root.
This is the Factor Theorem: finding the roots or finding the factors is essentially the same
thing. (The main difference is how you treat a constant factor.)
Exact or Approximate?
Most often when we talk about solving an equation or factoring a polynomial, we mean an
exact (or analytic) solution. The other type, approximate (or numeric) solution, is always
possible and sometimes is the only possibility.
When you can find it, an exact solution is better. You can always find a numerical
approximation to an exact solution, but going the other way is much more difficult. This page
spends most of its time on methods for exact solutions, but also tells you what to do when
analytic methods fail.
Step by Step
How do you find the factors or zeroes of a polynomial (or the roots of a polynomial
equation)? Basically, you whittle. Every time you chip a factor or root off the polynomial,
youre left with a polynomial that is one degree simpler. Use that new reduced polynomial to
find the remaining factors or roots.
At any stage in the procedure, if you get to a cubic or quartic equation (degree 3 or 4),
you have a choice of continuing with factoring or using the cubic or quartic formulas. These
formulas are a lot of work, so most people prefer to keep factoring.
Follow this procedure step by step:
1. If solving an equation, put it in standard form with 0 on one side and simplify.
[ details ]
2. Know how many roots to expect. [ details ]
3. If youre down to a linear or quadratic equation (degree 1 or 2), solve by
inspection or the quadratic formula. [ details ]
Then go to step 7.
4. Find one rational factor or root. This is the hard part, but there are lots of
techniques to help you. [ details ]
If you can find a factor or root, continue with step 5 below; if you cant, go to step
6.
5. Divide by your factor. This leaves you with a new reduced polynomial whose
degree is 1 less. [ details ]
For the rest of the problem, youll work with the reduced polynomial and not the
original. Continue at step 3.
6. If you cant find a factor or root, turn to numerical methods. [ details ]
Then go to step 7.
7. If this was an equation to solve, write down the roots. If it was a polynomial to
factor, write it in factored form, including any constant factors you took out in
step 1.
This is an example of an algorithm, a set of steps that will lead to a desired result in a finite
number of operations. Its an iterative strategy, because the middle steps are repeated as long
as necessary.
Cubic and Quartic Formulas
The methods given here find a rational root and use synthetic division are the easiest.
But if you cant find a rational root, there are special methods for cubic equations (degree 3)
and quartic equations (degree 4), both at Mathworld.

Step 1. Standard Form and Simplify
This is an easy step easy to overlook, unfortunately. If you have a polynomial equation,
put all terms on one side and 0 on the other. And whether its a factoring problem or an
equation to solve, put your polynomial in standard form, from highest to lowest power.
For instance, you cannot solve this equation in this form:
x + 6x + 12x = 8
You must change it to this form:
x + 6x + 12x + 8 = 0
Also make sure you have simplified, by factoring out any common factors. This may include
factoring out a 1 so that the highest power has a positive coefficient. Example: to factor
7 6x 15x 2x
begin by putting it in standard form:
2x 15x 6x + 7
and then factor out the 1
(2x + 15x + 6x 7) or (1)(2x + 15x + 6x 7)
If youre solving an equation, you can throw away any common constant factor. But if
youre factoring a polynomial, you must keep the common factor.
Example: To solve 8x + 16x + 8 = 0, you can divide left and right by the common
factor 8. The equation x + 2x + 1 = 0 has the same roots as the original equation.
Example: To factor 8x + 16x + 8 , you recognize the common factor of 8 and rewrite
the polynomial as 8(x + 2x + 1), which is identical to the original polynomial. (While its
true that you will focus your further factoring efforts on x + 2x + 1, it would be an error to
write that the original polynomial equals x + 2x + 1.)
Your common factor may be a fraction, because you must factor out any fractions so that
the polynomial has integer coefficients.
Example: To solve (1/3)x + (3/4)x (1/2)x + 5/6 = 0, you recognize the common
factor of 1/12 and divide both sides by 1/12. This is exactly the same as recognizing and
multiplying by the lowest common denominator of 12. Either way, you get
4x + 9x 6x + 10 = 0, which has the same roots as the original equation.
Example: To factor (1/3)x + (3/4)x (1/2)x + 5/6, you recognize the common factor of
1/12 (or the lowest common denominator of 12) and factor out 1/12. You get
(1/12)(4x + 9x 6x + 10), which is identical to the original polynomial.
Step 2. How Many Roots?
A polynomial of degree n will have n roots, some of which may be multiple roots.
How do you know this is true? The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra tells you that
the polynomial has at least one root. The Factor Theorem tells you that if r is a root then
(xr) is a factor. But if you divide a polynomial of degree n by a factor (xr), whose degree is
1, you get a polynomial of degree n1. Repeatedly applying the Fundamental Theorem and
Factor Theorem gives you n roots and n factors.
Descartes Rule of Signs
Descartes Rule of Signs can tell you how many positive and how many negative real
zeroes the polynomial has. This is a big labor-saving device, especially when youre deciding
which possible rational roots to pursue.
To apply Descartes Rule of Signs, you need to understand the term variation in sign.
When the polynomial is arranged in standard form, a variation in sign occurs when the sign
of a coefficient is different from the sign of the preceding coefficient. (A zero coefficient is
ignored.) For example,
p(x) = x
5
2x
3
+ 2x
2
3x + 12
has four variations in sign.
Descartes Rule of Signs:
The number of positive roots of p(x)=0 is either equal to the number of variations in
sign of p(x), or less than that by an even number.
The number of negative roots of p(x)=0 is either equal to the number of variations in
sign of p(x), or less than that by an even number.
Example: Consider p(x) above. Since it has four variations in sign, there must be either four
positive roots, two positive roots, or no positive roots.
Now form p(x), by replacing x with (x) in the above:
p(x) =(x)
5
2(x)
3
+ 2(x)
2
3(x) + 12
p(x) = x
5
+ 2x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 3x + 12
p(x) has one variation in sign, and therefore the original p(x) has one negative root. Since
you know that p(x) must have a negative root, but it may or may not have any positive roots,
you would look first for negative roots.
p(x) is a fifthdegree polynomial, and therefore it must have five zeros. Since x is not a
factor, you know that x=0 is not a zero of the polynomial. (For a polynomial with real
coefficients, like this one, complex roots occur in pairs.) Therefore there are three
possibilities:

number of zeroes
that are
positive negative
complex
not real
first possibility 4 1 0
second possibility 2 1 2
third possibility 0 1 4
Complex Roots
If a polynomial has real coefficients, then either all roots are real or there are an even
number of non-real complex roots, in conjugate pairs.
For example, if 5+2i is a zero of a polynomial with real coefficients, then 52i must also
be a zero of that polynomial. It is equally true that if (x52i) is a factor then (x5+2i) is also
a factor.
Why is this true? Because when you have a factor with an imaginary part and multiply it
by its complex conjugate you get a real result:
(x52i)(x5+2i) = x10x+254i = x10x+29
If (x52i) was a factor but (x5+2i) was not, then the polynomial would end up with
imaginaries in its coefficients, no matter what the other factors might be. If the polynomial
has only real coefficients, then any complex roots must occur in conjugate pairs.
Irrational Roots
For similar reasons, if the polynomial has rational coefficients then the irrational roots
involving square roots occur (if at all) in conjugate pairs. If (x2+3) is a factor of a
polynomial with rational coefficients, then (x23) must also be a factor. (To see why,
remember how you rationalize a binomial denominator; or just check what happens when you
multiply those two factors.)
As Jeff Beckman pointed out (20 June 2006), this is emphatically not true for odd roots.
For instance, x2 = 0 has three roots, 2^(1/3) and two complex roots.
Its an interesting problem whether irrationals involving even roots of order 4 must
also occur in conjugate pairs. I dont have an immediate answer. Im working on a proof, as I
have time.
Multiple Roots
When a given factor (xr) occurs m times in a polynomial, r is called a multiple root or a
root of multiplicity m
If the multiplicity m is an even number, the graph touches the x axis at x=r but does
not cross it.
If the multiplicity m is an odd number, the graph crosses the x axis at x=r. If the
multiplicity is 3, 5, 7, and so on, the graph is horizontal at the point where it crosses
the axis.
Examples: Compare these two polynomials and their graphs:
f(x) = (x1)(x4)
2
= x
3
9x
2
+ 24x 16
g(x) = (x1)
3
(x4)
2
= x
5
11x
4
+ 43x
3
73x
2
+ 56x 16
These polynomials have the same zeroes, but the root 1 occurs with different multiplicities.
Look at the graphs:

Both polynomials have zeroes at 1 and 4 only. f(x) has degree 3, which means three roots.
You see from the factors that 1 is a root of multiplicity 1 and 4 is a root of multiplicity 2.
Therefore the graph crosses the axis at x=1 (but is not horizontal there) and touches at x=4
without crossing.
By contrast, g(x) has degree 5. (g(x) = f(x) times (x-1)
2
.) Of the five roots, 1 occurs with
multiplicity 3: the graph crosses the axis at x=1 and is horizontal there; 4 occurs with
multiplicity 2, and the graph touches the axis at x=4 without crossing.

Step 3. Quadratic Factors
When you have quadratic factors (Ax+Bx+C), it may or may not be possible to factor them
further.
Sometimes you can just see the factors, as with
xx6 = (x+2)(x3). Other times its not so obvious whether the quadratic can be factored.
Thats when the quadratic formula (shown at right) is your friend.
For example, suppose you have a factor of 12xx35. Can that be factored further? By trial
and error youd have to try a lot of combinations! Instead, use the fact that factors
correspond to roots, and apply the formula to find the roots of 12xx35 = 0, like this:
x = [ (1) [1 4(12)(35)] ] / 2(12)
x = [ 1 1681 ] / 24
1681 = 41, and therefore
x = [ 1 41 ] / 24
x = 42/24 or 40/24
x = 7/4 or 5/3
If 7/4 and 5/3 are roots, then (x7/4) and (x+5/3) are factors. Therefore
12xx35 = (4x7)(3x+5)
What about x5x+7? This one looks like its prime, but how can you be sure? Again, apply
the formula:
x = [ (5) [25 4(1)(7)] ] / 2(1)
x = [ 5 (3) ] / 2
What you do with that depends on the original problem. If it was to factor over the reals, then
x5x+7 is prime. But if that factor was part of an equation and you were supposed to find all
complex roots, you have two of them:
x = 5/2 + ((3)/2)i, x = 5/2 ((3)/2)i
Since the original equation had real coefficients, these complex roots occur in a conjugate
pair.

Step 4. Find One Factor or Root
This step is the heart of factoring a polynomial or solving a polynomial equation. There are a
lot of techniques that can help you to find a factor.
Sometimes you can find factors by inspection (see the first two sections that follow).
This provides a great shortcut, so check for easy factors before starting more strenuous
methods.
Monomial Factors
Always start by looking for any monomial factors you can see. For instance, if your function
is
f(x) = 4x
6
+ 12x
5
+ 12x
4
+ 4x
3

you should immediately factor it as
f(x) = 4x
3
(x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 3x + 1)
Getting the 4 out of there simplifies the remaining numbers, the x
3
gives you a root of x = 0
(with multiplicity 3), and now you have only a cubic polynomial (degree 3) instead of a
sextic (degree 6). In fact, you should now recognize that cubic as a special product, the
perfect cube (x+1)
3
.
When you factor out a common variable factor, be sure you remember it at the end when
youre listing the factor or roots. x+3x+3x+1 = 0 has certain roots, but x(x+3x+3x+1) = 0
has those same roots and also a root at x=0.
Special Products
Be alert for applications of the Special Products. If you can apply them, your task becomes
much easier. The Special Products are
perfect square (2 forms): A 2AB + B = (A B)
sum of squares: A + B cannot be factored on the reals, in general (for exceptional
cases see Factoring the Sum of Squares)
difference of squares: A B = (A + B)(A B)
perfect cube (2 forms): A 3AB + 3AB B = (A B)
sum of cubes: A + B = (A + B)(A AB + B)
difference of cubes: A B = (A B)(A + AB + B)
The expressions for the sum or difference of two cubes look as though they ought to factor
further, but they dont. AAB+B is prime over the reals.
Consider
p(x) = 27x 64
You should recognize this as
p(x) = (3x) 4
You know how to factor the difference of two cubes:
p(x) = (3x4)(9x+12x+16)
Bingo! As soon as you get down to a quadratic, you can apply the Quadratic Formula and
youre done.
Heres another example:
q(x) = x
6
+ 16x
3
+ 64
This is just a perfect square trinomial, but in x
3
instead of x. You factor it exactly the same
way:
q(x) = (x
3
)
2
+ 2(8)(x
3
) + 8
2

q(x) = (x
3
+ 8)
2

And you can easily factor (x
3
+8)
2
as (x+2)
2
(x
2
2x+4)
2
.
Rational Roots
Assuming youve already factored out the easy monomial factors and special products, what
do you do if youve still got a polynomial of degree 3 or higher?
The answer is the Rational Root Test. It can show you some candidate roots when you
dont see how to factor the polynomial, as follows.
Consider a polynomial in standard form, written from highest degree to lowest and with
only integer coefficients:
f(x) = a
n
x
n
+ ... + a
o

The Rational Root Theorem tells you that if the polynomial has a rational zero then it must be
a fraction p/q, where p is a factor of the trailing constant a
o
and q is a factor of the leading
coefficient a
n
.
Example:
p(x) = 2x
4
11x
3
6x
2
+ 64x + 32
The factors of the leading coefficient (2) are 2 and 1. The factors of the constant term (32) are
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32. Therefore the possible rational zeroes are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32 divided
by 2 or 1:
1/2, 1/1, 2/2, 2/1, 4/2, 4/1, 8/2, 8/1, 16/2, 16/1, 32/2, 32/1
reduced: , 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
What do we mean by saying this is a list of all the possible rational roots? We mean that no
other rational number, like or 32/7, can be a root of p(x) = 0.
Caution: Dont make the Rational Root Test out to be more than it is. It doesnt say those
rational numbers are roots, just that no other rational numbers can be roots. And it doesnt tell
you anything about whether some irrational or even complex roots exist. The Rational Root
Test is only a starting point.
Suppose you have a polynomial with non-integer coefficients. Are you stuck? No, you can
factor out the least common denominator (LCD) and get a polynomial with integer
coefficients that way. Example:
(1/2)x (3/2)x + (2/3)x 1/2
The LCD is 1/6. Factoring out 1/6 gives the polynomial
(1/6)(3x 9x + 4x 3)
The two forms are equivalent, and therefore they have the same roots. But you cant apply the
Rational Root Test to the first form, only to the second. The test tells you that the only
possible rational roots are 1/3, 1, 3.
Once youve identified the possible rational zeroes, how can you screen them? The brute-
force method would be to take each possible value and substitute it for x in the polynomial: if
the result is zero then that number is a root. But theres a better way.
Use Synthetic Division to see if each candidate makes the polynomial equal zero. This is
better for three reasons. First, its computationally easier, because you dont have to compute
higher powers of numbers. Second, at the same time it tells you whether a given number is a
root, it produces the reduced polynomial that youll use to find the remaining roots. Finally,
the results of synthetic division may give you an upper or lower bound even if the number
youre testing turns out not to be a root.
Sometimes Descartes Rule of Signs can help you screen the possible rational roots
further. For example, the Rational Root Test tells you that if
q(x) = 2x
4
+ 13x
3
+ 20x
2
+ 28x + 8
has any rational roots, they must come from the list , 1, 2, 4, 8. But dont just start off
substituting or synthetic dividing. Since there are no sign changes, there are no positive roots.
Are there any negative roots?
q(x) = 2x
4
13x
3
+ 20x
2
28x + 8
has four sign changes. Therefore there could be as many as four negative roots. (There could
also be two negative roots, or none.) Theres no guarantee that any of the roots are rational,
but any root that is rational must come from the list , 1, 2, 4, 8.
(If you have a graphing calculator, you can pre-screen the rational roots by graphing the
polynomial and seeing where it seems to cross the x axis. But you still need to verify the root
algebraically, to see that f(x) is exactly 0 there, not just nearly 0.)
Remember, the Rational Root Test guarantees to find all rational roots. But it will completely
miss real roots that are not rational, like the roots of x2=0, which are 2, or the roots of
x+4=0, which are 2i.
Finally, remember that the Rational Root Test works
only if all coefficients are integers. Look again at this function, which is graphed at right:
p(x) = 2x
4
11x
3
6x
2
+ 64x + 32
The Rational Root Theorem tells you that the only possible rational zeroes are , 1, 2, 4, 8,
16, 32. But suppose you factor out the 2 (as I once did in class), writing the equivalent
function
p(x) = 2(x
4
(11/2)x
3
3x
2
+ 32x + 16)
This function is the same as the earlier one, but you can no longer apply the Rational Root
Test because the coefficients are not integers. In fact is a zero of p(x), but it did not show
up when I (illegally) applied the Rational Root Test to the second form. My mistake was
forgetting that the Rational Root Theorem applies only when all coefficients of the
polynomial are integers.
Graphical Clues
By graphing the function either by hand or with a graphing calculator you can get a
sense of where the roots are, approximately, and how many real roots exist.
Example: If the Rational Root Test tells you that 2 are possible rational roots, you can
look at the graph to see if it crosses (or touches) the x axis at 2 or 2. If so, use synthetic
division to verify that the suspected root actually is a root. Yes, you always need to check
from the graph you can never be sure whether the intercept is at your possible rational root or
just near it.
Boundaries on Roots
Some techniques dont tell you the specific value of a root, but rather that a root exists
between two values or that all roots are less than a certain number of greater than a certain
number. This helps narrow down your search.
Intermediate Value Theorem
This theorem tells you that if the graph of a polynomial is above the x axis for one value of x
and below the x axis for another value of x, it must cross the x axis somewhere between. (If
you can graph the function, the crossings will usually be be obvious.)
Example:
p(x) = 3x + 4x 20x 32
The rational roots (if any) must come from the list 1/3, 2/3, 1, 4/3, 2, 8/3, 4, 16/3, 8, 32/3,
16, 32. Naturally youll look at the integers first, because the arithmetic is easier. Trying
synthetic division, you find p(1) = 45, p(2) = 22, and p(4) = 144. Since p(2) and p(4) have
opposite signs, you know that the graph crosses the axis between x=2 and x=4, so there is at
least one root between those numbers. In other words, either 8/3 is a root, or there root(s)
between 2 and 4 are irrational. (In fact, synthetic division reveals that 8/3 is a root.)
The Intermediate Value Theorem can tell you where there is a root, but it cant tell you where
there is no root. For example, consider
q(x) = 4x 16x + 15
q(1) and q(3) are both positive, but that doesnt tell you whether the graph might touch or
cross the axis between. (It actually crosses the axis twice, at x = 3/2 and x = 5/2.)
Upper and Lower Bounds
One side effect of synthetic division is that even if the number youre testing turns out as not
a root, it may tell you that all the roots are smaller or larger than that number:
If you do synthetic division by a positive number a, and every number in the
bottom row is positive or zero, then a is an upper bound for the roots, meaning
that all the real roots are a.
If you do synthetic division by a negative number b, and the numbers in the
bottom row alternate sign, then b is a lower bound for the roots, meaning that all
the real roots are b.
What if the bottom row contains zeroes? A more complete statement is that
alternating nonnegative and nonpositive signs, after synthetic division by a
negative number, show a lower bound on the root. The next two examples clarify
that.
(By the way, the rule for lower bounds follows from the rule for upper bounds. Lower limits
on roots of p(x) equal upper limits on roots of p(x), and dividing by (x+r) is the same as
dividing by (xr).)
Example:
q(x) = x
3
+ 2x
2
3x 4
Using the Rational Root Test, you identify the only possible rational roots as 4, 2, and 1.
You decide to try 2 as a possible root, and you test it with synthetic division:
-2 | 1 2 -3 -4
| -2 0 6
|------------------
1 0 -3 2
2 is not a root of the equation f(x)=0. The third row shows alternating signs, and you were
dividing by a negative number; however, that zero mucks things up. Recall that you have a
lower bound only if the signs in the bottom row alternate nonpositive and nonnegative. The 1
is positive (nonnegative), and the 0 can count as nonpositive, but the 3 doesnt qualify as
nonnegative. The alternation is broken, and you do not know whether there are roots smaller
than 2. (In fact, graphical or numerical methods would show a root around 2.5.) Therefore
you need to try the lower possible rational root, 4:
-4 | 1 2 -3 -4
| -4 8 -20
|------------------
1 -2 5 -24
Here the signs do alternate; therefore you know there are no roots below 4. (The remainder
24 shows you that 4 itself isnt a root.)
Heres another example:
r(x) = x + 3x 3
The Rational Root Test tells you that the possible rational roots are 1 and 3. With synthetic
division for 3:
-3 | 1 3 0 -3
| -3 0 0
|------------------
1 0 0 -3
3 is not a root, but the signs do alternate here, since the first 0 counts as nonpositive and the
second as nonnegative. Therefore 3 is a lower bound to the roots, meaning that the equation
has no real roots lower than 3.

Step 5. Divide by Your Factor
Remember that r is a root if and only if xr is a factor; this is the Factor Theorem. So if you
want to check whether r is a root, you can divide the polynomial by xr and see whether it
comes out even (remainder of 0). Elizabeth Stapel has a nice example of dividing
polynomials by long division.
But its easier and faster to do synthetic division. If your synthetic division is a little
rusty, you might want to look at Dr. Maths short Synthetic Division tutorial; if you need a
longer tutorial, Elizabeth Stapels Synthetic Division is excellent. (Dr. Math also has a page
on why Synthetic Division works.)
Synthetic division also has some side benefits. If your suspected root actually is a root,
synthetic division gives you the reduced polynomial. And sometimes you also luck out and
synthetic division shows you an upper or lower bound on the roots.
You can use synthetic division when youre dividing by a binomial of the form xr for a
constant r. If youre dividing by x3, youre testing whether 3 is a root and you synthetic
divide by 3 (not 3). If youre dividing by x+11, youre testing whether 11 is a root and you
synthetic divide by 11 (not 11).< (not 11>
Example:
p(x) = 4x
4
35x
2
9
You suspect that x3 might be a factor, and you test it by synthetic division, like this:
3 | 4 0 -35 0 -9
| 12 36 3 9
|--------------------
4 12 1 3 0
Since the remainder is 0, you know that 3 is a root of p(x) = 0, and x3 is a factor of p(x). But
you know more. Since 3 is positive and the bottom row of the synthetic division is all positive
or zero, you know that all the roots of p(x) = 0 must be 3. And you also know that
p(x) = (x3)(4x
3
+ 12x
2
+ x + 3)
4x
3
+ 12x
2
+ x + 3 is the reduced polynomial. All of its factors are also factors of the original
p(x), but its degree is one lower, so its easier to work with.

Step 6. Numerical Methods
When your equation has no more rational roots (or your polynomial has no more rational
factors), you can turn to numerical methods to find the approximate value of irrational roots:
The Wikipedia article Root-finding algorithm has a decent summary, with pointers to
specific methods.
Many graphing calculators have a Solve or Root or Zero command to help you
find approximate roots. For instance, on the TI-83 or TI-84, you graph the function
and then select [2nd] [Calc] [zero].

Complete Example
Solve for all complex roots:
4x + 15x 36 = 0
Step 1. The equation is already in standard form, with only zero on one side, and powers of x
from highest to lowest. There are no common factors.
Step 2. Since the equation has degree 3, there will be 3 roots. There is one variation in sign,
and from Descartes Rule of Signs you know there must be one positive root. Examine the
polynomial with x replacing x:
4x 15x 36
There are no variations in sign, which means there are no negative roots. The other two roots
must therefore be complex conjugates.
Steps 3 and 4. The possible rational roots are unfortunately rather numerous: any of 1, 2, 3,
4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36 divided by any of 4, 2, 1. (Only positive roots are listed because you have
already determined that there are no negative roots for this equation.) You decide to try 1
first:
1 | 4 0 15 -36
| 4 4 19
|-----------------
4 4 19 -17
1 is not a root, so you test 2:
2 | 4 0 15 -36
| 8 16 62
|-----------------
4 8 31 26
Alas, 2 is not a root either. But notice that f(1) = 17 and f(2) = 26. They have opposite signs,
which means that the graph crosses the x axis between x=1 and x=2, and a root is between 1
and 2. (In this case its the only root, since you have determined that there is one positive root
and there are no negative roots.)
The only possible rational root between 1 and 2 is 3/2, and therefore either 3/2 is a root
or the root is irrational. You try 3/2 by synthetic division:
3/2 | 4 0 15 -36
| 6 9 36
|-----------------
4 6 24 0
Hooray! 3/2 is a root. The reduced polynomial is 4x + 6x + 24. In other words,
(4x + 15x 36) (x3/2) = 4x + 6x + 24
The reduced polynomial has degree 2, so there is no need for more trial and error, and you
continue to step 5.
Step 5. Now you must solve
4x + 6x + 24 = 0
First divide out the common factor of 2:
2x + 3x + 12 = 0
Its no use trying to factor that quadratic, because you determined using Descartes Rule of
Signs that there are no more real roots. So you use the quadratic formula:
x = [ 3 [9 4(2)(12)] ] / 2(2)
x = [ 3 (87) ] / 4
x = 3/4 ((87)/4)i
Step 6. Remember that you found a root in an earlier step! The full list of roots is
3/2, 3/4 + ((87)/4)i, 3/4 ((87)/4)i