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Approximation Methods
Integration is the process of calculation the area of a region under a curve.
ba
Equation: f x dx y 0 y n 2 y 1 y 2 ... y n 1
a 2.n
n = Number of subintervals (or n + 1 function values)
f(x)
y0 yn
a b
Simpson’s Rule:
An approximate area under the curve is found by finding the area under parabolic
arcs.
b
ba
Equation: f x dx y 0 y n 4 y 1 y 3 ... 2 y 2 y 4 ...
a 3.n
n = Number of subintervals (or n + 1 function values)
f(x)
y0 yn
a b
Accurate Integration
Indefinite Integrals:
The integral of an equation in the form a.x + b is found by
a .x b n dx a .x b C
n 1
Equation:
an 1
C = Constant
Definite integrals:
y = a.x + b
c d
d
a .d b n 1 a .c b n 1
Equation:
c
a .x b
a n 1
a n 1
Even Functions:
A function is Even if: f( x) = f(x)
a
Equation:
a
f x dx 0
Odd Functions:
A function is Odd if: f( x) = f(x)
a a
Equation:
a
f x dx 2
0
f x dx
y = f(x)
b
Equation: A
f x dx
a
a
x = f(y)
a
y = f(x) b
b
Equation: V
a
y 2 dx
a
y = f(x)
b
b
Equation: V
a
x 2 dy
f y
b b
f x g x dx g y 2 dx
2
Equation: A V
a a
Integration By Substition
Used for hard integration
4
E.g. (1) 3.x 2 x3 1 dx using the substitution u = x3 1
du
A First, 3.x 2
dx
du = 3.x2.dx …(1)
Sub (1) into equation
5
4 u5 x3 1
u .du C C
5 5
2
E.g. (2) x 1 x using the substitution u = 1+ x2
0
du
A First, 2.x Note:
dx
When, x = 1, u = 2
1
du x.dx …(1) And, x = 0, u = 1
2
Sub (1) into equation
2 2
1 2.u 3 2
1 12 2 2 2
u
2 1 2 3 1 3