The Saccharomyces cerevisiae World - Diversity

Taxonomy, Phylogeny & Classification

Figure 1. Phylogenetic tree of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. (http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2007/nelson_andr/)

Although there are over 1,500 species of yeasts, the term, yeast, often refers to S.
cerevisiae. Astonishingly, This organism has 16 linear chromosomes and 5,770
genes. Saccharomyces is derived from Latinized Greek and has the meaning of sugar mold
or sugar fungus, where Saccharo- is the combining form of sugar- and myces being
fungus. Cerevisiaeis derived from Latin and has the meaning of beer.
Altogether, Saccharomyces cerevisiae means sugar fungus of the beer. Other common names
of S. cerevisiae are:

S. cerevisiae (short form of the scientific name)
Brewers yeast
Ale yeast
Top-fermenting yeast
Bakers yeast
Budding yeast

S. cerevisiae is in the Fungi Kingdom. The reasons for this classification are:
1. It has a cell wall that is made of chitin, which is a polymer of nitrogen
containing polysaccharide [(C
8
H
13
O
5
N)n] forming a tough, protective covering or
structural support in certain organisms,
2. It has no peptidoglycan (a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a
mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of bacteria, forming the cell wall) in its
cell walls,
3. And its lipids are ester (a chemical compound consisting of a carbonyl adjacent to an
ether linkage) linked.

S. cerevisiae also performs protein synthesis through the usage of a DNA template and it
consists of relatively larger ribosomes. Finally, S. cerevisiae is considered a yeast as it is a
unicellular organism that cannot form a fruiting body. S. cerevisiae could be then differentiated
from other yeast species based on their growth characteristics and physiological traits: their
ability to ferment individual sugars.

In fact, the initial classification of S. cerevisiae was based on morphological characteristics with
specific physiological and biochemical traits that are used to differentiate between other
species with similar morphological traits. However, due to the development of genetic
technologies, the species, S. cerevisiae, may be divided into four separate species based on
DNA homology studies in the future. The four possible species are: S. cerevisiae, S. bayanus
(S. uvarum), S. pasteurianus (S. carlsbergensis), and S. paradoxus.


Very Brief Description of each taxonomic level of Saccharomyces cerevisiae


Figure 2. Taxonomy of S. cerevisiae from its domain level to species level. Created by Daniel Seo.

Domain-Eukarya: possesses a nucleus containing the organism's genetic information, a cell
membrane, and membrane-bound organelles.
Kindgom-Fungi: possesses cell walls that are made of chitin, fruiting body, alternation or
generations, and fungal organisms are heterotrophic.
Phylum-Ascomycota: able to reproduce both asexually and sexually, internal spores called
ascus, single celled or multi-cellular,
Class-Saccharomycetes: single celled fungi called yeast, do not possess a fruiting body, and
feed on sugar
Order-Saccharomycetales: feed on primarily plant sugars, and comprises of budding yeasts.
Family-Saccharomycetaceae: reproduces by budding and ferment carbohydrates
Genus-Saccharomyces: sparse or absent mycelium, and reproduces asexually by budding
Species-S. cerevisiae: Saccharomyces cerevisiae are commonly used in labs and in food
products such as breads and beers.
Phylogeny of S. cerevisiae

Note: this study was performed by Robert Montrocher, Marie-Christine Verner, Jerome Biolay,
Christian Gautier, and Roland Marmeisse.
The phylogenetic relationships between species of yeast that belongs to the Saccharomyces
sensu strict group, which includes Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces bayanus,
were studied. The gene trees generated in this study displayed the distribution of the yeast
species into two major, distinct, phylogenetic groups called cerevisiae and bayanus. In the
cerevisiae group, strains of S. cerevisiae were found with 16 other species from the total of
23. On the other hand, the bayanus group was composed of the remaining seven species.
This result suggested that S. cerevisiae andS. paradoxus are two distinct taxa.

List of Saccharomyces sensu strict type strains studied:

Figure 3. The strains of species listed above were studied to perform a phylogenetic analysis on S. cerevisiae and
otherSaccharomyces species. (Retrieved from http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/content/48/1/295.long)





In a broader view?

Figure 4. This phylogenetic tree supports the fact that fungi are more closely related to animals than other plants.
(Retrieved from http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2009/christia_eri2/classification.htm)


This phylogenic tree shown above is very broad, but suggests a very important and interesting
point. Modern molecular techniques and technologies have allowed humans to determine that
fungi are more closely related to animals, as they both belong to the Unikonta supergroup, than
to land plants. Many evidences such as the fact that fungal organisms are heterotrophic and
store sugar in the form of glycogen, like animals do, and have cell walls that are made of chitin,
unlike cellulose in land plants, support this finding.











Life Cycle and Reproduction

Figure 5. Basic structures of S. cerevisiae cells during cell cycle. (Herskowitz)

The rate of growth of S. cerevisiae cells is synchronized with the growth rate of the bud, which separates from
its parent cell when it reaches the size of the mature cell. In rapidly proliferating S. cerevisiae populations,
every cell can be seen with buds on the surface of the cell. This bud formation occupies the entire cell cycle. In
slowly growing populations, cells lacking buds can be found easily, and bud formation only occupies a part of
its entire cell cycle. This cell cycle normally consists of the following stages: G1, S, G2, and M.


Figure 6. An image of soft X-ray tomography of rapidly frozen Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells at each phase of cell
cycle G1, S, M, and G2. The organelles of the cells are colour-coded as follows: blue, nucleus; orange, nucleolus;
gray, mitochondria; ivory, vacuoles; green, lipid bodies. Scale bar, 2 m. (Larabell & Nugent, 2010)



Figure 7. Budding S. cerevisiae cells. Scale bar, 10 m. ("Image of budding")


Like many other fungal organisms, S. cerevisiae cells can reproduce both asexually and sexually. In
fact, environmental conditions often determine the method of reproduction of these cells. Asexual
reproduction of S. cerevisiae cells is called budding, while sexual reproduction of the cells is called
sporulation. S. cerevisiae exists as either a diploid or a haploid cell. Both haploid and diploid S.
cerevisiae cells can reproduce by mitosis under favourable environmental conditions, where
daughter cells bud off from their mother cells. During the budding process, the nucleus of the parent
cell splits and locate itself towards the daughter cell. The bud continually grows and when it is fully
matured, it can separate from the parent cell and function as an independent cell. Interestingly,
diploid cells can undergo meiosis to produce four haploid spores that is composed of two a spores
and two spores upon facing stressful conditions, such as nutrient depletion. Haploid cells are
capable of mating with other haploid cells, but of the opposite mating type (an a cell can only mate
with an cell, and vice versa) to produce a diploid cell. This process begins with the fusion of the
cytoplasm, and then the haploid cells become fertilized and become a diploid zygote. After this, the
zygote can undergo meiosis and form an ascus which will split into four ascospores. Finally, these
haploids can then undergo germination and become haploid cells again. With sufficient and
appropriate nutrition, S. cerevisiae cells can reproduce every 100 minutes. Their average replicative
lifespan lasts about 26 cell divisions.

Figure 8. Life cycle of S. cerevisiae. ("Yeast Life Cycle")


























Habitat

Figure 9. A large population of S. cerevisiae cells
can be easily found in fermenting fruits, such as
riped grapes.
(Source: http://katherinetallmadge.com/wp-content/
uploads/2011/10/Food-Photo-Grape-Bunch.jpg)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is widespread and commonly found in nature. Yeast cells of this
species can be found in fermenting fruits, such as grapes (although before maturation, grapes are
almost free of yeasts, inside animals), in the bark of certain deciduous trees such as Sampaio and
Goncalves, and in many other high sugar environments such as nectar and sap
fluxes. However, S. cerevisiae can be isolated from fruits and grains and other materials with a
high concentration of carbohydrates. As a matter of fact, S. cerevisiae has a very high
tolerance to alcohol and ferment glucose in the environment to alcohol. S. cerevisiae also
occupies damp or wet habitats that are high in organic material. S. cerevisiae shares its habitat
with numerous other organisms including various fungi species, fungal yeasts, and bacteria.
The ability of S. cerevisiae to decompose a large variety of sugars and amino acids enhances
the organism's ability for long-term survival. In fact, S. cerevisiae acts as a catalyst in the
process of decomposition, speeding decomposition's chemical reactions.










References

1. Larabell, C., & Nugent, K. [Soft X-ray tomography of S.
cerevisiae cells]. (Photographer). (2010, October ). [Web Photo]. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959440X10001338

2. [Image of budding S. cerevisiae cells]. [Web Photo]. Retrieved from
http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch31/yeast.html

3. (1997). Saccharomyces cerevisiae final risk assessment. Retrieved from U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency website:
http://www.epa.gov/biotech_rule/pubs/fra/fra002.htm

4. Langenberg, B. (2012). Baker's and brewer's yeast. Retrieved from
http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/vandenla_beth/contact.htm

5. Volk, T., & Anne, G. (2002, December). Tom volk's fungus of the month for
december 2002. Retrieved from
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/dec2002.html

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http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2007/nelson_andr/

7. Cruz, L. (2010, February 16). Saccharomyces cerevisiae a.k.a
budding/baker's/brewer's yeast. Retrieved from
http://www.benchfly.com/blog/saccharomyces-cerevisiae-a-k-a-budding-bakers-
brewers-yeast/

8. Yeast Cell Wall [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/life-
science/metabolomics/enzyme-explorer/learning-center/lysing-enzymes.html

9. Saccharomyces cerevisiae. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.microbiologybytes.com/video/Scerevisiae.html

10. Twyman, R. (2002, August 28). Model organisms: Yeast. Retrieved from
http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020808.html

11. Kruckeberg, A., Walsh, M., & Van Dam, K. US National Library of Medicine,
National Center for Biotechnology Information. (1998). How do yeast cells sense
glucose?. Retrieved from PubMed.gov website:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10048296

12. Eukaryotes genomes - saccharomyces cerevisiae. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/2can/genomes/eukaryotes/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae.html

13. Yeast Life Cycle [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from
http://www.hogtownbrewers.org/presentations/recipe_formulation/yeast/slides/Slide
9.html

14. Montrocher, R., Verner, M., Briolay, J., Gautier, C., & Marmeisse, R. (n.d.).
Phylogenetic analysis of the saccharomyces cerevisiae group based on
polymorphisms of rdna spacer sequences. (1998). Retrieved from
http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/content/48/1/295.long


15. Herskowitz, I. (n.d.). Life cycle of the budding yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae.
(1988). Retrieved from http://mmbr.asm.org/content/52/4/536.full.pdf




Daniel Seo 11th April 2013