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 COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING OF
FRACTURE AND DAMAGE IN
POROELASTIC MEDIA

by
Abbas Tofangchi Mahy ari
May, 1997

Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics

McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2K6

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Ocopy~ight
1997, A.T. Mahyari
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reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits saos son
permission. autorisation.
To my parents,
 Abstract

The classical theory of poroelasticity focuses on the coupled response of fluid flow and
elastic deformation of porous media saturated with either an incompressible or a
compressible pore fluid. The Theory of poroelasticity has been successfully applied to
examine time-dependent transient phenomena in a variety of natural and synthetic
materials, including geomaterials and biomaterials. The assurnption of elastic behaviour
of the porous skeleton in these developments is a significant limitation in the application
of this theory to brinle geomaterials which could exhibit non-elastic phenomena either in
the forrn of initiation and extension of discrete fractures, or in the form of initiation and
evolution of continuum darnage in the porous skeleton. The computational methodology
developed in this study examines the effect of development of such dofects (fracture or
damage) on the fluid transport characteristics and the poroelastic behaviour of saturated
geomatenals. The finite element based computational models for fracture and damage
phenornena examine two-dimensional plane strain and axisymmetric problems. The
classical theory of linear elastic fracture mechanics is extended to examine the time-
dependent behaviour of local effects at the crack tip in poroelastic media. The numerical
procedure accounts for the stress singularity of the effective stress field at the crack tip.
The darnage model based on the concept of continuum damage mechanics, takes into
account the alteration of the stifiess and permeability characteristics of porous material
due to developrnent of micromechanical damage in the porous skeleton. The isotropie
darnage criteria governing the evolution of stifhess and permeabiiity parameters are
characterized by the dependency of damage parameters on the distortional strain
invariant,

As the applications of the theory of poroelasticity diversifi, attention needs to be focused

on other aspects of importance. The class of transient and steady crack extension in
poroelastic media is recognized as an area of interest in geomechanics applications and in
energy resources recovery fiom geological formations. A computational algorithm is
developed to examine the transient quasi-static crack extension in poroelastic media
where the temporal and spatial variations of boundary conditions governing the
displacement, traction and pore pressure fields are taken into account in the incremental
analysis. The path of crack extension is established by a mixed-mode crack extension
criterion applicable to the porous fabric. The computational modelling of steady state
crack extension in poroelastic media at constant velocity is also examined for the plane
main problems. The finite element formulations of the goveming equations, which are
velocity-dependent, are developed by employing the Galerkin technique. The poroelastic
behaviour of materiai depends on the propagation velocity at the crack tip. The
computational schemes developed in this study followed an extensive procedure of
verification via known analytical solutions to poroelasticity problems and for limiting
cases of initial undrained (t +O+) and h a 1 drained (t ++m) elastic responses recovrred
through analogous problems in classical elasticity.
 Résumé

La théorie classique de la poroélasticité porte surtout sur les effets entre le débit et la
déformation élastique d'un milieu poreux saturé avec soit un liquide compressible ou non-
compressible. La théorie de la poroélasticité a été appliquée avec succès pour examiner
les effets transitoires dans plusieurs matériaux naturels et synthétiques, incluant les
géornatériaw et les biomatériaux. Mais, lorsque l'on suppose que le skeleton poreux
possede un comportement élastique, celi impose une importante limitation dans
l'application de cette théorie pour des géomatériaux fragiles puisque ces matériaux
pourraient démontrer des caractéristiques nonélastiques soit par l'initiation ou la
propagation de fissures ou par une initiation et une évolution de dommage dans le
skeleton poreux. La méthode développé a l'aide d'ordinateur pour cette recherche
examine les effets du développement de ces défauts (dommages ou fissures) sur les
caractéristiques du transport d'un liquide, ainsi que le comportement poroélastique dans
les géomatériawc staturés. Des modèles basés sur les éléments finis pour l'analyse des
fissures et des phénomènes de dommages servent à examiner l'élongation en deux
dimensions ainsi que d'autres problèmes axisymétrique. La théorie classique de la
mécanique de l'élasticité simple de fractures est prolongée pour examiner les effets
locaux à la pointe de la fissure dans un milieu porew par rapport au temps. Pour évaluer
le dommage, le modèle, basé sur le concept de la mécanique du dommage dans un
continuum, prends en compte les changements dans la rigidité et la perméabilité du
matériel poreux dû au développement de micro-dommage dans le skeleton poreux. Les
critères de dommages isotropiques gouvernant l'évolution des paramètres de rigidités et
de perméabilités sont caractérisés par une dépendance aux paramètres de dommages dans
les déformations distortionnelles.
À mesure que les applications de la théorie de la poroélasticité se diversifient on doit
mettre le point sur d'autres aspects de plus grandes importances. La classe d'extension de
fissures statiques et transitoires dans un milieu poroélastique est reconnue comme un
domain important vis-a-vis l'application de la géornécanique et la récupération de
ressources d'énergie provenant de formations géologiques. Un algorithme sur ordinateur
a éte développé pour examiner l'extension quasi-statique de fissures dans un milieu
poroélastique, où les variations spaciales et temporelle des conditions governant le
déplacement, la traction et les champs de pression sont tenus en compte dans l'analyse.
Le chemin prise par la fissure est établis par un critère d'extension de la fissure en mode
mixe applicable aux matériaux poreux. Un modèle à l'aide d'ordinateur de l'extension
des fissures à une vitesse constante dans un milieu poroélastique est aussi examiné pour
des problèmes à élongation simple. Les équations gouvernantes venant des éléments
finis, étant dépendantes de la vitesse, sont formulées en employant la technique de
Galerkin. Le Comportement poroélastique des matériaux dépend de la vitesse de
propagation de la pointe de la fissure. La méthode développée à l'aide d'ordinateur pour
cette recherche a suivi un procédé de vérification en utilisant des solutions connues
analytiques aux problèmes de poroélasticité ainsi que aux problèmes analogué dans la
théorie d'élasticité simple pour les cas initiaux où le milieu élastique est non-égoutté (t +
)'0 et égoutté (t + +oo).
 Acknowledgments

Foremost, the author praises God for giving him health, strength and patience during
many years of study.

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to his thesis supervisor, Professor
A.P.S. Selvadurai for his extensive guidance, encouragement and support during the
course of this research. His invaluable comments and carehil review are greatly
appreciated.

Sincere thanks and appreciation also go to Dr. Keyvan Sepehr and Mr. Nick Vannelli.
M.Eng. for creating a fiiendly and stimulating environment in the Geomechanics
Research Laboratory.

Special thanks are due to Dr. R-V. Craster, Lecture- Department of Theoreticai
Mechanics, University of Nottingham, England for his usefui discussions and advice
resulting in the improvement of the work.

The financial support provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council of Canada through research gants awarded to Professor A.P.S. Selvadurai is aiso
acknowledged.

Finally, the author is indebted to his family who always provided him with love, care and
moral support during al1 stages of his study.
 Table of Contents

Abstract iii
Résumé v

Acknowledgments vii
List of Figures xii
List of Symbols xv
List of Publications Resulting from the Thesis K~X

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIE;W 1

General 1
Theory of Poroelasticity 1
Applications of Poroefasticity 3
Non-Linear Brittie Behaviùur of Soi1 Skeleton 4
1.4.1 Linear Fracture Mechanks 7
1.4.2 Continuum Damage Mechanics 13
Objectives and Scope of the Research 16
Statement of Originality and Contributions 18

COMPUTATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN POROELASTIC MEDIA 20

Introduction 20
Classical Theories of Poroelasticity 21
Governing Equations of Poroelasticity 23
Computational Modelling of Poroelastic Media 27
2.4.1 Finite Element Method 27
2.4.2 Boundary Element Method 28
2.5 Finite Element Formulations
2.5.1 Galerkin Weighted Residual Method
2.5.2 Finite Element Approximations
2.5.3 Instantaneous Poroelastic Response
2.5.4 Finite Element Discretizations
2.5.5 Tirne Variation of Boundary Conditions

3. VERIFICATION OF FINITE ELEMENT CODE

3.1 One-Dimensional Consolidation

3.2 Consolidation of a Poroelastic Sphere
3.3 Plane Strain and Axisymmetnc Consolidation

1. FRACTURE MECHANICS OF POROELASTIC MEDIA

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fracture Mechanics Concepts
4.2.1 Modelling of Crack Tip Behaviour
4.2.2 Evaluation of Stress Intensity Factors
4.3 Stationary Poroelastic Fracture
5.3.1 Verification Exercises
4.4 Indentation of a Cracked Poroelastic Half-Space
4.4.1 Cylindncal Crack
4.4.2 Penny-Shaped Crack

5. TRANSIENT M O W G BOUNDARY PROBLEMS IN

POROELASTIC MEDIA

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Crack Extension Modelling
 5.2.1 Critena for Onset of Crack Extension
5.2.2 Orientation of Crack Growth
5.2.3 Crack Modelling Techniques
5.3 A Computational Mode1 for Crack Extension
5.4 Intemai Indentation of a Penny-Shaped Crack
5.5 Indentation of a Poroelastic Half-Space

6. STEADY MOVING BOUNDARY PROBLEMS IN

POROELASTIC MEDIA

6.1 Introduction 96
6.2 Steady Crack Propagation 98
6.3 Goveming Equations 102
6.4 Finite Element Formulations 1 O3
6.5 Verification Exercises 1 O6
6.6 Wedging of a Poroelastic Crack Ill
6.6.1 Plane Strain Moving Punch
6.6.2 Axisymmetric Penetration of a Rigid Shell

7. DAMAGE MECHANICS OF POROELASTIC MEDIA

7.1 Introduction
7.2 P ~ c i p l e of
s Damage Mechanics
7.2.1 The Darnage Variable
7.2.2The Net Stress Concept
7.3 Initiation and Evolution of Damage
7.4 Experimental Results with Indication of Damage
7.5 Muence of Damage on Poroelastic Parameters
7.5.1 Etastic Parameters
7.5.2 Penneability Characteristics
7.6 Finite Element Procedure
7.5 Indentation Problem of a Damageable Geomaterial

8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 Summary and Conclusions

8.2 RecommendationsforFutureWork

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A Finite Eiement Formulation of Poroelastic Media

 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Indentation of a brittle geomatenal

Figure 1.2 The stress field near the crack tip
Figure 2.1 Solid isoparametric element
Figure 2.2 Time variation of prescribed displacement
and traction boundary conditions
Figure 3.1 Finite element discretization of one-dimensional consolidation
Figure 3.2 Pore pressure evolution at different depths
Figure 3.3 Time variation of surface settlernent
Figure 3.4 Finite element discretization of poroelastic sphere
Figure 3.5 Pore pressure evolution at the center of poroelastic sphere
Figure 3.6 Finite element discretization of the poroelastic half-space
under plane strain or axisymmetric consolidation
Figure 3.7 Tirne-dependent pore pressure evolution 45
Figure 3.8 Degree of consolidation for proelastic layer 46
Figure 4.1 Fundamental modes of deformation at the crack tip region 51
Figure 4.2 Quarter point singular elements 55
Figure 4.3 Node arrangement for computation of the stress intensity factors 58
Figure 4.4 Finite element discretization of a semi-infinite crack 60
in an infinite poroelanic medium
Figure 4.5 Time dependent behaviour of the flaw opening mode stress 62
intensity factor KI
Figure 4.6 Surface indentation of a cracked poroelastic half-space 65
Figure 4.7 Finite element discretization of poroelastic ha1f-space 66
Figure 4.8 Effect of stress singularity and crack permeability on (a) consolidation 68
settlement of the indentor; and (b) pore pressure at the crack tip
Figure 4.9 Effect of geometrical characteristics of the cylindrical crack on the 69
 consolidation settfement of the indentor
Figure 4.10 Effect of geometrical characteristics of the penny-shaped crack on 71
the consolidation settlernent of the indentor
Figure 5.1 Idealization of cracks; (a) nodal separation using two or four
coincident nodes; (b) smeared crack (ASCE, 1982)
Figure 5.2 Identification of crack orientation
Figure 5.3 Interaction conditions on the faces of the crack
Figure 5.4 Internai indentation of a penny-shaped crack
Figure 5.5 Finite eiement discretization of indentation problem
Figure 5.6 Variations of (a) the crack opening stress intensity factor;
and (b) evolution of crack length for a prescnbed total load P
Figure 5.7 Time-dependent load relaxation and stress intensity factor for
a stationary crack subjected to a prescribed displacement
Figure 5.8 Time-dependent load relaxation and time-dependent evolution
of crack length for a prescribed displacement loading
Figure 5.9 Surface indentation of a poroelastic half-space
Figure 5.10 Finite element discretization
Figure 5.1 1 Crack extension patterns for two mesh discretizations A and B
Figure 5.12 Effect of crack extension on the degree of consolidation
Figure 5.13 Effect of undrained compressibility on the crack extension path
Figure 6.1 Steady crack growth problem examined by Yoffe (195 1)
Figure 6.2 Steady propagation of a crack in a poroelastic medium
Figure 6.3 Finite element discretization of steady crack extension
Figure 6.4 Crack propagation criterion for uniform loading of crack
Figure 6.5 Variation of the stress intensity factor KI
Figure 6.6 Pore pressure distribution ahead of crack tip for velocity al=l
Figure 6.7 Wedging of a poroelastic medium by ngid hder:;xs
Figure 6.8 Effect of crack geometry, in situ stresses, aiid propagltion
velocity on the stress intensity factor for a point force wedging
Figure 6.9 Effect of crack and punch geometry on the stress intensity

xiii
 factor KI for a wedging &id strip
Figure 6.10 Rigid cylindrical shell penetrating through a poroelastic medium
Figure 6.1 1 Finite element discretization of the ngid shell penetratian
Figure 6.12 Variation of the stress intensity factor Kiwith radius a for a ngid
smooth shell penetrating steadily through a poroelastic medium
Figure 7.1 Typical stress-strain behaviour and permeability
evolution in brinle geomaterials
Figure 7.2 Representative element of virgin and damage state of material
Figure 7.3 Hypothesis of strain equivalence
Figure 7.4 The uniaxial compression behavior of concrete
(Spooner and Dougill, 1975)
Figure 7.5 Variations of volumevic strain and permeability coefficient 126
as a fùnction of differential stress (Zoback and Byerlee, 1975)
Figure 7.6 Variations of darnage variable with material parameters 129
Figure 7.7 The stress-stmin behaviour; evolution of damage and permeability 133
characteristics in uniaxial compression of sandstone
(adopted €iomCheng and Dusseauit, 1993)
Figure 7.8 Finite element discretization of indentation problern
Figure 7.9 Degree of consolidation settlement of indentor
Figure 7.10 Extenr of damaged zone (with D > 0.05) in time
Figure 7.1 1 Pore pressure evolution at different depths
Figure 7.12 Evolution of damage variable at the edge of indentor

xiv
 List of Symbols

Latin Symbols

Symbol Description

a = Radius of circular disc or constant

QI = a V K ; Normalized propagation velocity

A = Initial cross sectionai area

=Net cross sectional area
= Radius of cylindrical crack
= Boundary of dornain
= Skempton's pore pressure coefficient
= Strain-Displacement matrix in finite element formulation
= Transverse (shear) elastic wave velocity
= Rayleigh wave velocity
= Generalized coeficient of consolidation
= Coefficient of consolidation
= Continuity up to the fint order differentiation
= Coupling matrix related to interaction behveen soi1 and fiuid
= Modified coupling matrix in steady problems
= Matrix associated with boundary conditions in steady problems
= Damage variable

= Critical damage variable

= Elasticity matrix of porous skeleton
= Young's elastic modulus of porous fabric

= Young's elastic modulus of damaged material

= Compressibility matrix of fluid

= Modified compressibility matrix of fluid in steady problems

= Force vecton due to extemal tractions, body forces and flows

= Fracture energy release rate

= Critical fracture energy release rate

= Permeability matrix

= Heaviside step hinction

= First stress invariant

= Coefficient of hydrauiic conductivity of porous medium

= Coefficient of hydraulic conductivity of damaged matenal

= stifiess matrix of the soi1 skeleton

= Opening mode stress intensity factor

= Shearing mode stress intensity factor

= Cntical stress intensity factor (fracture toughness)

= Crack length
= Slope of ramp fùnction for loading
= unit out-normal vector
= direction cosine of out-normal vector on boundary B

= Interpolation function for the displacement field

= Interpolation hinction for the pore pressure field

= Total extemal load

= Excess pore fluid pressure

= Pore pressure at node K

= Vector of nodal pore pressure in finite elernent formulation

= Radial distance of location
= Domain of region
= Component of displacement vector

= Component of displacement vector in the iLhdirection at node J

= time

= time increment
T = Nonnalized tirne factor
V = Propagation velocity in steady problems

= Weighting hinctions in Galerkin technique

w*
x, y, 2 = Cartesian coordinates

Greek Symbols

Syrnbol Description

a = Biot's material parameter

P = Biot's matenai parameter

Eij = Component of strain tensor

Y = Integration constant (>O and 4)

Yw = Unit weight of pore fluid

K = MY,

(6) = Vector of nodal displacements of solid skeleton in finite element

formulation
= Kronecker delta huiction (=l if i=j; =O if i#j)
= Elastic shear modulus of porous skeleton

= Elastic shear modulus of darnaged material

= Drained Poisson's ratio

= Undrained Poisson's ratio

= Specific discharge vector

= Angle of crack extension in local polar coordinates at crack tip

= m a s density of matenal
= Component of total stIess tensor
= Component of total net stress tensor

= Component of effective stress tensor

xvii
= Total in situ stress in geornatenals

=Exted normal traction or in situ stresses

= Local coordinate system for isoparametric elements

= Shear strain energy

= Volumetric strain in the compressible pore fluid

= Displacement of indentor
 List of Publications Resulting from the Thesis

1. Selvadurai A.P.S. and A.T. Mahyari, 1997, 'Computational Modeling of the

Indentation of a Cracked Poroelastic Half-Space', International Journcil of Fracture, (in
press).

2. Selvadurai A.P.S. and A.T. Mahyari, 1997, 'Computational Modelling of Steady Crack
Extension in Poroelastic Media ', International Journal of Soli& und Structures, (in
review).

3. Mahyari A.T. and A.P.S. Selvadurai, 1997, 'Enhanced Consolidation in Brittle

Geomateriais Susceptible to Damage ,' International Journal of Mechanics of Cohesive-
Friction01 M d e rials (in press).

4. Mahyarî A.T. and A.P.S. Selvadurai, 1997, 'Interaction of a Sphencal Cavity and a
Circular Crack in a Poroelastic Medium', ldhCianadian Congress ofApplied k6echunics,
CANCAM 97, June 1-6, Québec, 13- 14.

5. Mahyari A.T. and A.P.S. Selvadurai, 1997, 'Poroelastic Behaviour of a Rigid Anchor
Plate Ernbedded in a Cracked Geornaterial', 8International Symposium on Numerid
Models in Geomechanics, NUMOG 97, July 2-4, Montreal, 334-340.

6. Selvadurai A.P.S. and A.T. Mahyari, 1997, 'Some Moving Boundary Problems
Associated with Poroelastic Media ', 41h International ConBrence on Moving Boundmies
97, Aupst 27-29, Ghent, Belgiurn, 216-224.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATClRE REVIEW

1.1 General

Fluid saturated geomaterials such as soils and rocks consist of a porous fabric of solid
particles which form a deformable soil or rock skeleton the voids of which are filled with
a pore fluid. The porous fabric can consist of an assemblage of individual particles which
dcrives its structure and stiffness through intergranuiar contacts such as in sand or
alternatively, it can consist of a solid matenal which contains an interconnected network
of channels such as in rocks. The multiphase nature of saturated geomatenais makes their
fundamental properties significantly different fiom other single phase materials (solid or
liquid). The mechanical behaviour of geomatenals is generally a function of the solid
fabnc and the interaction arnong the solid and fluid phases.

1.2 Theory of Poroelrsticity

The first recognition of the importance of the multiphase nahue of geomaterials is

generdly attributed to Terzaghi (1923). In the development of the theory of effective
stress, Terzaghi (1923) postuiated that when a saturated soil or rock is subjected to
extemal loads (e-g. loads induced by foundations), these loads are partly carried by the
soil skeleton and partly by the pore fluid. The ability of the pore Buid to share the
extemal loading is an important development in the undentanding of the mechanical
behaviour of saturated geomaterials. The second important deveiopment is the innuence
of the multiphase nature of the geomaterial on its time-dependent response to extemal
loading. This second aspect is clearly demonstrated by Terzaghi (1923) in the
development of classicai theory of soil consolidotion. Terzaghi (1923) postulated that
when a low peneability soil is subjected to an extemai loading, this load can cause an
increase in pore fluid pressure. The soi1 skeleton will initially undergo an immediate
deformation without the dissipation of the excess pore pressures. With tirne and
depending upon the drainage conditions, the induced excess pore pressures uill dissipate.
As the excess pore pressure dissipes. the loads are transferred to the soil skeleton to
maintain the system in equilibrium and to satisfy the mechanical and hydraulic
compatibility. niis load transfer process wiil lead to M e r deformations of soi1 skeleton.
Consequently, the consolidation process of saturated geomaterials is dominated by the
time-dependent coupling between the deformation of the soil skeleton and the flow of
pore fluid through the voids within the soil skeleton.

The original developments of Tenaghi (1923) were restncted to the one-dimensional

behaviour of saturated soils. Tenaghi (1923) assumed that the soi1 skeleton is isotropie
and elastic, and both the pore fluid and the soil particles were incompressible. The flow
of water through the porous skeleton was described by Darcy's Law (1 856). Biot (194 1,
1955, 1956) extended this concept to include the three-dimensional effects,
compressibility of pore fluid and soil particles and anisotropic behaviour of the soil
skeleton. The theories proposed by Terzaghi (1 923) and Biot (194 1, 1955, 1956) establish
the basis for the chssical theory cfporoelasticity for a fluid saturated medium. The
classical theory of poroelasticity foms a fiamework for the examination of engineering
problems associated with fluid saniratecl elastic media. The govemiDg equations involve
the full coupling of theories of elasticity and fluid transport as applied to porous coatinua.
1.3 Applications of Poroelasticity

As documented by Selvadurai (1996), the classical theory of poroelasticity has been

successfully applied to examine time-dependent transient phenomena in variety of natural
and synthetic materials, including geomaterials and biomaterials. In geomechanics the
theory of poroelasticity has been successfully applied to the examination of consolidation
of soils and soft rocks. The analytical approaches to the application of Biot's theory of
poroelasticity to the study of the consolidation behaviour of foundations, either on the
surface or embedded within a fluid saturated medium, are given by McNamee and Gibson
(1960a, b), Agbezuge and Deresiewicz (1974), Chiarella and Booker (1975), Gaszynski
and Szefer (1978), Selvadurai and Yue (i994), Yue and Selvadurai (1994, 1995) and Lan
and Selvadurai (1996). In the context of geomechanics, problems associated with land
subsidence due to withdrawal of water or energy nsources such as oil and natural gas can
also be approached via the theory of poroelasticity. In the treatrnent of such problems,
computational approaches to poroelastic media have also been used quite successfully.
Examples of these are given by Schrefler and Simoni (1987) and Lewis and Schrefler
(1987).

In recent years, the theory of fluid saturated poroelastic media have gained attention in
die context of thermally driven movement of fluids in saturated geological media. .b
important consideration in these applications is the relative compressibility of the pore
fluid in cornparison with the soi1 skeletal fabnc. Examples of such applications both
conceniing analytical developments and computational modelling are given by Aboutit
er al. (1985), Booker and Sawidou (1985) and Selvadurai and Nguyen (1995), Giraud
and Rousset (1996).

The classical theory of poroelasticity and its developments to include effects of large
strain in the soi1 skeleton, irreversible deformation of the soi! skeleton and other tirne-
dependent phenomena have found applications in the study of many naturai and synthetic
rnaterials. In particular, biological materials mch as bone, and other tissues such as
arteries, skin, etc. have ais0 k e n examined by considering such constitutive responses. A
documentation of recent developments in these areas is given in the publication by
Selvadurai (1 996).

The use of purely mathematical methods for the development of analytical solutions for
poroelasticity problems represents dificult exercises in particular due to the time-
dependency associated with the response of the geological medium. For this reason and in
view of the interest in the application of the theory of poroelasticity to practical problems,
attention has focused on the development of numencal methods, such as the finite
element method and the boundary integral equation methods for the solution of problems
in poroelasticity. These numerical methods allow the development of approximate
solutions even for complex geometries and boundq conditions and for nonlinear
behaviour of the skeletal material. The finite element method has been the most wideiy
used procedure in engineering app!ications. Sandhu and Wilson (1969) were the fint to
apply finite element methods to the study of problems associated with consolidating
geomaterials. Ghaboussi and Wilson (1973) and Booker and Small (1975) have
developed f ~ t element
e procedures for the analysis of problems associated with surface
Ioading of semi-infinite media. Selvadurai and Gopal (1986j and Schrefler and Simoni
(1 987) have used mapped infilnite elements to investigate the consolidation behaviour of
saturated geornaterial regions of infinite extent. Lewis and Schrefler (1987) and Nguyen
and Selvadurai (1995) have used the finite element methods in connection with modelling
of thermal consolidation in porous media. Applications of boundary element procedures
to poroelasticity problerns are documented by Cleary (1977), Banerjee and Butterfield
(1981), Kuroki and Onishi (1982), Cheng and Liggea (1984a), Brebbia et. a2 (1984), and
Dominguez (1 992).

1.4 Non-Linear Brittle Behaviour of Soi1 Skeleton

The assumption of elastic behaviour of the porous skeleton is a significant limitation in

the application of the classical theory of poroelasticity to geomaterials which could
exhibit irreversible and non-linear phenomena in the behaviour of the soil skeleton. With
most naturally occurring bnttle geornatenals, these phenomena can range from the
generation of microcracks (i.e. damage) to the development of macrocracks (i.e.
fractures). The generation of these flaws in soil fabric can alter the deformability and
permeability characteristics of the saturated geomatenals. As a result, the consolidation
behaviour of bnnle saturated geornaterials such as rocks and overconsolidated clay can be
influenced by the creation of such defects in the soi1 skeleton.

The darnage process can result in the development of surface discontinuities in the fom
of rnicrocracks andor volume discontinuities in the form of microvoids. At the scale of
microcracks, the damage phenomena results in a discontinuous medium. On the
macroscale, however, damage can be modeled as variables applicable to a continuum
region (Kachanov, 1958). In contrast to continuum darnage phenomena, the fracture
process is localized at the crack tip and gives rise to discontinuous fields for the
displacement, traction and pore pressure variables.

In generd, most of bnttle geomaterials experience simultaneously both foms of

continuum damage and discrete fracture processes. The existence of microcracks in the
region near the crack tip so called process zone (Bazant, 1991) with a non-linear material
behaviour is an indication of this phenomena. Factors ùitluencing the dominant mode of
flaw generation should include the effects of the state of stress, rate of loading,
microstructure of the geomaterial, presence of stress singularities (e.g. sharp contacts) and
ability of a flaw to open and close. Universal criteria cannot be postulated to determine
which mode of flaw generation governs the nodinear elastic behaviour of brittle
geomaterials. Experimental procedures should also be employed to examine the response
of materials. However, the notion of continuum darnage cm be more relevant to semi-
brinle geomaterials such as soft rocks, overconsolidated clay and other porous geological
media where pre-peak progressive softening can occw due to generation of rnicrovoids or
microcracks. The phenomena of discrete cracking is expected to be more relevant to
 discrete

Figure 1.1 Indentation of a brinle geomaterial.

predominantly brittle behaviour of geornatexials such as cornpetent rocks (e.g. granite)

under conditions of low confining stresses.

Classicd linear elastic fracture mechanics (see e.g. Broek, 1982; Bazant, 1991) cari be
adopted in fracture mechanics analysis associated with poroelastic media. The initiation
and extension of discrete hctures is govemed by the local effective stress fields near the
crack tip in poroelastic media The extension of a crack in a fluid sanirated material gives
rise to both transient and steady movhg boundary problems in poroelastic media. in these
problems, the boundary conditions governing the displacements, tractions and pore fluid
pressures change spatially and temporally as the crack extends (Figure 1.1). The pore
pressure boundary conditions or drainage conditions on the faces of the crack cm be
specified for different physical situations corresponding to permeable and impermeable
fracture surfaces.

The development of microcracks and microvoids in the porous skeleton of saturated

geomaterials has an immediate eEect altering the elastic stiffiiess of the porous skeleton.
The secondq influence of nich damage processes manifests in the fonn of alteration of
the permeability characteristics of the porous medium (Figure 1.1). As a result, the fluid
migration characteristics and the rate of consolidation within the saturated geomaterial
can be altered. In contrast to discrete fractures, the micromechanical damage of porous
skeleton does not result in any discontinuity in displacement, traction and pore pressure
fields within the porous medium. Also the darnage effects are govemed by the global
state of stresses in the porous medium. The effect of soi1 skeletai damage on the time-
dependent poroelastic behaviour of saturated geomaterials can be examined by
incorporating the concept of continuum darnage mechanics (Kachanov, 1958) into the
classical theory of poroelasticity. It can be achieved by representing the stiffness
properties and permeability characteristics of a porous medium as a fûnction of the state
of darnage in the material.

1.4.1 Linear Fracture Mechanics

The linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is based on the theories of fracture
originaily proposed by Griffith (192 1, 1924). He examined the stress field near elliptical
flaws and postulated a critenon which defines the conditions necessary for the extension
of a crack. He developed a fracture theory based on the concept of energy balance and
proposed that a flaw becornes unstable when the elastic strain energy change which
results fiom an increment of crack growth, is larger than the surface energy (i.e.
resistance) of material. The assurnption of linear elastic behaviour is central to the
developrnents proposed by Griffith (1921, 1924). The Griffith concepts were extended by
Irwin (1957, 1958) to examine the behaviour of the local effects at the tip of shaq cracks.
lrwin (195 7, 1958) adopted the analytical technique developed by Westergaard (1 938) in
analysis of stresses and displacements ahead of a sharp crack in elastic materials and
showed that the crack tip solutions couid be described by a single constant. This constant
which characterises the displacement and stress fields near the crack tip, later became
known as the stress intensity factor.
 crack
- crack tip

Figure 1.2 The stress field near the crack tip.

The assumption of linear elasticity in elastic fracture mechanics allows the identification
of various modes of deformation of the crack tip region which can initiate the growth of
cracks in poroelastic materials under the influence of effective stress fields. Invin (1957,
1958) observed that in general there are three independent modes of deformation at the
crack tip region for eiastic materials. Three modes of fiachue can in general be classified
as mode 1 (in-plane opening of crack), mode II (in-plane shearing of crack) and mode III
(anti-plane shearing of crack). The influence of extemal stress States cm be represented as
a linear combination of these three modes of deformation at the crack tip.

Inÿin (1957, 1958) showed that under plane strain conditions near the crack tip,
asymptotic stress field a, (Figure 1.2) in an isotropie elastic material takes the following
form:
where 0, is the stress tensor, r and 0 are the polar coordinates at the reference system
l;, is a dirnensionless function of 0 which depends
located at the crack tip (Figure 1.2).
only on the geomeûy of the crack. The stress intensity factor K charactenses the crack tip
behaviour. Equation 1.1 indicates a sfress singuIarity of order r"R at the crack tip as r+O.
It is shown that the displacement field near the crack tip varies with an order of r".

In poroelastic materids, the behaviour of fractures is governed by the time-dependent

pore pressure diffusion process at the crack tip region which depends on the pore pressure
boundary conditions on the crack faces. As the pore pressure drainage takes place. the
sness intensity factors at the crack tip Vary fiom the limiting case of elastic undrained
behaviour (with Poisson's ratio vu) to the elasticfuly drained behaviour (with Poisson's
ratio v ) . This tirne-dependent behaviour of the effective stress state in cracks is a
characteristic feature of fracture mechanics problems associated with poroelastic media.

Simons (1977) has shown that the stress singularity of order r-ln is preserved for the
effective stress field at the crack tip in poroelastic media. This stress singularity is
maintained throughout the time-dependent poroelastic behaviour of sahirated materiais.
Craster and Atkinson (1 99 1) have shown that the pore pressure behaviour at the crack tip
as r+ O is spatially nonsingular for poroelastic fracture problems. The pore pressure field
exhibits temporal singularity only for undrained behaviour of poroelastic material
corresponding to time PO*, and as the pore Buid pressure dissipates at the crack tip. the
pore pressure field becomes regular. They have s h o w that the pore pressure grudiena at

the crack tip are, however, singular for the permeable pore pressure boundary conditions
on the crack faces.

Applications of the theory of poroelasticity have largely focused on problems related to

conventional geomechanicd applications where the emphasis has been on the evaluation
of deformations and consolidation rates in such media subjected primarily to extemai
loads. As the applications of the theory diversify, attention needs to be focused on other
aspects of importance. The initiation and extension of cracks in poroelastic media are
recognized as an area of both practical and fundamental interest particularly to endeavors
involving hydraulic hchiring and energy resources recovery. The crack problems
associated with fiuid saturatecf materials can be categorized into two basic classes:
transient and steady state crack problems. In transient crack problems where the crack can
be either stationary with fixed boundary conditions or can extend with moving boundary
conditions, the behaviour of a crack is tirne-dependent. With steadily propagating cracks.
the poroelastic behaviour of the crack c m be examined by considering a "tirne
independent" analysis where the time dependency is removed by appeal to a
transformation which contains the velocity of steady crack extension.

i. Transient Cracks

A great majority of applications of poroelasticity focus purely on initial boundary value

problerns where the boundary conditions are kept fixed both spatially and temporally.
The boundary conditions can relate to either the tractions or displacements exerted on the
porous skeleton, or conditions prescribed on the pore fluid pressure and its spatial
derivatives. The extension of cracks in poroelastic media generally results in a mixed-
mode moving boundary problem where the boundary conditions themselves are time-
dependent.

The class of transient fracture problems where there is the interaction of pore fluid flow
and soi1 skeletal deformation, are important to enhanced energy resources recovery
techniques which involve controlled hydraulic fiacturhg (Boone and Ingraffea, 1988;
Detournay and Cheng, 1991). In hydraulic fiacturing techniques, during the initiation of
fracture by the pressuization of the fluid, the pore Buid tends to leak out into the porous
formation and induce a volume expansion of material around the crack tip leading to
partial closure of the fracture. Field evidence (Smith, 1985; and Nierode, 1985) suggests
that the injection pressure required to initiate the fracture in poroelastic media is higher
than those predicted by classical elasticity models which neglect the influence of
poroelasticity.

ii. Steady State Cruch

The problem of steady state constant velocity crack growth in an isotropic elastic medium
was first examined by Yoffe (195 1) for the case of plane main deformation. Yoffe (195 1)
developed complete anaiflical resuits (i.e. solutions for displacement and stress fields) for
a crack of fixed length propagating in an elastic medium, ahich is subjected to uniform
remote tensile stresses, by a solution of the governing elastodynamic equations. Radok
(1956) and Broberg (1960) extended this study to examine the steady self-similar
extension of a crack in an elastic material. The lirnits of propagation velocity in these
studies were established in relation to Rayleigh wave velocity in elastic materiais. A
recent review of these developments is presented by Freund (1990).

The classicd fracture mechanics considerations for elastic materials indicate that when
the energy release rate of the fracture is greater than that of the driving mechanism, the
extension of the crack is unstable and the failure is rapid. In poroelastic materials and
other geomaterials which exhibit dissipative phenomena, the propagation of a fracture is
likely to be dynamic and unsteady in the initial stages. However, a state of steady crack
extension can be obtained at limiting times when the steady crack extension process has
penisted over a long penod of t h e . For poroelastic materials, the flow of energy into the
pore fiuid tends to stabilize the crack growth and that can result in a quasi-static extension
of the crack with a certain velocity. The development of landslides in overconsolidated
clay (Palmer and Rice, 1973; and Rice and Cleary, 1976) and the aftenhock events in an
earthquake (Booker, 1974) have been attributed to processes associated with quasi-static
crack propagation. The quasi-static crack growth also govems the hydraulic hcturing
phenomena used quite extensively in oil resources recovery (Ruina, 1978; Huang and
Russell, 1985a, b; Boone and Ingraffea, 1988). While the class of two-dimensional plane
strain problems give rise to steady state crack extension phenornena, the equivalent class
of problems involving extension of circular cracks do not yield a steady state.

Both the mathematical and computational modelling procedures have been applied to the
solution of fracture mechanics problems in poroelastic media. Analytical approaches
provide the solution for simple fracture problems where the boundary conditions are kept
fixed in time and space. Numerical procedures however allow the examination of
problems where the geometries are complex and the boundary conditions can Vary in
space and time.

The problem of steady crack propagation in poroelastic media has been examined by Rice
and Cleary (1976) and Rice and Simons (1976). They have found that consideration of
coupling between pore fluid flow and soi1 skeletal deformation c m result in some
poroelastic effects which prevent opening of cracks. The problem of the steady fracture in
a poroelastic material was investigated by Rudnicki (1985) in c o ~ e c t i o nwith fault
initiation and propagation in porous rocks. These problems were examined in view of
their potential use in the study of earthquake mechanisms at the source location.

Vandamme et al. (1989) used the displacemenr discontinuity method to examine the
transient plane strain behaviour of a stationary poroelastic fracture subjected to a sudden
constant pore fluid pressure. They decornposed the fluid pressure loading into prescribed
pore pressure and normal traction boundary conditions on the crack faces and examined
the time-dependent behaviour of the crack separateiy under each class of boundary
conditions. Detoumay and Cheng (1991) have examined a similar problem in greater
details to evaluate the design parameters, such as the time-dependent variation of the
crack opening stress intensity factor, which are important to controlled processes of
hydradic hctwing.
The analytical solutions to problems of a semi-infinite crack propagating quasi-statica1l:-
in shear mode through a porous medium for various pore pressure boundary conditions
on the crack faces have k e n given by Rice and Simons (1976) and Simons (1977).
Cheng and Liggett (1984b) applied the boundary integral equation method to solve a
similar problem. Ruina (1978) examined the problem of a hydraulically loaded fkacture
propagating at a constant rate with impermeable crack faces. He has s h o w that the
apparent matenal resistance to fracture propagation, or apparent fracture toughness.
increases with fracture propagation velocity . Huang and Russell ( 198ja, b) extended
these results to hydmulically loaded fractures propagating at a constant velocity where the
fracture surfaces are permeable.

Recently Atkùison and Craster (1991) and Craster and Atkinson (1996) have examined
the problems of stationary and steadily propagating semi-infinite cracks embedded in
onginally intact poroelastic media. These studies include the examination of crack
behaviour in the presence of variable pore pressure boundary conditions at the crack faces
and their potential influence on the pore pressure field and stress intensity factors at the
crack tip.

The numerical treatment of cracks occwing in poroelastic geomaterials bas received only
limited attention. The computational modelling of fiacture problems in poroelastic media
can be approached by adopting either finite element techniques or boundary element
techniques. Henshell and Shaw (1975) and Barsoum (1976) independently introduced the
quarter point singularity elements in fracture analysis of elastic materials. Barsoum
(1976) has s h o m that the i l R stress singularity can be incorporated into the quadratic
isoparametric elements by shifiing the mid-side node close to the crack tip to their quarter
point. The quarter point crack tip element offers its preference over any other special
crack tip elements (such as hybrid elements etc., Owen and Fawkes, 1983) due to its
simplicity and its ready availability in any finite element code. This element has been
successfully utilized to model crack problems in classical elasticity via finite element
methods (IngrafYea, 1977a, b; Owen and Fawkes, 1983; Murti and Valliappan. 1986) and
boundary element methods (Cruse and Wilson, 1977; Blandford et al., 198 1 ; Smith and
Mason, 1982; Selvadurai and Au, 1989; Selvadurai and ten Busschen, 1995).

In order to develop the computational modeiling of the quasi-static crack extension in

porous media, it is necessary to establish a crack extension critenon applicable to the
solid skeleton. The subject of fracture extension in brinle elastic solids has been studied
very extensively in recent years. Such studies have been motivated by the interest in the
examination of crack extension in geomaterials such as concrete, rock and ice. Extensive
accounts of these developments can be found in the literature on fracture mechanics (see.
e.g. Liebowitz, 1968; Atkinson, 1979; Broek, 1982; Sih, 1991). In studies related to the
crack extension in brittle elastic materials, it is necessary to postulate two criteria The
crack extension criterion establishes the stress conditions necessary for the onset of crack
extension. The second relates to the criterion which establishes the orientation of crack
growth.

Boone and lngraffea (1988, 1990) have exarnined the two-dimensional extension of a
plane crack in a poroelastic material which is dnven by the pore fiuid pressures. They
developed a crack extension model based on the separation of the interface elements
placed dong o priori known crack path when the maximum effective tensile stresses at
the crack front reach a criticai value. This procedure neglects the fracture resistance of
material which can be significant in fiacture phenomena of poroelastic media in the
absence of in situ stresses.

1.4.2 Continuum Damage Mechanies

The concept of continuum damage mechanics (CDM)was developed by Kachanov

(1958) to examine the tertiary creep of solids. This theory examines the effect of
microcrack development or any other microdefects on the behaviou. of materials pnor to
the development of macrocracks (Le. fractures). The process of damage is expected to be
highly anisotropic in nature and could be restricted to localized zones.

The theory of continuum damage mechanics has been widely used to predict the
nonlinear response of a variety of materials including metals, concrete, composites, ice,
and geological matenals (Krajcinovic and Fonseka, 1981; Simo and Ju. 1987; Selvadurai
and Au, 1991;Cheng and Dusseault, 1993; Hu and Selvadurai, 1995: etc.). The nonlinear
behaviour of materials is modelled by introducing local damage variabies in the anaiysis.
Damage variables reflect average material degradation at macro-scale normally
associated with the classical continuum description. This facilitates the adaptation of the
damage concept in the theov of elastiuity or in any other theory associated with classical
continuum mechanics. The coupling of elasticity and damage models has been
investigated by Sidoroff (MO), Krajcinovic (1984), Chow and Wang (1987). and
Lemaitre and Chaboche (1 990).

The occurrence of microcracks and microvoids in the porous skeleton will have the
immediate eEect altering the elastic stiffhess of the porous sanirated geomaterials. The
secondary influence of such damage will manifest in the fom of alteration of the
permeability charactenstics of the porous medium. The graduai degradation in the
constitutive properties and evolution of hydraulic conductivity of the material are as a
result of continuing growth of either dready existing microdefects or the progressive
nucleation of new microdefects. For a given state of stress, the extent of darnage is an
intdnsic property of the material which is defmed by the "damage evolution law". The
criteria goveming the evolution of elasticity and permeability parameters as a result of
damage can either be postuiated by appeal to micromechanics or detennined by
experiments.

Sima and l u (1987) have successhilly applied the concept of damage mechanics to
simulate the experimentai r e d t s on concrete obtained by Scavuao et al. (1983). They
developed an isotropie elasto-plastic damage mode1 employing a tensorid form of
damage variables. Cheng and Dusseault (1993) used an anisotropic darnage rnodel, using
a vectorial representation of damage variable based on experimentai observations, to
model the stress-strain behaviour of rocks and concrete. They postulated a darnage
evolution law as a function of shear strain energy and exarnined the consolidation
behaviour of a strip foundation on a poroelastic half-space which experiences the soil
skeletal damage with no alteration in penneability characteristics.

The development of damage, including initiation and codescence of microcracks, gives

rise to nonlinear phenomena in the constitutive behaviour of fluid saturated geomaterials.
The effect of damage on either the degradation of elastic moduli or strength (in the form
of strain softening) of geomaterials such as rocks has been observed by Cook (1965) and
Bieniawski e t al. (1967). Spooner and Dougill(1975) have observed similar phenomena
on experîments conducted on concrete. The effect of microcrack generation on the
pemeability characteristics of sanirated geomaterials such as rocks and concrete has also
been observed by Zoback and Byerlee (1 975), Samaha and Hover (1992), Shiping et al.
( 1994), and Kiyama er al. (1 996).

1.5 Objectives and Scope of the Research

Saturated geological rnaterials with brinle behaviour can experience non-elastic

phenomena in the soil skeleton either in the form of continuum micromechanical damage
by development of rnicrocracks, or in the form of discrete fractures. Development of such
defects in the porous skeleton of saturated geomaterials will influence the fluid transport
characteristics and the poroelastic behaviour of such materials. One of the objectives of
this research is to develop a methodology for computatioaal modelling of fracture and
damage phenomena in porous media saturated with compressible pore fluids for both
two-dimensional plane strain and axisymmetric situations.

A great rnajority of applications of the theory of poroelasticity f o c w s purely on initial

boundary value problems where the boundary conditions are kept fixed both spatially and
temporally. The boundary conditions can relate to either the tractions exerted by the
porous skeleton, or the displacements of the porous elastic skeleton or the pore fhid
transport. There are a significant number of problems which specifically relate to rnoving
boundmïes associated with hcture phenornena where the boundary conditions
themselves are tirne dependent. 'Ihe class of time-dependent moving boundary problems
associated nith either the transient quasi-static crack extension or the steady state crack
extension in poroelastic media is exarnined in this thesis.

It is clear from the literature review that computational treatment of both non-elastic
brinle behaviour of the porous fabric (either in forrn of continuum damage or in form of
development of discrete cracks) and moving boundary problems arising from the
transient and steady state extension of cracks in saturated geomaterials have received
limited attention. Specifically, attention will be focused on the following aspects of the
modelling and computational developments:

i) Extension of the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM)into poroelastic media. This
can be achieved by the incorporation of a r'IR singularity in the effective stress field at the
crack tip in numencd modelling and the development of a computational procedure for
the evaluation of time-dependent variation of the stress intensity factors at the crack tip
located in poroelastic media. The verification of the computational procedures can be
achieved by cornparison of the numerical results with analytical solutions availabie in the
literature for simple geometries and boundary conditions.

ii) Development of a computational algorithm for tirne-dependent quasi-static crack

extension in poroelastic media. The displacement, traction and pore water pressure
boundary conditions are updated as crack extension takes place through the discretized
region. The path of crack extension c m generally be established by mixed-mode crack
extension criteria applicable to porous fabrics.
iii) Examination of moving boundary problems in poroelasticity where the temporal and
spatial variations of prescribed or fiee boundary conditions governing displacement,
traction and pore pressure variables can be coasidered. The accuracy of the computational
scheme can be verified with known analytical solutions for limiting elastic responses of
initial undrained (r +O+) and final drained (r ++a) solutions recovered through
analogous problems in classical elasticity.

iv) Development of a computational formulation for the steady state constant velocity
crack extension in poroelastic media under conditions of plane strain and axial symmetry.
The conventionai equations governing poroelasticity are modified to replace the tirne
variable with a modified time variable which incorporates the constant velocity of the
moving crack tip. The computationai procedures cm be verified by appeai to analytical
solutions to the displacement and pore pressure fields at the crack tip. The steady moving
boundary problems associated with wedging of cracks in saturated porous media can be
exarnined.

V) Development of an isotropic darnage model which accounts for the alteration in

constitutive properties of the soi1 skeleton and permeability characteristics of the porous
medium. The isotropic damage evolution criteria goveming the evolution of elastic
stifhess and permeability parameters can be characterized by the dependency of damage
variables on the distortional strain invariant. The damage model cm be applied to
examine the extent to which the poroelastic behaviour of saturated geomatends cm be
infiuenced by the evolution of darnage in the porous skeleton.

1.6 Statement of Originality and Contributions

1. The work presented in this thesis extends the developments into the computational
modelling of poroelastic media, to include instances where cracks and other defects in the
form of darnage evolves during the application of loading. To the authors knowledge.
these extensions are considered to be novel and specific problems examined are original.

2. The work is extended to include cornputational rnodelling of steady state and transient
effects associated with extension of cracks in fiuid saturated geomaterials. The work also
includes new developments in moving boundary problems involving steady penetration
of inclusions in poroelastic media.

3. n i e work described in the thesis has significant potential applications in

geomechanics, geotechnical engineering, materials engineering, and energy resources
recovery fiom geological formations.

1. The contributions resulting fiom the thesis have been published or accepted for
publication in leading International Journals and refereed conference proceedings with a
high degree of selectivity and standards.
 CHAPTER 2

COMPUTATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN POROELASTIC MEDIA

2.1 Introduction

In this thesis, the theory of three-dimensional poroelasticity f i t proposed by Biot (1 94 1,

1955, 1956) is employed to conduct the computational modelling of Iinear, isotropie,
elastic porous media saturated with compressible pore fluids. This Chapter presents the
basic partial differential equations goveming the theory of poroelasticity. The essential
features of the classical theories of poroelasticity are reviewed with an emphasis on
illustrating the physical and mathematical features of Biot's theory of poroeianicity. ï h e
basic materiai parameters descnbing the behaviour of proelastic media saturated with
compressible fluids are also discussed.

The second part of this Chapter presents a brief review of fuiite element method and
boundary element method for the solution of equations goveming poroelasticity. The
focus is on illustrating Galerkin's finite element procedure which is used to fornulate the
computational scheme employed in this research. The formulations are presented for both
plane strain and axisymmetric conditions. The eight-noded plane isoparametric element
used in computational modelling will also be discussed.
A Cartesian tensor notation will be used in the presentation with Einstein's summation
convention applied to repeated indices. In addition, the following sign convention is
adopted: al1 normal stresses in the solid skeleton and Buid pressures in the pores that are
tensile, are regarded as positive. Shear stresses follow the conventional sign convention
used in solid mechanics and geomechanics (Fung, 1965;Davis and Selvadurai, 1996).

2.2 Classical Theories of Poroelasticity

The treatment of h s t mathematical formulation and analysis of consolidation behaviour

of soils is due to Temghi (1923). This investigation also introduced the concept of the
effective stress principle in the study of geomatenals. Terzaghi (1923) proposed a
hindarnental approach to the study of a Mly saturated soil and developed the one-
dimensiond theory of soil consolidation by using a mode1 of a porous medium which
experiences small deformations. Terzaghi's theory of one-dimensional consolidation has
been widely applied to the anaiysis of practical problems and has become a standard
procedure in geotechnical analysis. Many conventionai methods for predicting the
magnitude and progress of foundation settlements are based on this theory (Hm, 1966;
Lambe and Whitman, 1969).

A generalization of Terzaghi's theory to include three-dimensional effects was suggested

by Rendulic (1936). It was based on the assumption that during the process of soil
consolidation, the surnmation of total normal stresses in the soil medium remains
constant with time. In other words, the first stress invariant I,=a,,+a~+q,
is assumed to
remain constant with the dissipation of excess pore pressures. This hypothesis has led to
the Terzaglu-Rendulic theory or the pseudo three-dimensional theory of soil
consolidation. In this approach, the total stress field in the soil medium is treated
independently and usually accomplished by assuming that it is govemed by time
independent elastic response characteristics of an elastic medium (see e.g. Zaretskii,
1972).
One of the serious drawbacks of these two theories is the absence of the correct form of
coupling between the defonnation of soil skeleton and the flow of pore fluids. As a direct
result of this deficiency, some special feahires of the consolidation process, such as the
Mandel-Cryer effect (Mandel, 1953; Cryer, 1963) do not appear in these two uncoupled
theories. This aspect of the correct form of coupling between the mechanical deformation
and fluid flow process is a major development of Biot's theory of three dimensional soi1
consolidation (Schiffinan et al., 1969).

The theory of threedimensional linear poroelasticity for a saturated medium was

formulated by Biot (1941, 1955, 1956) to mode1 more realistically the mechanical
behaviour of sanirated soils or rocks. In this theory, the soil skeleton is modelled as
deformable, linear, elastic, porous medium saturated with a compressible fluid. A set of
partial differential equations was fomulated by Biot (1941, 1955, 1956) to descnbe the
coupled mechanical behaviour of saturated porous media. Biot's theory of poroelasticity
results in a completely self-consistent bounday and initial value problem.

Biot's theory inuinsically takes into account the time dependent interaction of the soil
skeleton and pore fluids (i.e. the coupling between the deformation of the solid phase and
the flow of pore fluids). The coupled mechanical state is described by mechanical
variables (effective stresses and excess pore pressure) and kinematics variables
(displacements and velocities) within each phase. The mechanicd and kinematics
variables are tirnedependent. Four of these variables are independent and represent the
coupling characteristics of the goveming equations. They could be regarded as the three
displacement components and the excess pore pressure. Consequently, it is necessary and
suficient to adopt four independent boundary conditions (three for solid phase and one
for pore fluid phase) to set up a proper boundary and initial value problem for a saturated
porous medium. These four independent boundary conditions correctly match the
situations encountered with many practical problems associated with saturated soils and
rocks.
Biot's theory is sufficiently general in that both the Terzaghi's classical one-dimensional
consolidation theory and the Terzagh-Rendulic theory can be recovered as special cases.

2.3 Governing Equations of Poroelasticity

The linear constitutive equations governing the quasi-static response of a poroelastic

medium, which consists of a porous isotropie elastic soil skeleton saturated nith a
compressible pore fluid take the forms

( 2 .la)

(2.1 b)

where a, is the total stress tensor; p is the pore fluid pressure; 5, is the volumetric nrain
in the compressible pore fluid; v is Poisson's ratio and p is shear modulus applicable to
the porous fabric, 6, is Kronecker's delta function (=1 if i=j; =O if i+j]. Also in (Eq. 2.1 a)
E, is the soil skeleton strain tensor which, for mal1 deformations, is defmed by

where ui are the displacement components, and a comma denotes a partial denvative with
respect to the spatial variables. The material parameters a and P which defme
respectively, the compressibility of the pore fluid and the compressibiiity of the soil
fabric are as follows:
where vu is the undrained Poisson's ratio, and B is pore pressure pararneter introduced by
Skempton (1954). The pararneter B is defined as the ratio of the induced pore water
pressure to the variation in total isotropie stress, measured under undrained conditions.
This representation of constitutive goveming equations was first proposed by Rice and
CIeary (1 976).

In contrat to Terzaghi's defuiition of the effective stresses, which is void of

compressibility of the system, in Biot's theory the definition of the effective stress tensor
takes into account the compressibility effects. The effective stresses a$ in the porous
skeleton are given by

In the absence of body forces and dynamic effects, the quasi-static equations of
equilibrium for the entire fluid saturated porous medium takes the fom:

The fluid transport within the pores of the medium is govemed by Darcyoslaw which c m
be written as

where ui is the specific discharge vector in the pore fluid and u=Wy, in which k is the
coefficient of hydraulic conductivity and y , is the unit weight of pore fluid. The equation
of continuity associated with quasi-static fluid flow is
The bounds for the five constitutive parameten p. v , vu, B, and K goveming the
poroelastic behaviour of fluid saturated materials can be obtained by considering
requirements for a positive definite strain energy potential (Rice and Clearly, 1976). It
c m be shown that the material parameters should satisS the following thermodynamical
constraints:

When dealing with most geomatenals with an elastic response, the lower limit of -1 for v
and vu c m be replaced by zero @esai and Siriwardane, 1984 ; Davis and Selvadurai,
1996). Consequently, we have

In special case of poroelastic material saturated with an incompressible pore fluid, we

have

The resulting equations of equilibrium for a poroelastic medium as introduced by Biot

(194 1, 1955, 1956) and reformulated in more physically relevant variables by Rice and
Cleary (1 976),can be wrinen in terms of the displacements and pore pressure as

The equation (2.9a) corresponds to the displacement equation of equilibrium for linear,
isotropie elasticity together with the coupling term of stresses induced by the pore fluid.
The equation (2.9b) is a diffusion-type equation for the pore fluid which includes a
coupling terni to account for deformations of the soi1 skeleton.

The following limiting conditions can be recovered fiom the generalized results:

1. The undrained behaviour îmmediately d e r the loading corresponds to cu=O,

consequently the equation (2.9a) reduces to the usual elasticity equation with undrained
Poisson's ratio vu. i.e.

2. In achieving the &Ily drained state, the excess pore pressure dissipates completely (i.e.
p+O) and the equation (2.9a) reduces to usual elasticity equation with drained values of
the elastic constants: p and v . Le.

3. For most naturally occuning geomateriais, the sanirated porous medium can be
modelled as a medium consisting of incompressible solid particles and an incompressible
pore fluid. In this case <, = EU, a = 1, and P = m and the goveming equations reduce to:

pv2u, + Ci - p,, = O
(1 - Z V ) ~ ~ J

For a well posed problem, boundary conditions and initial conditions on the variables ÿ,
p and/or their derivatives can be prescribed.
2.4 Computational Modelling of Poroelastic Media

Numerical methods such as the finite element technique and boundary element technique
have been successfblly applied in the solution of problems in poroelasticity which c m
accommodate cornplex geometries and boundary conditions. The application of f ~ t e
element procedures to the solution of problems in poroelasticity is given by a number of
researchers Uicluding Sandhu and Wilson (1969) and Ghaboussi and Wilson (1973), who
were the first to apply finite element procedures to examine soi1 consolidation problems.
Sirnilarly, the application of boundary element procedures is documented by Cleary
(1977) and Cheng and Liggett (1984a).

2.4.1 Finite Element Method

In rhe finite element technique, the domain of interest is subdivided into discrete finite
elements. The elements are comected at nodal points and continuity of displacement and
pore pressure fields are enforced at the element boundaries. The values of the field
variables within the elements are interpolated by polynomials of their nodal values. The
goveming equations of poroelasticity can then be approximated into a synem of linear
matrix equations by application of either the Galerkin technique (Sandhu and Wilson,
1969) or the variational principle (Ghaboussi and Wilson, 1973). The investigation o f
different spatial interpolation schemes and various temporal approximations is given by
Booker and SmalI (1975) and Sandhu et al. (1977).

Ghaboussi and Wilson (1973) and Booker and Small (1975) have developed finite
element procedures for the analysis of problems associated with surface loading of semi-
infite media. Selvadurai and Gopal (1986) and Schrefler and Simoni (1987) have used
the finite element method to investigate the consolidation behaviour of media of infite
extent, which are modeled by appeal to special infinite elements.
Finite element methods have a greater appeal to engineers and are widely used in
engineering applications in dealing particularly with the the-dependent problems and
problems involving nonlinear material bebaviour. We adopt a Galerkin f ~ t element
e
procedure to formulate the computational procedures for the solution of the various types
of poroelasticity problems discussed in Chapter 1.

2.4.2 Boundary Elemeat Method

The boundary integral equation method is a very powerhl technique for the solution of
boundary value problems for unknown displacements, pore pressures. and tractions on
the boundary of domain. This approach can also provide solutions for intemal field
variables, although die finite element analysis is considered to be much more efficient for
this purpose.

The boundary element method for non-dissipative systems commences with the use of
Betti's reciprocal theorem (see e.g. Davis and Selvadurai, 1996) which relates the work
done by two different loadings on the same body. The governing equations of
poroelasticity are formulated in a Laplace transform space and then integrated over the
boundary of the domain. Betti's reciprocai theorem is then applied to the boundary
conditions to write the goveming integral equations in terms of boundary unknoms (in
contrast to finite element methods). The boundary is discretized into elements using
polynomial approximation of the boundary geometry, displacements and tractions. The
resulting integral equations are nurnerically integrated to give a set of linear matrix
equations. Finally, the Laplace transform is nurnerically inverted in order to obtain the
solution in physical space.

Cleary (1977), Banej e e and Butterfield (1981), Kuroki and Onishi (1 982), Cheng and
Liggett (1 984a), and Domingua (1992) have developed boundary element procedures to
problems associated with soi1 consolidation.
2.5 Finite Element Formulations

The standad Galerkin (1915) finite element procedure (Zienkiewicz, 1979) can be
applied to approximate the equations governing Biot's theory of poroelasticity (Eqs. 2.9q
b) and reduce them to a system of linear matrix equations. The details of these procedures
are well documented by Sandhu and Wilson (1969), Aboutit et al. (1985)' Schrefler and
Sirnoni (1 987), Lewis and Schrefler (1987), Selvadurai and Kapurapu (1989) and more
recently by Selvadurai and Nguyen (1993) in comection with the îïnite element
modelling of thermal consolidation of sparsely jointed porous media.

A bief description of the Gaierkin technique and its application to poroeiasticity

problems is given in the following sections.

2.5.1 Galerkin Weighted Residual Method

The Galerich method has been widely applied to the fuite elernent formulation of
consolidation problems (Lewis and Schrefier 1987). The Gaierkin technique is a speciai
case of the general method of weighted residuals. The method provides an approximate
solution to the system of partial differential equations of following form:

where L is an operator; 4=$(x} is the unknown solution (function of the coordinates x. ;

,)
f=f(x) is a known fùnction of x.; and R is the bounded domain where the equatioa is
J
defined. Consider n discrete points (nodes) of the domain R where @=$ at each point I.
An approximate value of 4 at any arbitrary point of R is assumed by the folloxing
equation:
where N,=.V(x) are interpolation or shape fùnctions (usually polynomials). Since +Û(x)
1 J
is not the tnie solution, there is an error (or a residuai) Re associated with the
approximation procedure which can be obtained by replacing the value of 4 by û in
Equation 2.13 as follows:

The method of weighted residuals minirnizes the error between the m e solution $I and the
approxirnate solution U by reducing the weighted average value of residual Re over the
domain R to zero. The nodal values $, are detemiined by solving the following constraint
equations:

where fi; are weighting fùnctions which are functions of the coordinates x,. In the
J
Galerkin method the weighting fùnctions W, are assurned to be identical to shape
huictions .V,, When al1 nodal values 4, are obtained, Equation 2.14 can be used to obtain
the approsimate solution for any arbitrary point in domain R.

2.5.2 Finite Element Approximations

In the solution of an initial boundary value problem, the goveming equations 2.9a and
2.9b and appropriate initial conditions need to be satisfied within the domain R and
appropriate boundary conditions should be satisfied on the boundary B of the domain.
Using Gaierkin's technique, the goveming equations can be transformed into matrix
equations where the unknowns are the nodal displacements and pore pressures. Letting u,
(i=l, 2, 3; b1,...,N) be the nodal displacements for N discrete points in R, and pK (K=l,
..., n) the nodal pore pressures in n nodes at an arbitrary t h e t. The displacement vector
and pore pressure for any arbitrary point with coordinates x.J in the domain R are
approximated by the following relations:

where Ni and N [ correspond to shape functions for displacernent and pore pressure
fields; J=1, ..., !V and K=l, ..., n; u, is the displacement of the soi1 skeleton at node J in
the ifh direction. The indices in capital letiers (e.g. Jand K ) refer to nodal values, whereas
the indices in small leîters (e.g. i andfi refer to coordinate directions. Also the surnrnation
convention is adopted. In general N; and N,P cm be different but both N I and N:
must exhibit CO continuity.

The application of a Galerkin procedure to the governing equations (see e.g. Sandhu and
Wilson, 1969; Lewis and Schrefler, 1987; and Selvadurai and Nguyen, 1995) gives rise to
the following discretized forms of the equations goveming poroelastic media:

where

K = stiffiess rnatrix of the soi1 skeieton;

C = stifniess matrix due to interaction between soi1 and the pore fluid;
E = compressibility matrix of fluid;
H = permeability ma&;
F = force vectors due to extemal tractions, body forces and flow field;
u,, p, = nodal displacements and pore pressures at tirne i;
At = time increment and y is a time integration constant;
and ( denotes the transpose.

When ut and p, are known, the solution of Equation 2.19 resulu in ut,, and pl+,,.
Expression for the matrices K, C and etc. are given in the Appendix A. The tirne
integration parameter y varies between O and 1. The criteria for the stability of the
integration scheme given by Booker and Small (1975) require that 7 2112. According to
Lewis and Schrefler (1987) and Selvadurai and Nguyen (1995), the stability of solution
can generally be achieved by selecting values of y close to unity.

Since for many diffusion-type phenomena, the time variation of displacement and pore
pressure field variables in pore fiuid diffusion process is exponential in nature, Sandhu
and Wilson (1969) have used a logarithmic interpolation function in the tirne solution of
Equation 2.19. This requires the assemblage and triangularization processes of the
general matrices at each tirne step Aî of the analysis. In order to rninimize the
computational effort and irnprove the numerical efficiency, the t h e sep Af can be
logarithmically altered after a selected number of time steps.

2.5.3 lnstantaneous Poroelastic Respoase

The undrained elastic behaviour of saturated materials resulting imrnediately afier the
application of extemal loads (when there is not enough time for pore fluid migration
within the porous medium) can be incompressible. However, the soi1 particles and pore
fluid of most porous sahuated geomaterials are slightly compressible. For this reason, it is
usehl to retain the constitutive modelling such that the undrained behaviour is
compressible.

The numerical trament of incompressible elastic matends was f k t examined by

Hemnann (1965) using a displacement constraint formulation. Christian (1 968) modified
 Figure 2.1 Solid isoparametric element.

the Hemnann formulation to examine the undrained behaviour of consolidating soils.

Naylor (1974) has s h o w that the conventional fhte element method c m be applied to
nearly incompressible materials ( ~ 0 . 4 9 9 )when a reduced (2x2) integration scheme is
used in the analysis.

In this thesis, the conventional finite element method is used to examine the
instantaneous behaviour of poroelastic geomaterials which c m exhibit initially
compressible elastic behaviour.

2.5.4 Finite Element Discretizations

Following the standard finite element procedures, the domain R is discretized into certain
number of subdornains called finite elements. The element chosen to represent the intact
region of the poroelastic medium is the eight-noded plane isoparametric element where
the displacements within the element are interpolated as functions of the 8 nodes, whereas
the pore pressures are interpolated as a fùnction of only the four corner nodes i, k, m, and
O (Figure 2.1). This type of element has k e n used to mode1 the consolidation behaviour
of poroelastic media by several researchers including Aboutit et al. (1 985). Smith and
 Figure 2.2 Tirne variation of prescribed displacement
and traction boundary conditions.

Griffiths (1 988), Selvadurai and Karpurapu (1 989), and Selvadurai and Nguyen (1 995).
Aboutit et al. (1985) have s h o w that this type of element is less prone to spatial
oscillations in the solution obtained for the pore pressure as opposed to the 8-noded
element type where al1 degrees of fkeedorn are calculated at al1 the nodes. The physical
explanation of this spatial oscillations can be argued as follows: fluid pressure has the
sarne dimension as the stress. Strain is directly related to stress via the elastic constitutive
parameten (e.g. p and v). Since serain is expressed in tems of spatial derivatives of
displacernents, the polynomials used as interpolation functions for fluid pressure should,
for consinency. be one order Iower than the ones used for displacernents.

2.5.5 Time Variation of Bounda y Conditions

To examine the effect of time variation and rate of Ioading on the poroeiastic behaviour
of geomaterials, the variation of prescribed displacement and traction boundary
conditions with time can be taken into account in the finite element formulations. In this
study, a time variation in fonn of a ramp function (Figure 2.2) for the imposed
displacements and tractions is considered as follows:
The time-dependent response of poroelastic media associated with imposed boundary
conditions given by Equation 2.20 corresponds to the settlement consolidation under a
prescribed load, or load relaxation under a prescribed displacement. The limiting value of
the rate of loading parameter, when m=- (Figure 2.2), corresponds to a Heaviside step
function (i.e.At)=H(t))where the entire load is applied instantaneously.
 VERIFICATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT CODE

Venfication of a cornputer code is the process whereby the reliability and accuracy of the
numerical solutions to the fundamental equations are docurnented. In order to ver@ the
code, the results derived frorn the computationai mode1 are compared with a series of
benchmark problems, which are primarily analytical solutions. The analytical solutions
for one-dimensional consolidation are given by Temghi (1923), and analytical results for
consolidation of a poroelastic sphere are given by Gibson et al. (1963). The anaiytical
solutions for two-dimensional plane strain or axisyrnrnetric consolidation of half space
and layer regions are also given by McNamee and Gibson (1960b), Gibson et al. (1970),
Chiarella and Booker (1975), Selvadurai and Yue (1994) and Yue and Selvadurai (1995).
In this Chapter we present a venfication of the finite element procedure developed in
comection with the research, by cornparison with certain anaiytical solutions.
3.1 One-Dimensional ConsoIidation

Terzaghi (1923) presented an analytical solution for the problem of the one-dimensional
consolidation of a soil column of depth H which rests on an impermeable base. The
medium is subjected to a total stress with time variation in the f o m of a Heaviside
step h c t i o n . The finite element mesh and the boundary conditions for this problem are
s h o w in Figure 3.1.

The classical anaiflicai solution for the evolution of pore pressure p within the soil
column which satisfies the drainage and displacement boundary conditions indicated in
Figure 3.1, takes the fom:

where M = ( x / 2 ) ( 2 i+ l), i = 1,2,. .. and

Similarly, the analytical solution for time variation of the surface seulement ( w ) takes the
form:

To conduct the comparisons, the following matenal properties are useci in the finite
element andysis:
 Figure 3.1 Finite element discretization of one-dimensional consolidation.

The compressive total stress applied at the surface is assumed to be a*= 10x10~kPa; and
the depth H of soi1 deposit is assumed to be 100 m. Figw 3.2 shows that the finite
element results for the the-dependent variation of pore pressure agrees well with the
analytical solution. Figure 3.3 illustrates the numerical and analytical results of
normalized surface senlement which are in very good agreement (maximum discrepancy
is 5%). The above numerical results were obtained with a value of the integration
constant y=0.875. For lower values of y, some instability occun in computed pore
pressure at small values of the nondimensional time factor T(R0.0001).
 Numencal - r/H--0.597
a Numerical - r/H=O.1 15
- Andytical - rlH=0.597
- - Analytical - dH=O. 1 15

0.0001 0.001 0.01 o. 1 I 10

T
Figure 3.2 Pore pressure evolution at different depths.

Figure 3.3 Time variation of d a c e senlement.

3.2 Consoüdation of a Poroelastic Sphere

In the process of soi1 consolidation, some regions of materiai experience a delay in the
development of a peak in the time-dependent response of the pore pressure. The above
phenornenon is called the Mandel-Cryer effect and was mathematically demonstrated by
Mandel (1950, 1953) for a cubic body uniaxially loaded under plane strain conditions,
and Cryer (1963) for a sphere subjected to a uniforni pressure at its fiee drainage surface.
The Mandel-Cryer effect has also been experirnentally observed by Gibson et al. (1963)
and Verruijt (1963) in saturated geomaterials such as clay. For the example of a
uniformly loaded sphere, the Mandel-Cryer effect can be physically explained as follows
(Cryer, 1963). At early times in the consolidation process, almost al1 of the volume
change occurs near the surface where fluid draining occurs. The region near the surface
will tend to contract resulting in squeezing of the central regions. Consequently, the total
radial stress in the central regions will increase. As there is little volume change in the
central regions, the effective stress remains constant and therefore the pore pressure will
rise.

The consolidation problem of a poroelastic sphere of radius a, subjected to a uniform

total stress a. at its &e draining sunace is considered. The analyticai solutions for the
time-dependent variation of pore pressures to this problem are given by Gibson et al.
(1963). Figure 3.4 shows the finite element discretization of the sphere and associated
boundary conditions. Figure 3.5 illustrates the analytical and numerical results of the pore
pressure variation at the center of a sphere for difTerent values of Poisson's ratio v. The
general agreement is considered to be satisfactory.

3.3 Plane Stnin and Axisymmetric Consolidation

McNamee and Gibson (1960b)developed analytical solutions for the plane strain and the
axisymmeûic problems related to consolidation of a poroelastic half-space subjected to a
unifom total normal stress oo.The loaded region for plane strain conditions is a strip
 a

impermeable

a
--
Figure 3.4 Finite element discretization of poroelastic sphere.

Figure 3.5 Pore pressure evolution at the center of poroelastic sphere.

load of width 2a, and for axisymmetric conditions the loaded region is a flexible circular
region of diameter 20 (Figure 3.6). McNamee and Gibson (1960b)developed integral
expressions for the displacements, stresses, and pore pressures. These i n f i t e intepis
can be numerically evaluated by ushg a suitable quadrature scheme. For the special case
of Poisson's ratio v=O, the expressions c m be simplified to:

where

-
X=xla (rla for avisymmetric case), Z= zla and

K ( X , 5 ) = 1 n;
COS(-) sin 6 for plane strain

erf is the error function defined by:

JO and J I correspond to Bessel fùnctions of the first kind of order O and 1, respectively.

The finite element discretization and the boundary conditions for this problem are shown
in Figure 3.6. The following parameters are used in analysis:
The numerical and analytical results for pore pressure evolution are compared in Figures
3.7 for plane strain and axisymmetnc conditions. In the numerical computations, a value
of y=0.875 was used. The agreement is quite good considering the influence of finite
domain used in finite element modelling of a poroelastic half-space. The f ~ t element
e
method tends to overpredict the values of pore pressure with the boundary conditions
sh0u-n in Figure 3.6. Typically, at the time corresponding to the peak of the time-
dependent pore pressure, the numencal value for the pore pressure is 3% higher than the
analytical value; at later times (T=IO),this overprediction in numericd result reaches a
value of 10%. A second analysis, with a zero pore pressure condition specified at the
right hand side boundary, was performed. That resulted in an underprediction of the
results obtained by finite element method, with typical absolute values similar to the
former case.

For both plane strain and axisymmetric conditions, the Mandel-Cryer effect is manifest at
al1 points k i n g considered. The integrals occming in Equation (3.4) are numerically
evaluated using the symbolic manipulation code MATHEMATKA (Wolfram Research
Inc., 1993, V.2.2).

Gibson et ut. (1970) examined the consolidation problem of a poroelastic layer laying on
a rigid base. They developed integrai expressions for time variation of the surface
senlement and presented the results for the tirne-dependent variation of the degree of
settlement consolidation U(), defined as follows

Degree of consolidation provides a measme of the extent to which the time-dependent

part of consoiichtion has been attained. Figure 3.8 illustrates cornparison of the numerical
 Free drainage @=O)

impermeable
b

impermeable
Point A: A ,-a

Point B:x=O ~ 2 . 7 5 ~

Point C:x=a ~=2.75a

Figure 3.6 Finite element discretization of the poroelastic hdf-space

under plane strain or axisymmetric consolidation.

and analyticai results for the degree of consolidation (h/u=lO) in plane strain and
axisymmetric conditions. The maxirnum discrepancy is 10Y0. The agreement is
considered to be satisfactory for purposes of geotechnical applications.
 P.A (Numerical)
- P. B (Analytical)
a- O P. B (Numerical)

P. C (Nurnerical)
-...O P. C (Analytical)

a) Plane strain

P. A (Numerical)
- P. B (Analytical)
0.4
O P. B (Numerical)

0.3
P. C (Numerical)
-
P
0 0

0.2

o. I

Figure 3.7 Tirnedependent pore pressure evolution.

 Numencal
- Analytical

a) Plane strain

Numencal
- Analytical

b) kvisymmetric
Figure 3.8 Degree of consolidation for proelastic layer.
 FRACTURE MECEANICS OF POROELASTIC MEDIA

4.1 Introduction

.4pplications of the theory of poroelasticity have largely focused on problems related to

conventional geomechanical applications where the emphasis has been on the evaluation
of deformations and consolidation rates in such media subjected primarily to extemal
loads. As the applications of the theory diversi@, attention needs to be focused on other
aspects of importance. With prous brinle geomaterials which are saturated with fluids,
the initiation and extension of cracks are recognized as ui area of both practical and
fundamentai interest. This Chapter focuses on the finite element rnodelling of the fracture
phenomena in pon>elmïc media The class of transient stationary cracks, where the
migration of pore fluid into the m c k tip governs the time-dependent behaviour of stable
cracks with constant iength, is examhed for both plane straùi and axisymmetric
situations.
In the context of analytical studies the treatment of cracks occurring in poroelastic
geomaterials has received ody l u t e d attention, The problem of the shear fracture in a
poroelastic material was investigated by Rudnicki (1985) in connection with fault
initiation and propagation in porous rock. This problem was examined in view of its
potential use in the study of earthquake mechanisms at the source location. The class of
transient fracture problems, where there is the influence of pore fluid processes, are
important in connection with enhanced energy resources recovery by the process of
hydraulic fracturing (Detomay and Cheng, 1991). In hydraulic fkacturing techniques,
during the initiation of hcture by the pressurization of the fluid, the pore fluid tends to
leak out into the porous formation and induce a volume expansion of material around the
crack tip region leading to partial closure of the fracture. Field evidence (see e.g. Smith,
1985; and Nierode, 1985) suggests that the injection pressure required to initiate the
fracture in poroelastic media is higher than those predicted by classical eiasticity models
which neglect the influence of poroelasticity. Recently Craster and Atkinson (199 1, 1996)
have examined the problem of stationary semi-infinite cracks embedded in poroelastic
media These studies take into account the tirne-dependent behaviour of the crack in the
presence of variable pore pressure boundary conditions at the faces of the crack and
assess their potential influence on the pore pressure field and the effective stress intensity
factors at the crack tip.

The numencal modelling of stationary hctures and hcnire extension in geo1ogica.i

media can be approached by adopting either finite element techniques or boundary
element techniques. Accounts of these developments together with extensive references
to literahire in these areas are given by Zienkiewicz (1977), Brebbia et al. (1984), Brebbia
and Aliabadi (1 !IN),and Atluri (1991). The computational modelling of transient hcture
problems in poroelastic media has been largeiy examined in relation to the hydraulic
fractimng techniques. Boone and Ingraffea (1990) and Iograffea and Boone (1988) have
examined the two-dimensional propagation of a plane crack driven by the pore fluid
pressures in a poroelastic matenal. They developed a crack extension mode1 based on the
separation of the interface elements placed dong an apriori kwwn crack path when the
maximum tensile stresses at the crack front reach a cnticd value. This procedure ignores
the kacture resistance of material which c m be significant in fracture phenornena of
poroelastic media in the absence of relatively high in situ stresses. Vandamme et al.
(1 989) have examined, via a displacement discontinuity method, the transient plane strain
behaviour of a stationary poroelastic fracture subjected to a sudden constant pore fluid
pressure. They decomposed the fluid pressure loading into prescribed pore pressure
boundary conditions and normal traction boundary conditions on the crack faces and
examined the time-dependent behaviour of the crack separately for each type of boundary
condition. Detournay and Cheng (1991) have examined similar problems in more detail
to evaluate the design parameters, such as the time-dependent variation of the crack
opening stress intensity factor and the pore fluid volume leak-out into the porous
medium, related to the process of hydraulic frachiring by using a similar modelling
technique. These computational models can be extended to cover the geomechanics
problems where the crack faces cm be subjected to variable traction, displacement and
pore pressure boundary conditions in poroelastic media. The numerical procedure
developed in this Chapter considers the interaction eflects between the migration of pore
fluid and the deformation of a porous fabnc on the transient behavior of poroelastic
cracks which are subjected io general loading modes.

In this thesis, a finite element procedure is developed to examine b o t . axisymmetric and

two-dirnensional plane straui problems of fracture mechanics associated with poroelastic
media. The computationai mode1 takes into account the stress singularity of the effective
stresses at the crack tip. The computationai results are verified by cornparison with the
analytical solutions given by Craster and Atkinson (1991, 1996) for the cases of
permeable and impermeable semi-ulfuiite cracks embedded in poroelastic media of
infinite extent.

The numericd procedure is also utilized to examine the axisymmeûic surface indentation
of a poroeiastic half-spacc region which is weakened either by a cylindrical crack or a
penny-shaped crack. The results illustrate the influence of the extent of hcture and the
 pore pressure boundary conditions on the various surfaces. on the time-dependent
evolution of the stress intensity factors and the tirnedependent consolidation settlement
of the axisymmetnc smooth @id indentor.

4.2 Fracture Mechanics Concepts

The linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is based on the theones of fracture
onginally proposed by Griffith (1921, 1924). The classical rheory of elastic hachue
mechanics is based on the linear theory of elasticity. This theop deals with sharp cracks
and assumes that al1 the nonelastic phenomena associated mith the hcture process takes
place only at the crack tip. This is a suitable assumption when dealing with cracks which
are small in cornparison to dimensions of elastic body, which is the case in most
problems in geomechanics. In this section we will present a brief review of some of basic
concepts and definitions employed in linear hcture mechanics.

The theory of linear elastic fracture mechanics originated fiom classical stress analysis of
the elliptical fiaw problem examined by Inglis (1913). G S t b (1921, 1924) then
extended this snidy to examine the crack problem which defmes the conditions necessary
for the extension of the crack. He developed a fracture theop based on the concept of
energy balance and proposed that a flaw becomes unstable when the elastic strain energy
change, which results from an increment of crack growlh, is larger than the surface
energy (i.e. resistance) of matenal. The assumption of linear elastic behaviour is central
to the developments proposed by Griffith (1921, 1924). The concepts proposed by
Griffith were extended by Irwin (1957, 1958) to examine the behaviour of the local
effects at the tip of sharp cracks. Irwin (1 957, 1958) adoptai the analytical technique
developed by Westergaard (1938) in analysis of stresses and displacements ahead of a
s h q crack in elastic materials, and showed that the crack tip solutions could be
described by a single constant. This parameter which characmixs the displacement and
stress fields near the crack tip of hctures, later became homn as the stress intemity
fictor. Williams (1957) applied a different technique to derive the d y t i d solutions for
 in-plane opening in-plane shearing anti-plane shearing
mode 1 mode U mode i l

Figure 4.1 Fundamental modes of deformation at the crack tip region.

the stress state at the crack tip which were essentially identicai to those obtained by Irwin
(1 957, t 958).

The assumption of h e a r elasticity in elastic fisictue mechanics allow-s us to identify

various modes of deformation of the crack tip region which can initiate the growth of
cracks in proelastic materials under the influence of effective stress fields. Invin (1957,
1958) observed that there are in generaf three independent modes of deformation at the
crack tip region for elastic materials. These three modes of hcture can in general be
classified as mode I (in-plane opening of crack), mode II (in-plane sheariog of crack) and
mode III (mti-plane shearhg of crack). Figure 4.1 illustrates these fundamental modes of
deformation at the cnck tip region. The influence of al1 extemal stress nates can be
represented as a linear combination of these three modes of deformation at the crack tip.

Only the crack opening mode 1 and crack shearing mode II need to be considered in
fhcture analysis of plane elasticity problems. Invin (1957, 1958) showed that the near
crack tip asymptotic field of stresses a, and displacements 4 in an isotropie elastic
material under plane sûain conditiom take the followîng foms:
r and 0 are polar coordinate reference centered upon the crack tip (Figure 4.1). 1;,, g,, hi,
and w, are functions of 0 and depend only on the mode of crack deformation. The indices
i and j refer to x and y directions. The consta~tsKIand KI,are referred to as the stress
intensity factors associated with the two in-plane modes of fracture. The mess intensity
factors depend on the Ioading conditions and characterize the magnitude of the crack tip
stress field. If the crack lies on the axis x (Figure 4 4 , the following functions can be
denved for the crack opening mode I deformation at the crack tip in plane main problems
(see e.g. Broek, 1982)

0 38 0
(1 T sin - sin -)cos(?)
2 2

The stress components related to the plane ofû=û at the crack tip region associated with
the two modes of deformation, take the following forms

Equation 4.3 illustrates that, for elastic materials, the stress field possesses a singularity
of order i l R at the crack tip. It is assumed in these formulations that the angle between
the faces of crack is zero. The stress field at the crack tip shows a general singularity of
order rL1for large crack angles.

For poroelastic materiai, the behaviour of stationary cracks is govemed by the time-
dependent pore pressure diffusion process at the crack tip region which depends on the
pore pressure boundary conditions at the crack faces. The main energy due to application
of extemal tractions in poroelastic media is reduced by the migration of pore fluid into
the crack tip. As the pore pressure drainage takes place near the crack tip region. the
stress intensity factors Vary from the limiting case of elastic undrained behaviour (with
Poisson's ratio vJ to the fùlly drained bebaviour (with Poisson's ratio v) in poroelastic
materials. This tirnedependent behaviour of cracks is a characteristic feanire of fractures
in poroelastic media.

Through a boundary Iayer analysis of poroelastic crack problems, Sirnom (1977) has
shown that the stress singularity of order is preserved for the effective stress field at
the crack tip in poroelastic media. 'This stress singdarity is maintained throughout the
tirne-dependent poroelastic bebaviour of saturated materials. Craster and Atkinson ( 1 99 1)
have shown that the pore pressure behaviour at the crack tip as r+ O is not spatially
singular for transient poroelastic hcture problems. They have show that the pore
pressure gradients at the crack tip are, however, singular for the permeable crack
problems. The following argument can be used to show that the pore pressure exhibits
temporal singularity at the crack tip. The pore pressure can be related to the value of
mean total stress (ad3) through Skempton's pore pressure coefficient B in undrained
behaviour (H') of poroelastic materials. Since the stress field at the crack tip shows
singular behavior, the pore pressure field also exhibits singularity in the undrained
behaviour of proelastic matenal correspondhg to time Hl+.However, as the pore fluid
drainage takes place at the crack tip region, the pore pressure field becomes reguiar.
4.2.1 ModeMing of Crack Tip Behaviour

In b i t e element modelliog of continuous media, tbere are always computational errors

associated with the f ~ t element
e discretization of domain of interest. The approximate
solutions of the finite element method can converge to the exact solution obtained by the
classical elasticity. The satisfaction of displacement continuity at inter-element
boudaries and the ability to mode1 constant strain and rigid-body displacements ensures
that the finite element solutions converge to the tnie solution monotonically with
progressive mesh refïnement, as the size of finite elements approach to zero
(Zienkievjicz, 1977). An indication of the discretization enor associated with finite
element solution can be obtained by the following

where uoand u' correspond to the exact solution and the finite element approximation of
problern in domain R. Tong and Pian (1973) have show that the rate of convergence in
the f ~ t element
e method for a plane elasticity problem with a stress singularity of rLi
can be established by following

e(x) 5 ch' (4.5)

where h is the maximum size of the elements and c is a positive constant which depends
on the elastic constants, geomeûy of mesh, and behaviour of u near the point of
singularity. This indicates that the rate of convergence in the presence of a singularity is
controlled only by the nature of the singularity and is independent of order of
polynomiais used in the interpolation functions. If there is no stress singularity, the
convergence rate in displacements will be of order h2 for quadratic isopararnetnc
elements (Tong and Pian, 1973). The presence of a stress singulanty slows down the
convergence rate and may result in loss of accuracy when the piecewise polynomial
interpolation f'wictionsare employed
 b
7
-
a

6 5$
A

crack tip

4
~,,~~*
1.1 ,2 3

crack tip -
-u
-
4
4

Figure 4.2 Quarter point singuia.elements.

in fmite element aoalysis. in order to improve the rate of convergence, the interpolation
fùnctions should include tenns that c m account for the proper singularity. Tong and Pian
( 1 973) suggested that the special crack tip elements should be employed to minimize the
discretization enor given by Equation 4.4.

Henshell and Shaw (1975) and Barsourn (1976) independently proposed the use of crack
tip singular elements for the f ~ t element
e modelling of linear elastic media which
contain defects such as cracks. The procedures adopted in these analyses were to shift the
mid-side nodes of an eight aoded isoparametric element to their quarter points. This
relocation of mid-side nodes gives rise to the required singularity in the m;iin field and
consequendy a 116 stress singularity at the crack tip. For example refemng to Figure
4.2, the basic bctions for the displacement fields associated with the regular
isoparametric element dong side 1-3 c m be written in the fom
When the mid-side nodes are shifted to the quarter point locations (i.e. x,=û, x2=t,/4,
x3=tl), the expression for x coordinate takes the fom:

and solving for local 5 coordinate

Substihiting Equation 4.8 into Equation 4.6, the displacement variation dong side 1-3 can
be written in the fom:

The correspondhg strain in the x-direction takes the fom:

This shows that the quarter point singular element has the required strain singularity of
order Y
' along the two edges containhg the crack tip. However, it cm be shown by
using a similar approach that along any ray within the element emanating fiom the crack
tip, the variation is not of the form fin. This condition can be obtained fiom a
triangular element by collapsing one side of quadratic element onto the crack tip node
(Figure 4.2). Again the mid-side nodes close to the crack tip are moved to their quarter
points. The latter form of singular crack tip element has s h o w better performance with
more accurate results (Barsoum, 1976). The singular crack tip elernents have k e n proved
to satisfy the inter-element compatibility and continuity conditions (Barsoum, 1976).

Tfie quarter point crack tip elernent offers its preference over any other special crack tip
elements (such as hybrid elements and etc., Owen and Fawkes, 1983) due to its simplicity
and its ready availability in any finite element code. This element has k e n successfùlly
utilized to mode1 crack problems in classical elasticity via finite element methods
(Ingraffea, 1977% b; Owen and Fawkes, 1983; Murti and Valliappan, 1986) and boundary
rlement methods (Cruse and Wilson, 1977; Blandford et al., 1981; Smith and Mason,
1982; Selvadurai and Au, 1989; Selvadurai and ten Busschen, 1995).

In this study the crack tip element developed by Henshell and Shaw (1975) and Barsourn
(1976) is adopted to mode1 the stress singularity in the effective stresses at the crack tip
applicable to the porous skeleton. The pore pressure field near the crack tip is, however,
rnodeled by regular quadrilateral isoparametric elements.

4.2.2 Evaluatioa of Stress Intensity Factors

The stress intensity factors at the crack tip can be evaiuated by using the results for the
displacement and stress fields in the vicinity of crack tip given in Equations 4.1. It can be
shown (see e.g. Shih et d,1976) that the coefficient of the first terni of the analytical
solutions for the near tip displacement fields given by Williams (1957) can be related to
the displacements computed via the finite element method at the equivaient location. This
 Figure 4.3 Node arrangement for computation of the swss intensity factors.

procedure is referred to as the displacement correlation method. In particular this method

utilizes the nodal displacements at four locations A, B, E, D of the crack faces as show in
Figure 4.3. The flaw opening mode 1 and flaw shearing mode II stress intensity factors
take the fonns

where k, = (3-4v) and L, is the length of the crack-tip element

The accuracy of this approach has k e n assessed by Ingraffea (1977a) and Murti and
Valliappan (1 986) in computational hcture mechanics of elastic media. This procedure
is found to give excellent cornparison with known analytical solutions when the
following simple guidelines are followed These include: (1) a reduced numerical
integration scheme (2x2) for the crack tip elements; (ii) an aspect ratio of element close to
unity; (üi) the size of crack tip element (4,) in the range of 1525% of the crack length;
and (iv) the angle of the singular element at the crack tip Iess than n/2.

4.3 Stationary Poroelastic Fracture

h this section, the transient behaviour of a semi-infite stationary Fracture embedded in a

poroelastic medium is examined. Specifically we consider a crack configuration as shown
in Figure 4.4. The problem can be regarded as an extension of a Griffith-Williams
andysis of a semi-infinite fracture to include poroelastic effects. The tensile normal
traction hundary conditions on fracture surfaces result in a crack opening mode I
deformation at the crack tip region. The pore pressure boundary conditions on the faces of
the crack c m either be permeable or impermeable. The symmetry of the problem about
the plane F O allows us to consider a single half-space region occupying z >O. The
imperneable pore pressure boundary conditions ahead of the crack tip dong the crack
axis (x>O) is considered due to the symrnetry in mode I deformation. The interaction
between the deformation of the porous skeleton and the flow of pore nuid results in a
time-dependent behaviour of fractures in poroelastic media. The stress intensity factors
which characterize the singular crack tip stress fields are time- dependent, and depend
upon the pore pressure boundary conditions on the ûacture planes. The initial and fmal
values of stress intensity factors, however, correspond to the undrained and drained
eiastic behaviour of the material.

It can be shown that the time dependent-variation of the stress intensity factors can be
computed quite conveniently using the h i t e element technique ernploying the quarter
point singuiar elements.
 crack tip
7

Figure 4.4 Finite element discretkation of a semi-infinite crack

in an infinite proelastic medium.

4.3. f Verification Exercises

The numerical procedure for evaluation of the stress intensity factors has k e n verified by
appeal to the analytical solutions. We consider the problem of a semi-infinite crack in an
isotropie poroelastic medium, the faces of which are subjected to an intemal normal total
stress a,which decays exponentialiy with respect to the spatial variable x. i.e.
where H(r) is the Heaviside s e p fùnction, and a is a constant. Figure 4.4 illustrates the
geometry and the fiaite element discretization of the problem and associated bouodary
conditions used in the computations. In Figure 4.5 the results derived fiom the Gnite
element technique for the t h e variation of the flaw opening a e s s intensity factor K,are
compared with the analytical results given by Craster and Atkinson (1996). The
normalized time factor T used in results is given by

where C is the genedized consolidation coefficient for the compressible porous medium
defined by

The material parameters v = 0.3,vu = 0.4 are assumed in analyses and two cases of
permeable and impermeable pore pressure boundary conditions for the crack faces are
considered. The results indicate tbat there is good agreement between analytical results
and cornputational results particldarly with respect to the time variation of the stress
intensity factor. The maximum discrepancy of 1.5% in the results, which is obtained for
the permeable crack, could be amibuted to the relatively coarse finite element mesh
discretization at the crack tip.

The time variation of the stress intemity factor is due to the migration of pore fluid
through the poroelastic matenal. At large times; as T + a,the region around the crack tip
will be drained and the bebaviour of the poroelastic medium is elastic. At small times the
 -
5
U
T (Tirne factor)

(a) Permeable crack

#'
0.98 0 Numerical

z
O
" CI œ

. - = g g
T ( T i c factor)
i-)

(b) impermeable crack

Figure 4.5 Time dependent behaviour of the flaw opening mode stress intensity factor KI.
movement of fluid towards the crack tip lowen the stress intensity factor. This results in
a reduction of available energy to h c t u r e the material. Alkinson and Craster (1991)
showed that the pore pressure at the crack tip is singular with time. This can be attributed
to the behaviour of the crack tip as a pore pressure "sink".

4.4 Indentation of a Cracked Poroelastic Haif-Space

The earliest application of the theory of poroelasticity to initiate bondary value problems
in geornechanics commenced with the classical studies by McNarnee and Gibson (1960a,
b) who applied integral transform techniques to the solution of surface loading problems
dealing with a poroelastic half-space region. Further application of anaiytical studies
include the works of Cryer (1963) and Schiffman and Fungaroli (1965). These works
were followed by some important developments involving interaction of rigid indentors
and half-space regions (Agbezuge and Deresiewicz, 1974, 1975; Chiarella and Booker,
1975; Szefer and Gaszynski, 1975; Booker and Small, 1975). More recent analytical
research in the area of poroelastic contact and inclusion problerns is due to Selvadurai and
Yue (1994) and Yue and Selvadurai (1994, 1995).

This section deals with the application of computational modelling to the study of the
classical indentation problem associated with a fluid sanirated half-space region. The
indentation of the surface of an elastic half-space by a smooth flat indentor was first
examined by Boussinesq (1885) by applying results of potential theory. The problem was
re-examined by Harding and Sneddon (1945) who reduced the axisymmeeic problem to
the solution of a pair of dual integral equations. The Iiteratw in contact mechanics
contains extensive accounts of the subject of indentation problems and such studies are
given by Galin ( 196 1), Lur'e (1W),
Selvadurai (1 979), Gladwell (1WO), and Johnson
(1 985). In the classical treatment of the axisymmetric contact problem, it is invariably
assumed that the elastic medium is fke of defects, most notably cracks, which are present
in the vicinity of the indentation zone. The primary reason is tbat the presence of defects
even in their axisymmetric forms entail a great deai of analytid effort in the solution of
the final foms of the integral equations (Selvadurai, 1997b). The applications of the
classical theory of poroelasticity to problems of indentation in the vicinity of a defect
makes the problern unwieldy particuiarly due to the convolution nature of the fmal
integral equations governing the poroelasticity problem (Lm and Selvadurai, 1996). For
this reason, recourse must be made to the use of numerical schemes when dealing with
problems associated with interaction of indentors and cracks which can develop and
extend in the vicinity of the indentation zone.

The analysis focuses on the axisymmetric indentation of a saturated proelastic half-

space which is weakened by a stable crack. The geometry of the crack is considered to be
axisymmeiric and two configurations of the crack are considered; the tint involves a
cylindricd crack which is located at a specified radius fiom the ngid indentor (Figure
4.6a), and the second involves a tlat penny shaped CO-axialcrack which is located at a
finite depth hom the rigid indentor (Figure 4.6b). The computational modelling primarily
focuses on the examination of two effects; the first relates to the influence of stress
singularity on both thedependent displacement of the indentor and pore fluid pressure
at the crack tip, and the second relates to the influence of the defect and pore pressure
boundary conditions on the time-dependent displacements of the indentor. The relative
geometry between the dimension of the indentor and the dimension of the crack is taken
as a variable.

4.4.1 Cyiindrical Crack

The problem of a deep deposit of a saturated poroelastic geomaterial is considered. The

surface of the poroelastic wspace is indented by a rigid circular indentor of diameter
20 which applies a prescribed total load of Po with tirne variation in form of a Heaviside
step function as follows:
 (a) Cylindncal crack

(b) Pemy-shaped crack

Figure 4.6 Surface indentation of a cracked poroelastic half-space.

where - Figure 4.7 Finite elernent discretkation of poroelastic half-space.

is the normal contact stress between the geomaterial and the rigid indentor. The
region contains a cylindrical crack of length L located at a finite distance b h m the center
of the rigid indentor (Figure 4.6a). The faces of the fiacture are considend to be smooth
and permeable. Figure 4.7 illustrates the typical finite element discrethion used in the
numerical rnodeling associated with the fhcture d e k e d by the geometricai parameters
Uu=2 and b/a= 1.

The location of the outer boundary of the poroelastic medium is specined in relation to
the dimensions of the l d e d region. Suitable mesh refinements are incofporated in the
vicinity of the crack tip and in the loaded region in order to improve the accuracy of
computational estimates. The soi1 skeleton and pore fluid are assumed to be
incompressible.

The results of particular geotechnical interest relate to the effect of the singularity at the
crack tip and the geomeincal charactenstics of the crack on the tirne-dependent degree of
consolidation settlement. The degree of consolidation (0which is based on senlement of
rigid indentor is defined as follows

where uO(t) = u.(O,O,r). The tirne factor associated with the consolidation process is
selected as

where

Figure 4.8 illustrates the influence of the crack tip stress singularity and pore pressure
boundary conditions of crack faces on the degree of consolidation and the pore pressure
filed at the crack tip correspondhg to geometrical parameten Uu=l and b b l . The
results indicate that the stress singularity of the crack tip does not greatly influence the
resuits, whereas the pore pressure boundary condition of the crack faces has significant
influence on the local and global poroelastic bebaviour.
 4 with singularity

-
Y
Ca
0 0.6 -

0.001 0.01 0.1 I 10 100 1000

T (Tirne factor)

Figure 4.8 Effect of stress singuiarhy and crack penneability on (a) consolidation
setîiement of the indentor; and (b) pore pcsninat the crack tip.
Figure 4.9 Effect of geometrical characteristics of the cylhdrical crack on the
consoliâation settlement of the indentor.
Figure 4.9 illustrates the variations in the degree of consolidation settlement of the
indentor and the manner in which the poroelastic response is influenced by the length and
location of the cylindncal crack. Figure 4.9a indicates that the consolidation rate
increases with crack length (Ua)for the case of b/o=l. This shows the influence of cracks
on alteration of both the defomability and hydraulic conductivity characteristics of the
saturated pomus medium.

Figure 4.9b indicates that the greatest change in the poroelastic behaviour of rigid
indentor is observed when the crack is located right at the edge of contact point (b/cr=l).
For cracks located away from the edge of indentor (bh> or 4) the effect of crack
location on the poroelastic behaviour decays with distance.

44.2 Penny-Sbaped Crack

This section examines the behaviour of a rigid anchor bonded to the surface of a
poroelastic half-space containhg a Bat penny-shaped CO-axial crack located at the depth
of h (Figure 4.6b) from the surface. Figure 4.10 illustrates the variation of degree of
consolidation for different depth ratios Nb for both impermeable and permeable bonded
interfaces. The numerical results are cornpared with the analytical solutions given by Yue
and Selvadurai (1995) for an intact poroelastic material. Influences of crack geometry
charactenstics, sirnilar to those obtained in section 4.4.1, are observed for the poroelastic
behaviour of a bonded anchor.
 - -andAnalp.cal
Yue
solution
Selvadurai (1995)

/ /J Intact; UZa=O

(a) Impermeable bonded interface

- -- Analytical solution
Yue and Selvadurai ( 1995)

@) Penneable bonded interface

Figure 4.10 Effect of geometricai characteristics of the penny-shaped crack on the
cullsolidation settlement of the indentor.
 CHAPTER 5

TRANSIENT MOMNG BOUNDARY PROBLEMS

IN POROELASTIC M E D U

5.1 Introduction

The theory of poroelasticity has wide applications in the study of a variety of problems in
geomechanics, biomechanics, materials engineering, en\ironmental geomechanics and
energy resources recovery fiom geological formations. A survey of recent developments
in the applications of the theory in these areas is presented by Selvadurai (1996). A great
majonty of these problems focus purely on initial boundary value problems where the
boundary conditions are kept Lxed both spatially and temporally. The boundary
conditions can relate to either the tractions exerted by the porous skeleton, or the
displacements of the porous elastic skeleton or the pore fluid pressure and its spatial
denvatives. There are a significant nwnber of problems which specifïcaily relate to
moving boundaries where the boundary conditions themselves are time dependent. In this
Chapter we examine the time-dependent moving boundary problems associated with
crack extension in proelastic media
In fust setion of the Chapter, we adopt a computational procedure to examine the
g e n e d ~ u e d - m o d emoving boundary problems arising fiom the loading of cracks in
poroelastic media. It is shown that the fdte element technique can be conveniently
adopted to develop incremental approaches for the solution of such moving boundary
problems. in particular the computational methodology accounts for singular stress fields
at the crack tip. The computational scheme accommodates the situations where the quasi-
static crack extension takes place dong a trajectory govemed by a mixed-mode crack
extension concept applicable to the porous skeleton of the proelastic medium. The
incremental nature of the iterative scheme allows for the tirnedependent analysis of the
problem where the pore pressure and tractions in the geomatenal fabnc and
displacements are appropriately adjusted. The searching scheme for the identification of
orientation of crack extension is achieved through a double-node splitting technique
either at inter-elernent boundaries or through an element. Due to the tirne-dependent
nature of the problem, the computational procedure cannot be readily incorporated within
a mesh adaptivity scheme. For this reason, the quadratic finite elemcnt discretizations
with a pemissible degree of refuiement are used in the computational modelling. The
numericd procedure also prevents overlapping at crack boundaries throughout the time-
dependent anaiysis and accounts for the continuai updating of the boundary conditions.
The numerical scheme is used to obtain solutions to a class of problems of interest to
geomechanics and the accuracy of the cornputational scheme has ken verified witb
known analytical solutions and limiting cases recovered through analogous problems in
classicai elasticity.

The tirst category of problems examined here deals with the situations where symmetry
conditions imposed a priori dictate the path of the crack extension. It examines the
moving boundary problem arising fiom the symmetric indentation of a penny-shaped
crack smoothly embedded in a proelastic medium, by porous rigid circular discs. The
analysis focuses on the study of the stable quasi-static crack growth that results fiom the
intemal loading of the penny-shaped crack. The self-simiiar crack extension results in the
moving of the crack tip and the alteration of boundary conditions goveming the tractions,
displacements and pore fluid pressures in the incremental crack extension zone. The
analysis focuses on the evaluation of timedependent crack extension when the disc
inclusions are subjected to either constant imposed displacements or co-t imposed
total loads with variable loading rates (see e.g. Eq. 2.20). The accuracy of the
computational results is also verified by appeal to known analytical solutions applicable
to limiting cases associated with elastic undrained or elastic fully drained cases.

The second type of problem relates to the examination of non-planar quasi-static

extension of a cylindrical crack emanating from the edge of a ngid circular indentor into a
poroelastic half-space. The extension of the crack follows a mixed-mode crack extension
criterion applicable to the porous skeleton. The pore pressure, displacement and traction
boundary conditions are modified in the crack extension zone. The numerical results
presented for a variety of probIems indicate the influence of crack-indentor interaction on
the stress intensity factors and coosoiidation rates and the effect of undrained
compressibility of a geomatenal on the crack extension pattern.

5.2 Crack Extension Modelling

The fuiite element method described in Chapter 4 can be extended to examine the crack
extension problems in poroelastic media in order to deveiop the cornputational mode1 it
is necessary to establish a crack extension criterion applicable to the porous solid
skeleton. The subject of fracture extension in a briale elastic solid bas b e n studied very
extensively over the past five decades. Such studies have been motivated by the interest
in the examination of crack extension in both rnetailic materials such as steel, and
geomaterials such as concrete, rock and ice. Extensive accounts of these developments
can be found in the literature on fiacture mechanics (see, cg. LiebowiR 1968; Atkinson,
1979; Broek, 1982; Sih, 1991). In studies related to the crack extension in brittîe elastic
materials, it is necessary to postdate two cnteria The crack extension cnterion
establishes the stress conditions necessary for the onset of crack extension. The second
relates to the cnterion which establishes the orientation of crack growth.
5.2.1 Criteria for Onset of Crack Extension

The onset of crack extension in brinle elastic solids cm be described by variety of

cnteria. Such cntena are invariably developed on the basis of experimental investigations
on fracture toughness testing of geomatenals such as concrete mortar and rock. A simple
fom of a criterion for the onset of crack extension can be expressed in tems of the
fracture toughness of the material in the crack opening mode. Accordingly, in these
deveiopments, the crack extension in a poroelastic medium is assumed to take place when
the stress intensity factors applicable to the singular effective stresses at the crack tip
satisfies the condition:

where Kit is the cntical value of the stress intensity factor in the crack opening mode.
The result (5.1) can be generalized to inciude the influence of mode II or flaw shearing
effects. The simple mixed-mode fiacture criterion for isotropie brinle elastic solids given
by Erdogan and Sih ( 1 963) takes the form

where 8 is the orientation of crack extension which can be obtained fiom the crack
orientation criterion.

The midies by Sih (1974) indicate that a generalized theory for the onset of crack
extension can also be posed in relation to the local strain energy density at the crack tip.
The theory does not require the calculation of energy release rate and thus possesses the
inherent advantage of king able to accommodate crack extension processes in which al1
modes of crack extension contribute to the local stmb energy density function. The strain
energy density function S for a state of plane strain at the crack boundary can be written
as

S = alJi + Za,&K, +a&

Where

a,,= '(1 +cos8)(3-4"-cos8)

1 6 ~
1
a,,= -sin 8[4 cos 8(1- 2v)I
16ci
1
a,,= -[4(1- v)(l COS^)+(^ + C O S ~ ) ( ~-Cl)]O S ~
161i

It cm be shown that the stationary value of Sm. can be used as an intriasic material
parameter, the value of which at the onset of crack extension Sc, is independent of the
crack geometry and loading.

5.2.2 Orientation of Crack Growth

In general the two stress intensity factors KIand KI,are present at the crack tip location.
Consequently, a generalized crack extension critenon should incorporate the infiuence of
both stress intensity factors. In this study the orientation of crack growth is examiaed by
employing the criteria postulated by Erdogan and Sih (1 963).

The maximum stress criterion assumes that the crack will start to extend in the plane
which is normal to the maximum circumfrential stress am (Le. stress state refened to the
local polar coordinate reference located at the crack tip) in accordance with the condition
for determinhg the initial angle of crack growth 0. This criterion has been used quite
extensively for the study of quasi-static crack extension paths in bririle elastic matenals.
Recently, ten Busschen and Selvadurai (1995) and Selvadurai and ten Busschen (1995)
have applied these criteria to the study of hgmentation of fibres embedded in brittle
eiastic solids and the extension of cracks from the f'ragmented fibre locations. Excellent
agreement is obtained between computational simulation of crack extension paths and
experimental results. Further developments of crack orientation criteria for the crack
extension in mixed mode are given by Sih and Theocaris(1 979) and Sih (199 1).

5.2.3 Crack Modelling Techniques

Extensive research effort into modelling the crack extension problem has resulted in the
development of various cracking rnodels which cm be generally classified in two
categories of discrete crack models and smeared crack models. These models can be
applied either with a strength-based or tiacture mechanics based crack extension
criterion.

In the discrete crack model, the cracks are simulated by separation of nodal points in
finite element mesh. This method is generally implemented by disconnecting the nodal
points for the adjoining elements (Figure 5.1) which results in a discontinuous
displacement field at crack boundaries. This procedure was fm introduced by Ngo and
Scordelis (1967) and then modified by Nilson (1968) in order to allow the finite element
model to generate the location of cracks. ln these developments, the discrete crack is
modeled by utilizing two nodes at one point (double nodes) dong a predefined crack path
in the finite element discretizatioa. The crack can extend dong the mesh lines by splitting
the double nodes. These developments were related to the strength-based crack extension
criteria. Shih et al. (1976, 1979) adopted a sirnilar approach fot the fracture-based
extension criteria by shifting the crack tip node in the direction of crack growth.
 discrete
cracks

cracks

Figure 5.1 Idealization of cracks; (a) nodal separaiion using two or four coincident
nodes; (b) smeared crack (ASCE, 1982).
The main difficulty with the discrete crack model is that as the crack extends, the finite
element mesh topology has to be modified to reflect the new configuration of the crack
particularly when the crack extension path is not known a priori. This can be approached
by either local remeshing near the crack tip or remeshing the entire domain at each crack
extension increment. Accounts of development in these methods are given by Ingdea
(1977% b), Shephard et al. (1985), Vdliappan and Murti (1985), and Wawryaek and
IngrafTea (1 989) in connection with the FRANC cornputer program.

The smeared crack model fmt introduced by Rashid (1968) assumes that the cracks are
smeared in a continuous manner with an infinite number of parallel cracks within the
finite element (Figure 5.1). There is no need to redefine the fmite element mesh topology
afier extension of the crack. This method has been widely used in the finite element
analysis of concrete structures (ASCE, 1991). This mode1 is based on a concept similar to
that employed in the description of the theory of continuum damage mechanics
(Kachanov, 1958) discussed in Chapter 7.

In this study, we adopt and extend the discrete crack model for elastic materials given by
Shih et al. (1976, 1979) to examine the quasi-static mixed-mode crack extension
problems in poroelastic media This approach allows modelling the pore pressure
boundary conditions for the extending cracks more explicitly and realisticaily.
Application of remeshing techniques for this class of transient problems is computing
intensive and relatively inaccurate since dl the idormation at nodal points ffom the
previous time step shodd be mapped to the updated finite element discretization. The
node splitting technique with the modification of dowiog the elements to be subdivided
into two separate elements is employed in the computational scheme.

53 A Computationai Mode1 for Crack Extension

ï b e computational methodologies that are developed in Chapter 4 for the study of stable
cracks can be extended to examine the tirnedependent problem of the mixed-modecrack
extension in poroelastic media. The incrementai nature of the iterative scherne ailows for
the time-dependent anaiysis of the problem where the pore pressure and tractions in the
geomaterial fabnc and displacements are appropriately adjusted.

'Ihe quasi-static crack extension is simulated by introducing the displacernent

discontinuity employing the double-node technique (Nikon, 1968). This technique
requires that in zones which are prone to cracking, each node in the finite elernent
discretization be implemented with double nodes having the same coordinates. During
the anaiysis whenever the crack extension criteria are satisfied, the double nodes split into
two separate nodes resulting in a displacement discontinuity. In this technique, the
dimension of the general stiffiess matrix will not change as a result of crack extension.
This aspect enhances the computational efficiency.

The stress intensity factors related to modes 1 and II are calculated by employing rhe
displacernent correlation method (Equation 4.4). The mixed-mode crack extension
criteria given by Erdogan and Sih (1963) are assumed to govem the crack growth in the
porous fabnc (Equations 5.2 & 5.4). If these conditions are satisfied then, the crack tip
moves to the new location in the finite element discretization which remains unchanged
The approximate location of the crack tip is obtained by either splitting double nodes ar
inter-element boundaries or subdividing the crack tip element (Figure 5.2) depending
upon the crack orientation. The mid-side nodes close to the crack tip are then placed at
the quarter point to generate the new crack tip elements. A similar searching scheme for
the identification of crack orientation has been used by I n w e a (1 977% b) in comection
with the elastic analysis of crack extension. This iterative procedure continues in an
incremental fashion until a stable state of a crack is achieved at each time step of the
analysis.

The displacements, tractions, and pore pressure boundary conditions change depending
upon the extent of crack opening. For the opening mode (KI>O) of crack extension, the
pore pressure boundary condition is adjusted in the opened region to reflect a zen,pore
 Figure 5.2 Identification of crack orientation.

rigid links with a

unilateral constraint

Figure 5.3 Interaction conditions on the faces of the crack.

(i) Cornpute Kiand KI,(Eqs. 4.4a & b):
IF K,< O ; Add rigid links between crack faces. Retum to (i).
ELSE; Proceed to (ii).

(ii) Check fracture criterion:

- -
78 3Kll
cos- - - -
2 2K,,
K,sin 0 - KI,
(3 cos û - 1) = O (Eq.5.4)

Yes: Crack extension. Proceed to (iii).

No: No M e r crack extension. Exit.

(iii) Locate new crack tip (CT) by following approximations:

X
IF O 5 8 < - ; SET 0 = O
8
= CT moves to node k (Fig. 5.2).
SET O = - = CTmoves tonodem.
X 3X X
IF - 1 0 < -;
8 8 4

Split double nodes and generate quarter point singular elements.

(iv) Update pore pressure boundary conditions at crack faces:

IF Ki > O SET p= O (permeable).
continuous pore
IF K'=O SET PA = PE (Fig. 5.2)
PB= P D pressure pressure

Box 5.1 Crack extension algorithm.

pressure boundary condition (permeable crack). Altematively, it is assumed that the pore
pressure field remains continuous for cracks which extend in only shear mode (K,=O,
K,,+O) but remain closed (impermeable crack).

Al1 the cornputations are perfomed for each time step of the time-dependent analysis.
The interaction conditions are incorporated on the faces of the crack to prevent
overlapping of the crack boundaries. This is achieved by using rigid links with a
unilateral constra.intcrossing the faces of crack in case of overlapping (K,4)throughout
the time-dependent analysis (Figure 5.3). The rigid links disappear when the interaction
forces are tensile. The details of the crack extension algorithm are given in Box 5.1.

The computational scheme is used to obtain solutions to MO problems of interest to

geomechanics and the accuracy of the numerical scheme has k e n verified with known
analytical solutions and Iimiting cases recovered through analogous problerns in classicai
elasticity.

5.4 Intemal Indentation of a PennyShaped Crack

The problern of the opening of a penny-shaped crack in a saturated poroelastic

geomaterial by smooth porous disc inclusions indenting the faces of the crack is
examined in this section. The class of elasticity problems, which examines the traction
loading of a penny-shaped crack in an elastic solid, was examined in detail by Sneddon
(1946) and Barenblatt (1962) (see also Kassir and Sih, 1975; and Cherepanov, 1979).
Selvadurai and Singh (1984) and Selvadurai (1985) examined the associated elasticity
problem where the surfaces of the crack were subjected to displacement constraints. The
motivation for the problem stems fiom its applicability of such a mode1 to the study of
the opening of hydraulic hctures in resources bearing geological media. Selvadurai
(1994% b) bas recently extended these studies to include pre-hctured bi-material
geological media (see also GladweU, 1995).
 Figure 5.4 Intemal indentation of a penny-shaped crack.

We consider the axisymmetrk problern related to the symmetric indentation of a penny-

shaped crack, of radius b, located in an infinite poroelastic medium by a smoothiy
embedded porous penny-shaped inclusions of radius a (Figure 5.4). The symmetry o f the
problem about the plane t 0 allows us to consider a single half-space region occupying 1
>O. The rigid inclusion is subjected to either a prescnbed total load or a prescribed
displacement with a time variation in fom of a Heaviside step function and a ramp
b c t i o n loading as follows

where H(t) and G(t) are the tirne fiinctions (Figure 5.4).

The application of the symmeaic loading to the inclusion is assumed to initiate self
similar extension of the crack when the stress intensity factor applicable to the soi1
skeletal stresses analns a critical value. During this self similar expansion, the
 details at A

permeable

Figure 5.5 Finite element discretization of indentation problem.

displacement, traction and pore fluid pressure boundary conditions change and this results
in a movhg boundary problem. The analysis focuses on the study of the quasi-static
crack growth that results fiom the internai indentation of the penny-shaped crack. The
extension of the crack is govemed by the anainment of a critical stress intensity factor at
the crack tip (Equation 5.1). The crack extension results in the moving of the crack tip
and the alteration of boundary conditions governing the tractions, displacements and pore
fluid pressures in the incremental crack extension zone. The analysis focuses on the
calculation of the tirne-dependent evolution of crack extension. Figure 5.5 illustrates the
finite element discretization used in the numerical modelling. The soi1 skeleton and pore
fluid of the porous medium are assumed to be incompressible (vu+ 0.5).

The result of primary interest to the crack extension modelling relates to the evaluation of
the time variation of the stress intensiîy factor for a stationary crack problem and the time
Figure 5.6 Variations of (a) the crack opening stress intensity factor;
and (b) evolution of crack length for a prescribed total load P.
Figure 5.7 Time-dependent Ioad relaxation and stress intensity factor for
a stationary crack subjected to a prescribed displacement.
Figure 5.8 Tirnedependent load relaxation and thnedependent evolution
of crack length for a prescribed displacernent loading.
variation of crack length for a quasi-static crack extension problem. Figures 5.6 illustrates
the time variation of stress intensity factor K,for a Heaviside type of loading. The upper
asyrnptotic value corresponding to the drained elastic behaviour shown in Figure 5.6a is
derived fiom the analytical solution given by Selvadurai (1994a). The lower asymptotic
value corresponding to the undrained elastic behaviour is given by Atkinson and Ciaster
(1 99 1) as follows

It is s h o w that the resuits for the poroelastic behaviour of discs are consistent \cith the
Iimiting analytical solutions. In particular, it is observed that the transition fiom r d to
~-WO need not be rnonotonic. The influence of pore fluid migration can result in the
alteration of the stress intensity factors at the crack tip in a poroelastic medium. The fluid
migration towards the crack tip leads to a volume expansion of material which tends to
initially close the crack in the vicinity of crack tip. This results in a decrease in the stress
intensity factor. The crack, however, begins to open up as the pore pressure ciiffision
takes place into the permeable faces of the crack.

Figure 5.6b presents the variation of the crack length evolution for the situation where the
crack is allowed to experience self similar extension. In these circumstances, it is
observed that crack extension in to stable states (i.e. locations where K,/K,,<I) occun
relatively rapidly and furthet pore pressure difision phenornena do not result in any
appreciable alterations in the crack geometry.

Figures 5.7 illustrates the tirnedependent load rehxation and the flaw opening stress
intensity factor for different rates of loading of a stationary crack. The results are related
to the case of a rarnp f'unction variation for a prescribed displacemeni of the d i x
can correspond to a rate of 6 d m i n .
inclusions (as an example, the value of m/k=5xi0~
 Figure 5.9 Surface indentation of a poroelastic half-space.

and a permeability of k=2x10*'~ mis, e.g. granite). Figures 5.8 illustrates the
computationai results related to an extending crack. The innuence of the rate of loading
on the load relaxation and the final crack length cm be observed. For slow rates of
loading, the final length of the crack tends to be smaller.

5.5 Indeata tion of a Poroelastic Half-Space

In this section the computational modelling of the axiqmmetric problem related to the
surface indentation of a poroelastic half-space region by a rigid circular indentor is
examined. The non-planar quasi-static extension of a cylindncal crack emanating from
region at the edge of the rigid indentor into the poroelastic half-space is examined. The
extension of the crack follows a rnixed mode crack extension cnterion (Equations 52 &
5.4) applicable to the porous skeleton. The pore pressure. displacement and traction
boundary conditions are rnodified in the crack extension zone. The numerical resuiu
presented examine the influence of the crack extension on the consolidation rates and
influence of undrained compressibility of the geomaterial on the crack extension pattern.
The surface of the poroelastic half-space is indented by a miooth rigid indentor of radius
a (Figure 5.9)
 t-igid
disc \ -
a r permeable

impermeable

-
F

*
1Ocr

Figure 5.10 Finite element discretization.

which is subjected to a load Po) that is kept constant (i.e. a Heaviside step function of
total load). The faces of the developed fracture are considered to be smooth and
permeable. The location of the outer boundary of the proelastic medium is specified in
relation to the radius of the rigid indentor.

Figure 5.10 illustrates the fuiite element discretization and associated boundary
conditions used in the numerical modeling. The soi1 skeleton and the pore fluid are
assurned to be compressible with parameters v=0.2, ~ " 4 . 3A. critical stress intensity
 (a) Mesh A

(b) Mesh B

Figure 5.1 1 Crack extension patterns for two mesh discretizations A and B.
 Figure 5.12 Effict of crack extension on the degree of consolidation.

Figure 5.13 Effect of undrained compressibility on the crack extension path.

factor KIc=l.O MP& is assurned for the geornaterial fabric. A cylindncal starter crack
with length of O.la at the edge of the indentor is considered. The incremental starter
cracks with either basic conical or penny-shaped configurations are used by Selvadurai
and ten Busschen (1995) for the elastic analysis of crack extension with axial symnetry.
Alternative procedures require the assessment of the initiation of a shear crack by appeal
to the stress analysis of an intact solid subjected to indentation (Selvadurai, 1997a). The
result of primary interest relates to the assessment of the influence of the crack extension
on the time-dependent degree of consolidation senlement. The degree of consolidation
(0which is based on sealement of rigid indentor can be defined as follows

where up(t) = +(O,O,r). The finite element dixretization in the vicinity of the edge of
the indentor is refmed to examine the mesh objectivity of the results. Figure 5.1 1
illustrates the crack extension patterns associated with two rnesh contigurations .4 and B,
which are found to be similar. However, the geornetries of crack extension fiom these
numencai experiments are slightly different which could be attributed to numerical
procedures used to evaiuate crack extension and orientation of crack extension. The time-
dependent consolidation settiement of the indentor shown in Figure 5.12, indicates that
the effect of crack extension on the consolidation rate is nominal. The numerical analysis
shows that the entire crack extension process ?&es place instantaneously and M e r pore
pressure difision does not change the crack extension geometry.

The effect of undrained compressibility of the geornaterial on the orientation of crack

path is illustrated in Figure 5.13. The crack tends to penetrate more into the porous
medium for more compressible rnaterials. For an hcompressible material (vu-, OS),

there is almost no crack extension developing in the porous medium. These resuits agree
with analytical/compuiationd solutions given by Selvadurai (1997a) for brittle crack
extension fiom the boundary of a circular punch indenting an isotropie elastic half-space.
 CHAPTER 6

STEADY MOVING BOUNDARY PROBLEMS

IN PORUELASTIC MEDIA

6.1 Introduction

The computational modelling of hcture problems in poroelastic media can be extended

to examine the steady staie problem of a crack propagating through an infinite saturated
porous medium at a finite velocity. Mien the assumptions of steady state crack extension
are invoked the governing equations of poroelasticity are modified. The modification
talces the form of the elimination of the time variable by a suitable transformation which
accounts for the propagation velwity at the crack tip. In this Chapter, we present the
basic equations goverring the steady state propagation of a semi-infinite crack under
conditions of plane strain and axial symmetry.

The problem of steady state constant velocity crack growth in an isotropie elastic medium
was first examineci by Yoffe (195 1) for the case of plane strain deformation. YofTe ( 1 95 1)
developed the analytical remlts for a crack of fixed length propagating in an elastic
medium, which is subjected to uniforni remote tensile stresses (Figure 6.1), fiom the
solution of the goveming elastodynamic equations. Radok (1956) and Broberg (1960)
extended this study to examine the steady self-similu extension of a crack in an elastic
material. The limits of propagation velocity in these studies are established in relation to
Rayleigh wave velocity in elastic materials. A recent review of these developments is
presented by Freund (1990).

The classical fracture mechanics considerations for elastic materials indicate that when
the energy release rate of the fracture is greater than that of dnving mechanism, the
extension of the crack is unstable and the failure is rapid. In general the initiation and
extension of cracks in elastic materials are transient phenomena. However, a steady state
of crack extension can be obtained for lirniting times when the propagation velocity at the
crack tip becomes constant. To preserve the conditions of steady state of crack
propagation, the confiiguration of an elastic medium and the üaction distribution should
be time invariant in a reference coordinate system which moves with the crack tip. For
poroelastic rnaterials, the flow of energy into the pore fluid tends to stabilize the crack
growth and that can result in a quasi-static extension of the crack with a certain velocity.
The phenomena of quasi-static crack propagation in poroelastic geornaterials cm be
atîributed to development of landslides in overconsolidated clay (Palmer and Rice, 1973;
and Rice and Cleary, 1976) and aftenhock events in an earthquake (Booker, 1974). The
quasi-static crack growth also govem the hydradic fiacturing phenomena used quite
extensively in oil resources recovery (Ruina, 1978; Huang and Russell, 1%!Sa, b; Boone
and Ingraffea, 1988). Rice and Simons (1976) and Simons (1977)have given analytical
solutions to problems of a semi-infinite crack propagating quasi-statically in shear mode
through a porous medium for various types of pore pressure boundary conditions on the
crack faces. Cheng and Liggen (1984b)applied the boundary integral equation method to
solve a sirnilar problern. Recently Craster and Atkinson (1991,1996) have examined in
more detail the crack tip stress and pore pressure fields for steadily propagating semi-
infinite poroelastic cracks. They have given the analytical solutions for the pore pressure
and stress fields near the crack tip for various boundary conditions that are applied to the
pore pressures and the tractions on the crack faces. While the class of two-dimensional
plane strain problems give nse to steady state crack extension phenornena, the equivaient
ciass of problems involving extension of circular cracks do not ykld a steady state.

In this Chapter the fuiite element formulation of the transformed quatiom governing the
steady state propagation of a crack in a poroelastic medium is first developed by
employing the Galerkin technique. The f i t e element approximation results in a system
of non-synimeîric coupled maîrix equotîom which are velocitydependent. The
cornputational scheme is then verified by appeal to analytical solutions for the pore
pressure and displacement fields at the crack tip given by Rice and Simons (1976) and
Craster and Atkinson (1991). The versatility of the computational modelling procedure is
demonstrated by the application of the methodology to the study of the opening of a plane
crack by a dipole of rnoving forces or by a smooth rigid punch of uniforni thickness. It is
s h o w that the stress intensity factors at the crack tip due to the steady state movement of
the crack tip can be evaluated quite conveniently by the numerical scheme. The
capabilities of the computational procedure are M e r established by considering, for the
fiat time, a crack extension associated with a problem exhibiting axial symmetry. This
involves the penetration of a thin cylindrical shell with a *blunt &ont" into a brinle
saturated geomaterial. The computational procedure gives estimates for the stress
intensity factor Kiwhich can be cornpared with analogous resdts for the rwo-dimensional
plane strain problem.

6.2 Steady Crack Propagation

An examination of the Iiterature on elastodynamic fracture mechanics indicate that the

first mathematical treatment of steady crack propagation under plane strain conditions
was conducted by Yoffe (1951). She examined the problem of a nraight crack of fixed
length 2a propagating through an infinite elastic medium at a constant velocity V (Figure
6.1). The medium is subjected to a remote uniform tension field a,. Yoffe(1951),
through solution of the elastodynamic governing equations, obsen-edthat if the crack
 Figure 6.1 Steady crack growth problem examined by Yoffe (195 1).

propagates in a direction normal to the maximum tensiie stress, there is a criticai

propagation velocity of about 0.6~~
at which the crack tends to become c w e d or
branched out. We note that c~ is the velocity of transverse (or shear) waves propagating
through an elastic body which is given by

where p is the mass density and p is the shear modulus of an elastic material.

The scope of mathematical modelling of dynamic fracture phenornena was then extended
by Broberg (1960) to examine the solution to the steady problem of self-similar
expansion of a crack in a uniforni tension stress field in an elastic medium. Based on the
positive definiteness of the energy flow to the crack tip, Broberg (1 964, 1989) proved that
cracks cannot propagate in crack opening mode 1 with vefocities higher than the Rayleigh
velocity CR given by
where a. is a constant which depends on the value of Poisson's ratio. This constant is
constrained to range in a narrow domain close to unity (e.g. ao=0.88for v=O and ao=0.96
for v=O.5) and c m then be assumed equal to unity for most engineering applications
(Davis and Selvadurai, 1996). Most of analytical solutions for the steady crack growth in
poroelastic media appear to bave negiected these Iimiting bounds on the propagation
velocity which are attributed to matenal phenomena. It is observed that the ratio of this
critical velocity to the permeability coefficient of porous material is a key parameter
which characterises the relevant limits for the steady behaviour of crack propagation in
poroelastic media The relevance of these limiting bounds on poroelastic effects of crack
propagation shouid be considered.

We postulate that a crack located in a poroelastic medium becomes unstable and staris to
propagate if the stress intensity factor KIapplicable io the prous fabric reaches a critical
value of KIc. In poroelastic and other materials which exhibit dissipative phenomena the
propagation of a ftacture is likely dynamic and unsteady in the initial stages. However, a
steady state of crack extension cari be obtained at limiting times when the crack extension
has occurred over a long period of t h e . In addition, it is observed that Lhe critical stress
intensity factor (43for the steady state crack extension in proelastic matenals depends
on the propagation velocity at the crack tip (see e.g. Rice and Simons, 1976; Simons,
1977; and Craster and Atkinson, 1991). For poroelastic materids, the stress intensity
factor decreases as propagation velocity increases. Therefore it is possible that the crack
propagates in a quasi-static fahion with constant velocity such that m e r acceleration
would r e d t in lowering the stress intensity factor below the criticai b i t .

The problem of the steady quasi-static propagation of a crack in poroelastic media

moving with certain velocity and dnven by tende tractions (Figure 6.2) is examined in
 a

Infmite poroelastic medium

crack tip (singular ai,)

x ;

Figure 6.2 Steady propagation o f a crack in a proelastic medium.

this section. This steady state crack extension behaviour of saturated materiais is assumed
to depend on the velocity of crack propagation. The response of material is drained at low
propagation velocities and undrained at hi@ velocity limits. As a result, the stress field
near the crack tip will be a function of propagation velocity.
6 3 Govemhg Equations

The idealized problem of a steady semi-ia6nite plane crack moving in a poroelastic

medium is considered. The crack moves along the x-direction with a constant velocity V.
We further assume that the coordinate -stem is located at the tip of the moving crack
(Figure 6.2). The problern is assumed to be quasi-static and inertial effects and body
forces in the medium are neglected. The acceleration of the system is asswned to be zero.

For the description of the problem, we select a crack orientation where the crack is
located dong the x-ais, and the crack is also assumed to move along the x-axis. We
consider the transformation

X=X-Vt ; r=Z (6.3)

where (x, z ) is a coordinate reference system rnoving with the crack tip. The explicit time-
dependency can be removed by writing

Substituthg Equation 6.4 to governing equations 2.9 results in the following time-
independent equations governing poroelasticity as:

Since time dependency is elirninated tbugh transformation (6.3), for a well posed
boundary value problem, only boundary conditions need to be specified on the variables
u,q and p.
6.4 Finite Elemeat Formulations

The Galerkin approximation technique cm be applied to the goveming equation (6.5b)to

transfomi the pariid digerential equation into a discretized rnatrix form. The
approximation w d for the displacements u, and pore pressure p are given by Equations
2.17 and 2.18 as follows

where N", fl correspond to the nodal shape functions for displacements and pore
pressures. The Galerkin technique is applied to the goveming equation (6.5b) which
results in the foilowing weak (weighted residud) form of the equation (6.5b):

where R is the domain of interest, and we note that x,=x; x2=z; and by virtue of the
specified orientation of the crack x,=x. Application of Green's theorem to the above
equation results in the following:

where B is the boundary of domain R. By substituting the interpolation functions given

by Equations 6.6 in the above equation, one obtains:
The above equation c m be written in matruc form as follows:

([W- [ W ) ( u } + ([Hl - [EEI)lp) = IF, 1

where

(6.1 la)

where the compressibility parameten a and P are given in Equations 2.3, and IFq)is the
outward fluid flux through the bomdary B.

The finite element fomulation of the steadily propagating fÎacture in poroelastic media
can then be written by cornbining Equation 6.10 with its equivalent equilibrium equation
(Equation 2.19) given by
 impermeable (ap/dn=O) ---
or permeable @=0) ,'#

-
7
permeable @=O)

Figure 6.3 Finite element discretization of steady mck extension.

The non-symmetric matrix fonn of discretized equations takes the fom

[
,
S
C '
R-EE]{"}=Pl
g
where

K = stifiess matrix of the soil sketeton;

C = coupling matrix related to interaction between soil and pore fluid;
CC = modified coupling matrix;
CB = coupling rnatnx associated with the boundary conditions;
EE = modified compressibility matrix of fluid;
H = permeabifity matrix;
F = force vectors due to extemal tractions, body forces and flow field;
u, p = nodal displacements and pore pressures.

6.5 Verification Exercises

The computational scheme developed for the steady propagating cracks in poroelastic
media is calibrated by cornparison with known analytical and numerical solutions. The
plane strain problem of a semi-infinite crack embedded in a poroelastic medium is
considered. The faces of the crack are first ssubjected to a uniform nomai total stress over
a finite distance L from the crack tip. The finite element discretization of the problem and
associated boundary conditions are shown in Figure 6.3. The crack tip and associated
loading are required to move with a steady velocity Y dong the x-direction. Rice and
Simons (1976) and Cheng and Liggett (1984b) have given the analytical and numerical
solutions for the variation of the energy release rate G given by following:

It can be noted that the velocity dependence of G will materialize through the calculation
of 4.The value of G falls between two limiting cases of a drained value (Ge)and an
undrained value. The crack extension criterion is satisfied when the energy release rate
 - Analytical, Rice & Simons

Figure 6.4 Crack propagation cntenon for unifonn loading of crack.

reaches a cntical value G, which is dependent on the velocity V. Figure 6.4 illustrates
variation of the normalized cntical energy release rate Ga with the propagation velocity
V. The dimensiodess parameter GJG, approaches unity as V+O and asymptotically
reaches a value i12 (i.e. q=(l-vJ/()/(l-v))as V+-. The results are compared for the case of
q 4 . 3 3 3 which corresponds to an overconsolidated clay (Cheng and Liggen, 1984b). The
maximum discrepancy of 5% occurs for very hi& velocity where the poroelastic effects
become highly localized and pore pressure field shows spatial oscillations. Either a very
fine mesh discretization or a special crack tip element which captures the pore pressure
field applicable to high velocities, in an analytic manner, is needed to address this effect.
In the second problern examined, a semi-infinite crack embedded in an Uifuiite
poroelastic medium is considered. The faces of the crack are subjected to an
exponentially decaying normal total stress given by

where H(t) is the Heaviside step function, and a is a constant (Figure 6.3). Atkinson and
Craster (1991) have given the closed form solutions for the problern. The variation of
flaw opening stress intensity factor Kiwith the velocity V takes the form:

where

is the elastic stress intensity factor given by (2a)lRoo;

AaJ is a function of nomalized velocity a,=aV/C given by the following:

(i) for a permeable crack

(ii) for an imperneable cmck

 Penneable (Analytical)
Penneable ('Numerical)
Irnpenneable (halytical)
Impermeable (Numerical)

Figure 6.5 Variation of the stress intensity factor Ki.

- Penneable (Anaifical)
Permeable (Numerical)
-- hperrneable (Analytical)

Figure 6.6 Pore pressure distribution ahead of crack tip for velocity u,=1.
Also the generdized consolidation coefficient C is given by

Figure 6.5 illustrates the results for the value of stress intensi~,factor K, derived fiom
analytical solutions and numericd simulations as a function of normalized crack tip
velocity aV/C corresponding to material parameters v = 0.3, vu = 0.4. The results indicate
that there is g w d agreement between the analytical results and computationai results
(maximum discrepancy is 3%). Again in this case, an oscillatory behaviour is observed in
the pore pressure field at the crack tip at very bigh velocities. The nominal results also
support Craster and Atkinson's observation that the impermeable pore pressure boundary
conditions on crack faces result in a lower stress intensity factor than for the permeable
case. This indirectly implies a greater effort is required to extend cracks where the crack
faces rernain impermeable.

The analytical solutions for the pore pressure fields near the crack tip are aiso given in an
explicit form by Atkinson and Craster (199 1). The pore pressure field dong the crack
propagation axis (x) ahead of the crack tip takes the following forms:

(i) for a permeable crack

(ii) for an impermeable crack

where

and erfc(x) is the complementary error function given by

Figure 6.6 illustrates the pore pressure distribution ahead of the crack tip for a similar
problem with panmeters v = 0.2 and v, = 0.3, corresponding to a normalized velocity
a,=l and for the permeable and impermeable pore pressure boundary conditions on crack
faces. There is good agreement between anaiyticd solutions and numerical results. The
results indicate that a significant pore fluid suction field can be developed ahead of the
crack tip which reduces the effective stresses in the crack tip region particularly for
permeable cracks.

6.6 Wedghg of a Poroelastic Crack

The class of steady state self-simi1a.r expansion of cracks in poroelastic media is of

particular interest to geotechnical engineering and energy resources recovery fiom
geological formations. The numericd procedure is utilized to examine the problem of
crack grow* due to symmetric wedging of a crack by ngid indentors in saturated
geomaterials under conditions of plane straia and axial syrnmetry.
 in silu stress 6,

Figure 6.7 Wedging of a poroelastic medium by rigid indentors.

The rnathematical treatment of steady-state self-similar crack extension under plane strain
conditions was first examined by Radok (1956) in solution of a moving punch problem in
an infinite elastic medium. Broberg (1964, 1975, 1989) has examined the near-tip fields
and directional stability of such crack propagation in elastic material at high velocities
both fiom the point of view of experimental observations and analytical approaches.
hlelin (1 99 1) has recently used the f ~ t element
e method using quarter-point singular
elements for the evaluation of stability cnteria of wedging in an elastic material.

6.6.1 Phne Strain Moving Punch

The plane strain problem of a steadily moving rigid punch wedging a semi-infite crack
in an infinite poroelastic medium is examined in this section. The indentor of finite width
which moves with velocity V results in a steady self-similar extension of the crack. The
crack extension cnteria is governed by attainment of a critical stress intensity factor KIc
applicable to the porous fabric which depends on the propagation velocity. The shape of
the indentor is assumed to be either a cylinder of diameter D (Le. the contact forces are
Figure 6.8 Effect of crack geometry, in situ stresses, and propagation velocity
on the stress intensity factor for a dipole point force wedging.
 semi-infinite punch
/- (a-)

Figure 6.9 Effect of crack and punch geometry on tbe stress intensity
factor KIfor a wedging rigid strip.
idealized as a dipole of point forces) or a strip punch with a thickness of D and a length of
a (Figure 6.7). It is assumed that during steady state crack propagation, the crack tip takes
its location at a distance L frorn the edge of indentor. The soi1 skeleton and the pore fluid
of porous medium are assumed to be compressible with material parameten v=0.2 and
~ " 4 . 3 ,respectively. Finite elernent discretization given in Figure 6.3 is used for
simulation purposes. The result of primary interest is the behaviour of crack-indentor
interaction with variations in the in situ stresses a. and the indentor geometry.

Figure 6.8a illustrates the variation of the crack opening stress intensity factor K[with the
geometry of the crack and the in situ stresses a. for a rigid smooth cylinder indentor
moving mith velocity of DV/C=O.Ol. This indicates that for higher in situ stresses and
tougher matcrials, the resulting crack length is smaller. The effect of propagation velocity
on the crack-indentor interaction behaviour is also illustrated in Figure 6.8b in
cornparison with the static result for the problem with equivalent geometry (i.e. V=O).

Figure 6.9 illustrates the crack extension cntenon for a moving ngid strip which moves
through a saturated porous medium with velocity of DVIC=O.Ol. It is assumed that the
indentor always remains in hl1 contact with the porous medium. Similar crack-indentor
interaction behaviour can be observed for various indentor geometries. It is also indicated
that length of the wedging indentor (a) in relation to crack length (9has no considerable
effects on the steady crack propagation behaviour for a/l >3.

6.6.2 Axisjmmetric Penetration of a Rigid Shell

The axisymmetric problem related to the steady penetration of a ngid smooth thin shell
through a sanirated porous medium at a constant velocity (Figure 6.10) is also examined.
The penetration results in the extension of a cylindncal crack moving ahead of the
advancing shell with a "blunt front". This particular problem is of interest to penetration
mechanics of well casings and jacking of pipes in stiff saturated overconsolidated soils
rigid
shell

poroelastic
medium
rigid
shell
/
9
- C
L

Figure 6.10 Rigid cylindrical shell penetrating through a poroelastic medium.

- impermeable ( d p l a n 4 )

permeable 4r
@=O)

Figure 6.1 1 Finite element discretization of the rigid shell penetration.

 0.07 1 ,-- Plane strain

Figure 6.12 Variation of the stress intensity factor KIwith radius a for a rigid smooth
shell penetrating steadily through a poroelastic medium.

and other fluid saturated geological materials.

The generalized problem examined here deals with a rigid shell of wall thickness of D,
and radius of a which penetrates with a steady velocity V through a brittle saturated
porous medium. Figure 6.1 1 illustrates the finite element discretization of the probiem
and associated boundary conditions. The crack-shell interaction behaviour corresponding
to a normaiized velocity DV/C=O.OI is illustrated in Figure 6.12 for various shell radii a.
The axisymmetric solution approaches the solution for the associated plane strain
problem in large radii (say crlD >1000). This result has certain practical ment in that the
relative geometric dimensions of the ngid shell (i.e. radius and thickness), which permits
the consideration of a plane strain solution to an axisymmetric problem, can be identified.
 CHAPTER 7

CONTINUUM DAMAGE MECHANICS OF

POROELASTIC MEDIA

7.1 Introduction

The assumption of linear elastic behaviour of the porous skeleton is a significant

limitation in the application of the classical theory of poroelasticity to brittle geomaterials
which could exhibit strain-sofiening and elastic stiffness degradation in the constitutive
behaviour of the soi1 skeleton. This non-linear behaviour can be due to development of
microcracks and microvoids in the porous fabric which could aiso alter the permeability
characteristics of the porous medium (Figure 7.1). The classical theory of continuum
damage mechanics (Kachanov, 1958) can be used to model such damage phenomena in
porous saturated materials. In this Chapter we present the development of a fùiite element
based computational procedure for the modelling of the effects of damage phenomena on
the behaviour of saturated porous media.

Classical continuum damage rnechanics simulates the efTect of microcrack developments

on the behaviour of materials pnor to the development of macrocracks (i.e. fractures). In
such modelling, damage is interpreted as a reduction in the stifiess of the material due to
the generation of microcracks and other microdefects. In this study attention is restncted
primarily to brittle eklrric behaviour of material where the associated darnage processes
can be described by an isotropic damage model.
 Figure 7.1 Typical stress-strain behaviour and permeability
evolution in brittle geomaterials.

The poroelastic behaviour of fluid saturated geomaterials can be influenced by the

evolution of darnage in the porous skeleton. This notion of continuum damage is relevant
to geomaterials such as soft rocks and overconsolidated clays where progressive
softening in an elastic sense can occur due to generation of microvoids or microcracks.
The occurrence of microcracks and microvoids in the porous skeleton c m have the
irnrnediate effects of altering the elastic stiflhess of the porous skeleton and the
permeability characteristics of the porous medium. Figure 7.1 illustrates a typical
behaviour of brittle fluid saturated geomaterials expenencing soil skeletal damage.

The effect of soil skeletal damage on the tirne-dependent consolidation characteristics of

saturated geomaterials can be exarnined by incorporating the concept of continuum
damage mechanics into the classical theory of porwlasticity. This can be achieved by
representing the stifniess properties of the soil skeleton and the permeability
characteristics of porous medium as bctions of the state of damage in the material.
Cheng and Dusseault (1993) have developed a finite element procedure which employs
the concept of damage mechanics to examine the poroelastic behaviour of saturated
geomaterials. They proposed an anisobopic darnage cnterion governing the evolution of
elastic parameters based on experimental observations on rocks. However, this damage
mode1 neglects the alteration of pemeabilit. charactenstics of the material which can
result fiom the creation of microcracks and microvoids within the fluid saturated
poroelastic material.

The developed computational scheme accounts for the modifications in deformability and
permeability charactenstics of materiais. An isotropie damage evolution law is employed
in the analysis which is characterized by the dependency of damage parameters on
distortional strain invariants. Admittedly, the darnage processes are expected to be highiy
anisotropic in nature and could be restricted to localized zones. Different
phenomenological damage criteria govemhg the evolution of permeability characteristics
are postulated fiom experimental observations on saturated geomaterials. The numericd
procedure is utilized to evaluate the extent to which the poroelastic behaviour of a rigid
circdar punch indenting a poroelastic half-space can be intluenced by the damage
evolution.

7.2 Principles of Damage Mechanics

The concept of continuum damage mechanics (CDM) is generally attributed to Kachanov

(1958) in recognition of his initial studies describing the tertiary creep of solids. The
classical damage mechanics simulates the efTect of intemal degradation of materiais prior
to the development of macrocracks (Le. hctures). This theory has been widely used to
predict the nonlinear response of varie^ of materials including rnetals, concrete,
composites, ice, fiozen mils and geologica! materials (see e.g. Krajcinovic and Fonseka,
198 1; Simo and Ju, 1987; Selvadurai and Au, 1991; Cheng and Dusseault, 1993;
Selvadurai, 1994c; Hu and Selvadurai, 1995; etc.).

From a physical point of view, damage fan be considered as the development of surface
discontinuities in the fonn of microcracks or volume discontinuities in the frlnn of
microvoids. The process of damage evolution begins fkom the Wgin state of a material
and ends with hcture of the volume element. The nonlinear behaviour of most brittle
materials is attributed to the initiation of new microdefects and gro~zhof existing
rnicrodefects. This behaviour is modeled by introducing local darnage variables in the
analysis. Damage variables reflet average material degradation at the macro-scale
normally associated with the classical continuum description. This facilitates the
adaptation of the "damage" concept in the theory of elasticity or in any other theory
associated with classicd continuum rnechanics. The coupling of elasticity and damage
modrls has been investigated by a number of researchers including Sidoroff (1 98O),
Krajcinovic (1 984), Chow and Wang (1987). and Lemaitre and Chaboche (1990).

The basic concepts of the theory of continuum damage mechanics are descnbed in the
following sections.

7.2.1 The Damage Variable

A hindamental postulate in the theory of continuum damage mechanics is that the state of
darnage in a material cannot be easily distinguished macroscopically fiom that of the
intact state. Therefore ii becomes necessary to seek an intemal variable to quanti& the
phenomena which describes the darnage state of the material. At the scale of microcracks,
the damage phenomena results in a discontinuous medium. Kachanov (1958) was the first
to introduce a continuous variable related to density of such defects.

Figure 7.2 shows a representative volume element of damaged materiai which is of a size
large enough to contain many defects, and small enough to be considered as a materiai
point within the formulation of continuum mechanics (Davis and Selvadurai, 1996). The
overall initial cross sectional area Ad is defined by the normal n. When damage occurs, A,,
is reduced to the net area 2.The darnage variable D, associated with normal II is defined
by:
 Figure 7.2 Representative element of vugin and darnage state of matenal.

where
D8=0 9 corresponds to the virgin state;
D,=D, Y a critical value which corresponds to the Fracture of material;
O<D,<D, ; characterizes the damage state.
Hypothesis of lsonopy : In general microdefects are oriented and D, is a function of the
vector o. This leads to a damagr variable of tensorial nature (Lemaitre, 1984). In cases
where the damage is direction independent (e.g. damage process results in microvoids
with a spherical fom or microcracks which have distribution and orientation without a
preferred direction), the damage can be defmed by appeal to a scalar variable D.

7.2.2 The Net Stress Concept

nie introduction of a darnage variable D leads directly to the concept of a net stress
which is the stress defined in relation to the net area. For isotropie damage, the net stress
tensor an, is related to the stress tensor a, in the undarnaged state by the following
relationship:
 virgin material
I
.

damaged material 1 I

equivalent vugin rnaterial

Figure 7.3 Hypothesis of strain equivalence.

Hypothesis of Strain Equivalence: Lemaitre (1984) introduced the following hypothzsis

of strain equivalence: " A damaged volume of materiai under the applied stress a shows
the same strain response as the virgin state subjected to the net stress 6" " (Figure 7.3).
This hypothesis ensures that the constitutive laws applicable to the virgin material are
also applicable to the damaged material, with the stress in darnage state being replaced by
the net stress. The constitutive equation for the damaged material which exhibits elastic
isotropy and isotropie damage can then be written in the form
where = p ( D ) is the shear modulus applicable to damaged material which is a function
of the damage variable D. Based on the h>pthesis of strain equivdence. the elastic
parameter jï can be obtained by scaling down the corresponding parameter of the virgin
material by a factor (1-D). Le.

This implies that Poisson's ratio always remains constant; Le., Y = v . It is understood that
this is an added consmint when considering three-dimensional States of stress (Ju, 1990).

7.3 Initiation and Evolution of Damage

The gradual degradation in the constitutive properties of the material is as a resuit of

continuing growth of either already existing microdefects or the progressive nucleation of
new microdefects. The damage variable is therefore an evolving intemal variable which
changes fiom its initial value Do (Do=O in virgin state of material) to its critical value D,
which represents the stage at which macrocracks are formed. For a given state of stress.
the extent of damage is an intrinsic property of the material which is charactenzed by a
damage evolution law. The damage evolution cnteria can either be postulated by appeal
to micromechanics or determined by experiments.

Following observation of expenments conducted on rocks, Cheng and Dusseault (1 993)

assumed that damage is a function of the shear strain energy and proposed the following
damage evolution equation for rocks

where the equivalent shear strain 5, is defined as

where, ,y is the octahedral shear strain and Ji is the second invariant of deviatoric
stresses (see e.g. Davis and Selvadurai, 1996) and

and q, y are material constants and c is either 1 or O depending on whether the stress state
corresponds to either loading or udoading. The criticai darnage variable D, is associated
with the residual strength of material at the final stage of strain-sofiening behaviour
(Figure 7.1).

7.4 Experimental Results with Indication of Damage

The nonlinear constitutive behaviour of most brittle geomaterials is due to the initiation
and coalescence of microcracks in the porous fabnc. The influence of such damage on
either elastic stifiess (Le. degradation of elastic moduli) or strength (Le. strain softening)
of geomaterials such rocks and concrete has been observed by Cook (1965), Bieniawski
et al. (1967) and Spooner and Dougill (1975). The effect of microcrack developments on
permeability characteristics of such saturated geornateriais has also been observed by
Zoback and Byerlee (1975), Samaha and Hover (1992), Shiping el al. (1994), and
Kiyarna et al. (1996).

Figure 7.4 shows the experimental results obtained by Spooner and Dougill (1975) for a
series of cyclic uniaxial compression tests conducted on concrete. It indicates that there is
a reduction in the elastic modulus ( E ) with increase of deformation and a reduction in the
strength of the concrete in form of strain sofiening behaviour in post-failure region with
plastic deformation. Simo and Ju (1987) have successhilly applied the concept of darnage
mechanics to simulate the experimental results on concrete obtained by Scavuzzo et al.
(1983). They developed an isotropie elasto-plastic darnage mode1 by employing a
Figure 7.4 The -miaxial compression behavior of concrete (Spooner and Dougil!, 1975).

Figure 7.5 Variations of volumetric strain and pemeability coefficient

as a function of differential stress (Zoback and Byerlee, 1975).
tensorial fom of darnage variables. Also Cheng and Dusseault (1993) developed an
anisotropic damage model using a vectorid representation of damage variable based on
experimental observations to model the constitutive behaviour of rocks and concrete.

m e effect of microcrack development on the pemeability charactenstics of a fluid

saturated geomaterial was fust investigated by Zoback and Byerlee (1975) who
conducted triaxial tests on granite. Figure 7.5 illustrates the results for variation of the
in the triaxial test. It
hydraulic conductivity as a function of deviator stress (q-q)
indicates that the permeability coefficient is first reduced slightly due to closure of pre-
existing microcracks and void channels as a result of elastic deformations and then begins
to increase considerably by the growth of existing microcracks and the nucleation of new
microcracks. Shiping et al. (1994) exarnined the permeability evolution of sandstone in
series of complete triaxial stress-strain paths. They observed that permeability
charactenstics of matenal can increase nearly by one order of magnitude, prior to the
peak of stress-strain cuve and can increase up to two orders of magnitude in the strain-
soflening regime where microcracks tend to localize in shear faults. Kiyama et al. (1 996)
observed similar results for permeability evolution of granites in triaxial experiments. In
addition to the experimental observations, there has been only limited work in the context
of mathematical and computational treatment of pemeability alterations of saturated
geomaterials.

7.5 Effect of Damage on Poroelastic Parameters

The effect of soi1 skeletal darnage on the time-dependent poroelastic behaviour of

saturated geomaterials can be examined by incorporating the concept of continuum
damage mechanics into the classical theory of poroelasticity. This is achieved by
representation of elastic parameters and permeability characteristics of the porous
medium as îùnctions of the state of damage in material. The damage evolution criteria
governing the alteration of stifiess and permeability parameters of the porous material
are described in relation to the damage variable in computational procedures. This
approach facilitates the adaptation of the continuum darnage concept in the classical
theory of poroelasticity applicable to porous continua.

7.5.1 Elastic Parameters

The constitutive parameters applicable to an isotropic elastic material which is

experiencing micromechanicai damage can be reprerented as a function of intact elastic
properties by invoking the hypothesis of strain equivalence. This relation can be vjnacn
in tensorial form by the generalization of Equation 7.3 for a damaged material which
exhibits elastic isotropy and isotropic damage as

where CqUis the elasticity matrix applicable to virgin elastic materiais (see e.g. Davis and
Selvadurai, 1996). The Poisson's ratio is assumed to be constant. The damage evolution
law cari specify the variation of the damage variable (D) with the state of strain in a
material. The damage evolution law proposed by Cheng and Dusseault (1993) is
employed in this study to mode1 the elastic stiffness degradation eflects in a material. By
integration of Equation 7.5, one can obtain the evolution of damage variable as

where Do is the initial value of damage variable correspondhg to the intact state of a
material. Figure 7.6 illustrates the variation of the darnage variable D as a function of
material parameters q, y and D,.
 Figure 7.6 Variations of darnage variable with material parameters.

7.5.2 Perrneability Characteristics

Development of a damage criteria which can account for alterations in the hydraulic
conductivity during evolution of damage in saturated geomaterials is necessary for
computational modelling of such phenornena in poroelastic media. The literature in the
study of coupling between microcrack developments and permeability evolution in
saturated geomaterials is restricted to experimental observations. There has been only
limited experimental work in the context of constitutive modelling of permeability
characteristics in damaged porous media (Shiping et d , 1994). In this study two
phenomenological constitutive models based on the experirnental results observed by
Zoback and Byerlee (1975) and Shiping et al. (1994) in rocks, are postulated for the
permeability evolution criteria in poroelastic media.

The slight initial reduction in the hydraulic conductivity of porous materials due to
dosure of pore voids and pre-existing microcracks in the elastic range prior to the onset
of microcrack developments is neglected in this study. The hydraulic conductivity (k) is
postulated to have either Iinear or quaciratic variations with respect to equivalent shear
strain cd given in Equation 7.6 as follows:

where kd is the hydraulic conductivity applicable to damaged matenals and c,, c?, c, and
c, are material constants.

7.6 Finite Element Procedures

The concept of continuum damage mechanics is incorporated in the finite element code
developed in connection with this research for computational modelling of poroelastic
media. A computationai procedure is developed ushg the damage evolution critcria
governing the elastic deformability and permeability characteristics of poroelastic
materials. The scalar damage variables are first obtained at nine Gauss points within finite
elements fiom Equation 7.8. The constitutive matrix eqkl
and the hydraulic conductivity
kd are then updated at these locations to incorporate the damage evolution. The
discretized governing equations are then solved to obtain the state of strains at each
integration point using the updated matrix Ciikl
and parameter kd in incrementai analysis.
The coupling between the state of strains and state of damage in each time step is solved
by an iterative process. The standard Newton-Raphson (see e.g. Smith and Griffiths,
1988) technique is used for the iteration algorithm in analysis. The adopted convergence
criterion is based on the nom of the evolution of damage variable in relation to a
specified tolerance o (see Box 7.1).

The computational procedures are performed for each time step in time-dependent
anaiysis. The details of the damage algorithm are given in Box 7.1. The initial -te of
damage (i.e. Do in Equation 7.8) can also be prescribed for a given element.
(i) Compute D at Gauss integration points

(Eq. 7-81

(Eqs. 7.6)

(ii) Update the poroelastic parameters

(Eq. 7.7)

(Eq.7.9a)
(Eq. 7.9b)

(iii) Solve the goveming equations for u, p, and

calculate the strain tensor

(iv) Check convergence criteria

No: Damage growth. R e m to (i).

Yes: No further damage evolution. Exit.

Box 7.1 Damage evolution algorithm.

131
7.7 Indentation Problem of a Damageable Geomaterial

The axisymrnetric indentation of a damage susceptible poroelastic haif-space by a rigid

smooth circular indentor is examined in this section. The poroelastic medium is subjected
to a total load P with a time variation in form of a Heaviside step function. The soil
skeleton and the pore fluid of the geomaterial are assumed to incompressible (v,=O.j).
The material parameters employed in the numerical simulations for an isotropie damage
variable adopted fiom Cheng and Dusseault (1993) (for uniaxial compression tests on
sandstone) are as follows:

The hydraulic conductivity is assurned to increase one order of magnitude from the initial
virgin state to the peak stress (oma=30 MPa). This is consistent with expenmental
observations of Shiping et al. (1994) and Kiyama et al. (1 996). Both linear and quadratic
variations of the hydraulic conductivity as a function of distortional strain energy, given
by Equations 7.9, are considered. The total load is assumed to be P=635 MN. Figure 7.7
illustrates the stress-strain behaviour and the evolution of the damage variable and
hydraulic conductivity for the material considered in numerical simulations.

Figure 7.8 shows the finite element discretization of the problem and associated boundary
conditions. Figure 7.9 illustrates the numerical results related to the degree of
consolidation settlement of the indentor. For the instance where the nonlinear damage
mode1 has no alteration in the permeability parameter, the rate of consolidation decreases
due to sofiening of the matenal as a result of microcrack developments. The generation of
damage in the soil skeleton results in a higher displacement and pore pressure. The
 A
,a = 30 Mpa

O 2 4 6 8 1O
Axial strain E. x l O-'

Axial strain E, x 1O"

30
(c)

Figure 7.7 The stress-strain behaviour; evolution of damage and permeability

characteristics in uniaxial compression of sandstone
(adopted h m Cheng and DusseauIf 1993).
 permeable
indentor 1Ou @O)
b

permeable

Figure 7.8 Finite element discretization of indentation problem.

darnaged material therefore requires a longer tirne to achieve the sarne degree of
consolidation. When the modification of hydraulic conductivity is taken into
consideration, the rate of consolidation increases and the excess pore pressures are
dissipated at a faster rate (Figure 7.9). The effect of an increase in hydraulic conductivity
ovemdes the effect of reduction in elastic stifhess properties on the consolidation
behaviour of the material. This difference is more significant when a linear form of
evolution law for the hydraulic conductivity is considered, where, the increase in
hydradic conductivity is higher. Figure 7.10 shows the evolution of the extent of the
 a -- Damage (k= linear)
.-..--Damage (k=const.)

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

T
Figure 7.9 Degree of consolidation settlement of indentor.

0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

T
Figure 7.10 Extent of damaged zone (with D > 0.05) in t h e .
 Elastic
Damage (k=quad.)
Damage (k=linear)
Darnage (konst.)

r/a=1
da= 1.5

;i : -- Elastic
Damage (k=quad.)
a \ \
:I
---- Darnage (k=linear)
t \ \it ..
.* * . - * - Damage (k=const.)
;\ i

Figure 7.11 Pore pressure evolution at different depths.

 F i g w 7.12 Evolution of damage variable at the edge of indentor.

damaged zone (i.e. where D > 0.05) uith tirne. It indicates that most of damage
phenornena takes place alrnost instantaneously and M e r pore pressure difision does
not change considerably the extent of damage.

Figure 7.1 1 illustrates the evolution of pore pressure at two locations, the center of
indentor (r/u=O) and the edge of indentor ( r l d .O) corresponding to a depth of r k l . 5
within the poroelastic half-space. nie damage models predict higher excess pore
pressures in porous medium which is consistent with observations by Cheng and
Dusseault (1993).

The evolution of darnage variable with time is shown in Figure 7.12 at the edge of
indentor (r/u=l) at a depth of z/a=O. 1.
The numerical results illustrate the importance of the effect of penneability characteristics
on the consolidation behaviour of porous media when the ifluence of damage effects is
taken into consideration. The influence of damage generation on the fluid transport
characteristics of saturated geomaterials is more attributed to the alteration of the
pemeability characteristics than those of elastic properties of the soi1 fabnc.

The finite element discretization was iefmed M e r in the vicinity of the indentor to
examine the mesh objrctivity of the results. The numerical resuits did not change
considerably by the mesh refmement.
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEIYDATIONS

In the preceding Chapters, we have presented the finite element modelling of initiation
and extension of fracture, and initiation and evoluiion of darnage phenomena in fluid
saturated porous media for both two-dimensional plane strain and axisymmetric
problems. In this final Chapter, we shall summarize the main achievements of this
research and present recommendations for funw work.

8.1 Summary and Conclusions

The satuated geological materials with brittle behaviour c m experience non-elastic

phenomena in the soi1 skeleton either in the form of continuum micromechanicd damage
by development of rnicrodefects, or in the fom of discrete fractures. Development of
such defects in the porous skeleton of sahuated geomaterials will influence the fluid
transport characteristics and the poroelastic behaviour of such materials. One of
objectives of this research is to develop a methodology for computational modelling of
fracture and damage phenomena in porous media saturated with compressible pore fluids
for both two-dimensional plane strain and axisymmetric situations.

A great majority of applications of the theory of poroelasticity focus purely on initial

boundary value problems where the boundary conditions are kept fixed both spatidly and
ternpodly. The boundary conditions can relate to either the tractions exerted to the
porous skeleton, or the displacements of the porous elastic skeleton or the pore fluid
transport. There are a significant number of problems which specifically relate to moving
boundaries associated with fracture phenornena where the boundary conditions
themselves are time dependent. h this thesis, the class of time-dependent moving
boundary pmblems associated with either the transient quasi-static crack extension or the
steady state crack propagation in poroelastic media is examined.

The literature review on the computational modelling of poroelastic media reveals that
the numerical treatment of non-elastic bnttle behaviour of the porous fabric (either in
form of continuum darnage or in form of discrete cracks) and the moving boundary
problems arising from the transient and steady state extension of cracks in saturated
geomaterials have received limited attention. In order to achieve the objectives of the
study, we have completed the following phases of the research program:

1. Development of a finite element code for the two-dimensional consolidation analysis

of poroelastic media s a m t e d with a compressible pore fiuid. Eight noded isoparametric
elernents are used to represent the intact regions of geological medium. The polynomial
shape functions used to describe the variation of pore pressure field are one order lower
than those used for the displacement fields. It is demonstrated that the spatial oscillations
in pore pressure results can be minimized with these element formulations. The
computational scheme is verified by appeal to various known analytical solutions given
in the literature for consolidation of poroelastic materials.

2. The computational modelling of transient stationary fractures in poroelastic media is

examined. The time-dependent local effects at the crack tip for this class of fiacture
problems in sanirated materiais is govemed by the interaction between the flow of pore
fluid and the elastic deformation of the soi1 skeleton. The main numericd developments
and related resuits of interest an summarized in the following:
The concept of linear fracture mechanics can be extended to poroelastic media by
incorporation of a stress singularity of order fin for the effective stress fields at the
crack tip. This is achieved by ernploying the singular traction quarter point crack tip
element developed by Henshell and Shaw (1975) and Barsoum (1976) in
conventional finite element analysis of elastic problems. The mid-side nodes close to
the crack tip in regular isoparametric elernents are shified to their quarter points to
generate the singular crack tip elements.
In poroelastic materials, the pore pressure field at the crack tip does not eshibit
spatially singular behaviour. However, in undrained behaviour it shows a temporal
singularity as r+0'. The pore pressure field at the crack tip is modeled by regular
isoparaxnetric elements.
The stress intensity factors at the crack tip which characterize the displacement and
effective stress fields near the crack tip region are computed by the displacement
correlation method. The numerical results for the tirne-dependent evolution of the
stress intensity factors are verified by cornparison with knowvn analytical solutions for
various pore pressure boundary conditions at the crack faces.
Numer-ical results indicate that the consideration of a stress singularity at the crack tip
has no considerable effect on the global poroelastic responses such as the degree of
consolidation. While it has a considerable effect on the local poroelastic effects such
as the pore pressure field at the crack tip. The pore pressure boundary conditions at
the crack faces have significant effects on both local and global poroelastic responses.
The initial value of the stress intensity factors (as t+0+ ) corresponds to the elastic
undrained behaviour with Poisson's ratio vu and their final values (as t - m )
correspond to the elastic fblly drained behaviour with Poisson's ratio v. It is observed
that the transition of the results h m t+0+ to r- need not be rnonotonic. The fluid
migration towards the crack tip cm lead to a volume expansion of material in the
vicinity of the crack tip. This results in a partial closure of a poroelastic crack with a
reductioa in the stress intensity factor at the early tirnes. However, the crack begins to
open up as the pore pressure diffusion takes place into the crack tip.
 The impermeable pore pressure boundary conditions on the fracture surfaces result in
a lower stress intensity factor than those for the permeable case. This indirectly
implies a greater effort is required to extend cracks in impermeable hctures.

3. A general computational algorithm is developed to examine the rnixed-mode quasi-

static extension of cracks in poroelastic media. This class of transient moving boundary
problems arises from the loading of the cracks in saturated matends. It is shown that the
finite element technique can be conveniently adopted to conduct Uicremental analyses of
such moving boundary problerns. The main features of the computational scheme along
with related results of interest to poroelastic media c m be summarized in following:

The computational scheme accommodates the situations where the quasi-static crack
extension can take place along a trajectory dictated by a mixed-mode crack extension
concept applicable to the prous skeleton of fluid saturated materials. The incremental
nature of the iterative scheme allows the time-dependent d y s i s of the problem
where the pore pressure and tractions in the geomaterial fabric and displacements are
appropriately adjusted.
When the crack extension critena are satisfied, the crack tip moves to its new location
in the tirne-invariant finite elemeot discretization. The searching scheme for the
identification of orientation of crack extension is achieved either by splitting the
double nodes at interslement boundaries or by subdividing the quadrilateral singular
element at the crack tip into two triangular singular elements. depending upon the
crack orientation. The mid-side nodes close to the crack tip are shifted to their quarter
points to generate the new crack tip elements. The quacirilateral isoparametric finite
elements are used with no mesh adaptivity due to the time dependent nature of the
problems.
The displacements, tractions, and pore pressure boundary conditions are altered
depeading upon the extent of crack opening. For the opening mode of crack
extension, the pore pressure boundary condition is adjusted in the opened region to
 reflect a zero pore pressure boundary condition. Altematively, it is assumed that the
pore pressure field remains continuous for cracks which extend in oniy shear mode
but rem& closed reflecting an impermeable crack.
The interaction conditions are incorporated on the faces of the crack to prevent
overlapping of the crack boundaries. This is achieved by using ngid links with a
unilateral constraint at nodal points on the overlapping crack boundaries throughout
the the-dependent analysis.
The numericai scheme is employed to obtain solutions to certain fracture mechanics
problems associated with poroelastic media. The accuracy of the computational
scheme bas been verified with known analytical solutions and limiting cases
recovered through analogous problem in classical elasticity.
It is observed that most of the crack extension in poroelastic media takes place
instantaneously upon the application of extemal loads. Funher, the pore pressure
drainage pmcess does not considerably change the geometry of the crack path.
The compressibility of the pore fluid and the soi1 skeleton of poroelastic materials is
found to govem the extension and orientation of crack path in such materials. niese
observations agree with the results obtained in the classical elasticity.
The rate of loading is found to have a considerable effect on the geometry of the crack
extension for poroelastic materials. For fast rate of loading, the crack tends to extend
deeper into the poroelastic medium.

4. The computational modelling of poroelastic fracture problems is extended to examine

the steady state crack extension in infiaite poroelastic media at a finite velocity. The
goveming equations of poroelasticity are modified to replace the time variable with the
propagation velocity at the crack tip. The finite element formulation of the steady crack
propagation in poroelastic matenals under conditions of plane strain and axial symmetry
is derived. The main computational characteristics of the steady crack propagation mode1
dong with related results of interest to poroelastic media can be summarized in the
following:
0 n i e finite element formulation of the governing equations of the steady state crack
extension in poroelastic media is developed by employing the Galerkin technique.
n i e crack extension is assumed to be quasi-static and inertial ef5ects and body forces
in the medium are neglected. The finite element approximation results in a system of
non-symmetric coupled matrix equations which are dependent on the propagation
velocity at the crack tip.
0 The computational scheme is verified by appeal to known analytical solutions to the
pore pressure and displacement fields at the crack tip in poroelastic media. Both
permeable and impermeable pore pressure boundary conditions at the crack faces are
considered in these venfication exercises.
The proelastic behaviour of sahirated materials in the steady state crack extension
depends on the propagation velocity at the crack tip. The response of materiai is
drained at low propagation velocities and undrained at high velocity limits. The limits
of propagation velocity in poroelastic media are established in relation to the elastic
Rayleigh wave velocity and the hydraulic conductivity of such media.
The poroelastic effects at the crack tip become highly localized and pore pressure
field shows spatial oscillations at very high velocities. A very fme finite element
discretization at the crack tip is required io capture the pore pressure field applicable
to high velocities.
Similar to the equivaient transient crack extension phenornena, the pore pressure
boundary conditions on the crack faces influence the crack tip behaviour for the
steady crack extension in poroelastic media. A greater energy is required to extend the
cracks in impermeable fractures.
It is observed that a significant pore fluid suction field cm be developed ahead of the
crack tip in poroelastic media which reduces the effective stresses in the crack tip
ngion particularly for permeable cracks.
The computational scheme c m be used to examine the self-sirrjlar expansion of a
crack in an infihite poroelastic medium by wedging rigid indentors. The results
 obtained indicate the influence of in situ stresses at the crack tip and the geometry of
indentor on the crack-indentor interaction behaviour.

5. The computational modelling of poroelastic media is extended M e r to examine the

behaviour of saturated brinle geomaterials which experience micromechanical damage in
the porous fabric. The occurrence of microcracks and microvoids in the porous fabric can
have the immediate effects of altering the elastic stifiess and the permeability
characteristics of the porous medium. The concept of Continuum Damage Mcchanics can
be incorporated into the classical theory of poroelasticity to evaluate the extent to which
the poroelastic effects can be influenced by the darnage evolution in the porous skeleton.
The main features of the finite element procedure and related results of interest to
poroelastic media c m be surnmarized in the following:

r The elastic properties of the soi1 skeleton and the permeability characteristics of the
porous medium are represented as functions of the state of darnage in material. An
isotropic damage critenon goveniing the evolution of elastic modulus of the porous
fabric is employed in the computational model. It is characterîzed by the dependency
of damage parameters on distortional strain invariant. Various phenomenologicai
damage criteria goveming the evolution of pemeability characteristics are postulated
based on available experirnental observations on saturated geomaterials.
r The constitutive elastic and permeability parameters are updated at each integration
point in the finite element analysis. The couplhg between the state of deformation
and the state of damage at each t h e step is solved by an iterative approach in the
time-dependent anaiysis. The standard Newton-Raphson technique is used for the
iteration aigorithm. The adopted convergence criterion is based on the nom of the
evolution of damage variable in relation to a specified tolerance. The initial state of
darnage can aiso be prescribed.
a The influence of darnage development on the fluid transport characteristics of
saturated geomaterials is more attributed to the alteration of the permeability
characteristics rather than to the evolution of elastic properties of the soi1 skeleton.
a It is obsemed that most of the damage process in poroelastic media takes place
instantaneoudy upon the application of extemal loads. Further pore pressure changes
do not considerably change the extent of damaged zones.

8.2 Recommendations for Future Work

In the preceding sections , we have summdzed the main achievements of this research.
The resemh has provided the computational modelling of the initiation and extension of
cracks and initiation and extension of damage phenomena in poroelastic media saturated
with compressible pore fluids. The finite element procedures are verified by cornparison
with known analytical solutions to various boundary value problerns related to poroelastic
media. The computational mode1 has been successfully applied to various fracture and
damage mechanics problems associated with poroelastic media. In the ensuing, we
recommend some specific extensions.

The computational models developed for fracture and damage phenomena can be
coupled to examine the nodinear behaviour of poroelastic materials at the crack tip
region (process zone).
The computational methodology c m be extended to examine three-dimensional
hcture mechanics analysis of the poroelastic media. Either a mesh adaptive
technique or non-stnictured triangular mesh discretizations can be employed in finite
element procedures to examine the quasi-static crack extension in poroelastic media.
The anisotropic darnage models can be employed to examine the inherent anisotropy
of darnage phenornena in porous media. The darnage critena goveniuig the evolution
of permeability characteristics of a porous medium need to be determined based on
either experimental procedm or micn>mechanicsconsiderations.
A special crack tip element which can capture the pore pressure field applicable to
high velocities in an analytic manner can be incorporated at the crack tip for the
steady crack extension problems in poroelastic media.
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 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATIONS
OF POROELASTIC MEDIA

The generai formulation of finite element analysis of ihreedhensional consolidation is

derived without refemng to any specific types of element. The goveming equations
considering the body forces take the form:

A boundary value problem has to be solved which requires that the goveming equations
B. 1 and B.2 are satisfied within the domain R and the appropriate boundary conditions
are satisfied on the boundary B of the domain. Using Galerkin's technique, the governing
equations can be transfonned into matrix equations w h m unknowns are the nodal
displacements and pore pressures. It has k e n shown by Sandhu and Wilson (1969). and
Ghaboussi and Wilson (1973) that to ensure stability of the solution, the nodal
displacements are assigned an order different mgher) to the stresses and pore pressures.
Letting u, (i=1,2,3; hl,...,N ) be the nodal displacements for N discrete points in R and
pK (K=l, ..., n) the nodal pore pressures in n nodes at an arbitrary time t. The
displacement vector and pore pressure for any arbitrary point with coordinates x.J in the
dornain R are approximated by the following dations:

Where N: and N i are, respectively, shape functions for the displacement field and for the
pore pressure field; &1, ..., N and K=I , ..., n; u, is the displacement of the soi1 skeleton

at node J in the ith direction. The indices in capital letten (e.g. J and K) refer to nodal
values, while the indices in small letters (e.g. i andj) refer to coordinate directions. Also
summation convention is adopted. In general N: and N [ can be different but both Si
and Ni must exhibit CO continuity.

B.1 Galerkin Formulation for the Equilibrium Equatioa

Applying the Galerkin's weighted residual method to the equilibrium equation B. 1 results
in following

Where I= 1, ...,N. Using Green's theorern, Equation B.5 becornes

Where B is the boundary of R. Substituthg the approximation equations B.3 and B.4 into
the above equation, one obtains

Where fiom the constitutive equations 2. la and strain tensor equation 2.2

Equation B.7 can be written in matrix forrn as

Where {6} and ( p } are the vectors of nodal displacements and pore pressures:

(B.10)

(F,) and {Ft} are respectively the vectors representing the body force and the traction
applied at the boundary B. The components of the coupling matrix [Clwhich results from
the interaction between the soi1 skeleton and the pore fluid are given by the following
equation
The stiffness matrix [KIof the soil skeleton is generally written in the following form:

(B.12)

where [Dlis the stress-strain rnatrix for the soil skeleton. For an isotropic linear elastic
material [Dl depends on two elastic constants p and )c (or E and v ) . [BI is the matrix
relating strains to nodal displacements which depends on the shape iùnctions N ; .

B.2 Galerkin Formulation for the Fluid Continuity Equation

Using concept of Gaierkin method in association with flow continuity equation B.2, we
obtain the weighted residual equivalent of the Equation B.5 as

(B.13)

Applying Green's theorem to Equation B. 13, one obtains

(B.14)

Substituting B.3 and B.4 into the above equation, one obtains
The Equation B. 15 c m be written in matrix fonn as

where the permeability matrix [Hltakes the form:

(B.17)

and compressibility rnatrix [El of pore fluid takes the fom:

(B.1 8)

and {F } is the inward fluid flux through the boundary B. The matrix equations B.9 and
q

B. 16 are the fuiite element approximations for the goveming equations of poroelasticity.

8.3 Time intcgntioo and Stabiüty

In order to mode1 the nonlinear behaviour of materials such as damage or plasticity

phenornena, it is necessary to use the governing equations in an incremental form
(Zienkiewicz et ai., 1977; Lewis and Schrefler, 1987). By differentiating the equiiibrium
equation B.9, the system of incrementai coupled equations is obtained as follows
 (B.19)

The matrices in above equation relate increments of responses (a,

dp) to increments of
extemal driving forces (e.g. dF3. These matrices are dependent of the curent state (6, p)
of the system.

The system of coupled equations B.19 is discretized in the tirne domain by foilowing
finite difference scheme for any variable X in the system:

O 1
where At is time increment, X ,X ,T are the values of quantity Xat different times t, t+
At and r + y b respectively; y is a value between O and 1. When ~ 0the, finite diflerence
scheme is called hlly explicit; when y =1, it is called fully implicit; when y =OS, it is
cdled the Crank-Nicholson scheme.

Applying this finite difference scheme to &/dt, and dpldf in Equations B. 19, results in the
following elemental matrix equation:

where

F = force vectors due to extemal tractions, body forces and flow field;
u, p, = nodal displacements and pore pressures at time t;
& = t h e Uicrement and y is the time integration constant.

M e n u, and p, are known, the solution of Equation B.22 results in ut+, and pl+,,. The
time integration constant y varies between O and 1. The criteria for the stability of the
integration scherne given by Booker and Small (1976) require that y 2112. According to
Lewis and Schrefler (1 987) and Selvadurai and Nguyen (1995), the stability of solution
can generally be achieved by selecting values of y close to unity.