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Prof. D.V.

Shirbhate 1

CHAPTER – I
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
1.1 Introduction :
Metal cutting process forms the basis of engineering industry & is involved either directly or
indirectly in the manufacture of nearly every product of our modern civilization. The theory of metal
cutting is of vital importance and a basic knowledge of fundamentals of machining of materials and of the
theory of metal cutting will help to develop scientific approach in solving problems encountered in
machining.
A metal cutting tool is the part of a metal cutting machine tool that, in the cutting process, acts
directly on the blank from which the finished part is to be made. The metal cutting process accompanied by
deformation in compression, tension & shear by a great deal of friction & heat generation is governed by
definite laws. Metal cutting operation involves three basic requirements. (1) There must be a cutting tool
that is harder and wear resistant than the work piece material, (2) there must be interference between the
tool & the work piece as designated by the feed and depth of cut, and (3) There must be relative motion or
cutting velocity between the tool & the work piece with sufficient force and power to overcome the
resistance of work piece material. As long as above three conditions exist, the portion of the material being
machined that interferes with free passage of the tool will be displaced to create a chip.
1.2 Classification of production process :
The metals are given different usable forms by various processes. These processes may be
classified as under.
Metal Forming

Chip-forming Process Chip-less Process


(Metal Cutting)

Continuous-contact Intermittent Continuous Impact or


Cutting cutting (Rolling, Spinning Intermittent
Etc.) Contact
(Forgoing,
Drop-stamping)
Single-edge Double Sizable Ground Chips
Cutting edged Swarf (Honing, Grinding,
(Turning, cutting (Milling) etc.)
Shaping, (Drilling)
Boring)
In chip removal processes the desired shape and dimensions are obtained by separating a layer from the
parent work piece in the form of chips. During the process of metal cutting there is a relative motion
between the work piece & cutting tool. Such a relative motion is produced by a combination of rotary and
translatory movements either of the work piece or of cutting tool or of both. These relative motions depend
upon the type of metal cutting operation. The following table indicates the nature of relative motion for
various cutting processes.
Table 1.1
Sr.
Operation Motion of work piece Motion of cutting tool
No.
01 Shaping Fixed Translatory
02 Turning Rotary Translatory
03 Drilling Fixed Rotary & Translatory
04 Milling Translatory Rotary
05 Hobbing Rotary & translatory Rotary
06 Honing Fixed Rotary
07 Grinding (surface) Translatory Rotary
08 Grinding (Cylindrical & Center less) Rotary & translatory Rotary
In chip less processes the metal is given the desired shape without removing any material from the parent
work piece.

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1.3 Basic elements of cutting tools:
The cutting tool consists of three basic elements (1) cutting element or Principle element – This is
the element, which is actually fed into the material of work piece to cut the chips ex. In drilling lips (or
cutting edges) are cutting elements. (2) Sizing element – The part, which serves to make up any
deficiencies of cutting element after sharpening, is sizing element. It imparts final shape to the machined
surface and also provides guidance in tool operation ex. In drill sizing element; (flute portion) immediately
follows the lips). (3) Mounting element – It serves for securing the tool in machine or holding it in hand of
worker ex. In the twist drill the shank is mounting element. The cutting & sizing element taken together is
referred as working element of the tool.

1.4 Machining parameters:


1.4.1 Cutting Speed (V) – It is the travel of a point on cutting edge relative to surface of cut in unit time in
process of accomplishing the primary cutting motion. It is denoted by ‘V’. The unit of cutting speed is
m/min.
In lathe work for turning a blank of diameter ‘D’ mm, (The diameter of machined surface is ‘Do’
mm.) rotating at a speed ‘N’ (rpm) the cutting speed at periphery (maximum) is given by.
V = π D N /1000, m/min ........………………………….. 1.41

Fig. 1.1 Elements of cutting process in turning

SPEED

FEED DEPTH OF CUT

Fig. 1.2 Sketches Showing V, f and d


From this formula it is easy to find rotational speed
N = 1000 V / D ................... 1.42
From figure 1.1. it is evident that the cutting speed varies along the cutting edge from maximum at
point ‘m’ to minimum at point ‘K’ though the rotational speed is same.
In drilling a work piece with a drill of diameter ‘D’ mm., rotating at a speed ‘N’ (rpm) the cutting
speed will vary from zero at center to maximum at periphery given by eqn 1.41.
πDN
V= , m/min
1000
Similarly in facing the cutting speed varies from zero at center to maximum at periphery.
1.4.2 Feed (Feed rate) (f, fm)
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 3

It is the travel of the cutting edge in the direction of feed motion relative to the machined surface in
unit time. The feed may be expressed as distance traveled by the tool in one minute (fm) or distance
traveled by the tool in one revolution (f). The terms ‘f’ and fm are related by
f = fm / N, mm/rev . . . . . . . . . 1.43
In lathe work, distinction is made between longitudinal feed, when tool travels in a direction
parallel to work axis, cross feed when tool travels in a direction perpendicular to the work axis, and
angular feed when tool travels at an angle to work axis (for example, in turning tapered surface.)

1.4.3 Depth of cut: (d)


It is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in one cut or pass; measured in direction
perpendicular to machined surface. The depth of cut is always perpendicular to the direction of feed motion
and, in external longitudinal turning; it is half the difference between the work diameter and the diameter of
machined surface obtained after one pass.
d = (D – Do)/2 mm ............ 1.4.4

1.4.4 Machining time:


The machining time is calculated by dividing the length of cut, or the length of stroke, by the feed of
the tool in mm/min (fm). Thus
Tm = L/fm., min. or Tm = L/f.N, min., Where, L = Length of cut.

1.4.5 Metal Removal Rate: (w)


It is the volume of metal removed in unit time expressed as mm3/min. It helps to calculate time
required to remove specified quantity of material from the work piece.
w = Ac × V = ( b.t) × V
Where, Ac = Cross sectional area of chips.
b = Width of chip.
t = thickness of chip.
To reduce machining cost machining time should be less i.e. the metal removal rate should be high. To
achieve this following facts should be considered.
1) Proper cutting tool material should be selected.
2) Correct tool (angle) geometry should be produced or ground on tool
3) The tool should be rigidly held to avoid vibrations.
4) Depending on the rigidity of machine – tool system maximum values of speed & feed should be
selected.
A process, which removes metal at a faster rate, may not be the most economical process, since the
power consumed & cost factors must be taken into account. Due to this, to compare two processes, the
amount of metal removed per unit of power consumed in unit time is determined. This is called “ Specific
metal removal rate” and is expressed as, mm3/w/min, if the power is measured in watts.

1.5 Basic shape of cutting tools: Wedge.


Almost all cutting tools used in metal cutting operations consist of basic form of a wedge, which is
defined as one form of inclined plane in shape of a triangular prism. Assume that a wedge under the action
of force P is penetrating into another body at a constant speed as shown in Fig.1.3.
N

 K

M  N N

N P

P
L
Fig. 1.2 Force acting on an indenting wedge Fig. 1.4 Force triangle at the wedge check

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in fig.1.3. The body resists the motion of the wedge. The reaction N.N. appear at the cheeks of the wedge.
The forces N.N. are perpendicular to the cheeks in absence of friction. From the equilibrium of forces
(fig.1.4)
N KM 1 1
= = =
P KL  KL / 2  2 sin β
2 
 KM  2

Work surface
K
N

N P 

N L 900

P
Fig.1.4 Orientation of the wedge during Fig.1.5 Orientation of the wedge
the parting or cutting by the indentation process during the separation of chips

Thus, the mechanical advantage in force is dependent on the wedge angle 'B'. The smaller the angle of
wedge, the greater will be the gain in force. In other words, the wedge angle ' ' determines the resisting
force of the cutting edge.
The cutting edge must be oriented at certain required angles with the work surface depending on
nature of operation to be performed. Fig.1.5 shows that the wedge must be set at right angles to the work
surface, so that the driving force "P" is in the direction of parting. Fig.1.6 shows during chipping the wedge
must be set at an angle inclined to work surface so that separation of chip can be done.
Thus for the wedge two geometric parameters can be defined i.e. (1) The wedge angle '' and (2)
the axis of symmetry along which 'P' acts. In addition to above, two more parameters are introduced to
confirm conditions of chipping action. These parameters are set with respect to velocity Vector, 'V' and are
defined as (3) cutting angle 'δ ' and (4) clearance angle , as shown in fig.1.7. The sign convention for
describing these angles are set wr.t. left handed cork screw rule with "Z" axis coinciding with the direction
of the velocity vector, V, and the cutting edge lying along 'Y' axis. Hence, 'δ ' & 'α ' are measured positive,
when moving from 'Z' to 'X' axis as shown in fig.1.7. The parameter ' γ ' defines the inclination of the top
face of the wedge (called Rake face) w.r.t. velocity vector V, while the parameter 'α ' describes the relief
provided from the bottom face of the wedge (called flank), often another derived parameter, called (5) Rake
angle 'γ ', is used to describe the inclination of the top face of the wedge. This is derived parameter given
by
γ = 900 - δ.
However if δ > 90 , then ' γ ' is negative. Thus from this equation it may be seen that while 'δ ' is
always positive the rake angle can become positive or negative depending an value of angle 'δ '.
v

δ
δ
β
β

However in Fig.1.7 (b) the cutting edge of the wedge has been set at right angle to velocity vector,
V, along Y-axis. A new situation arises when the cutting edge. Shifts from Y axis and another parameter
called (6). Inclination angle is needed to describe the orientation of the wedge with respect to velocity
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 5

vector "V". The angle " " is measured positive when it lies in the direction or rotation of left hand cork
crew rule in the x-y-z system as shown.
When wedge shaped tool is set w.r.t. the work-place the actual values of the rake angle 'ϒ' and
clearance angle 'α ' depend on the actual direction of velocity vector V with respect to the wedge. The
effect of setting the wedge has been shown in fig.1.8. It the wedge is set high w.r.t. line of centers, the rake
angle increases to (+ ϒ ) from ϒ & clearance angle decreases to ( α -  ) from 'α ' opposite is the case
when wedge is set low.

1.6 Types of metal cutting processes:


The metal cutting processes are classified in to two types, on the basis of angular relationship
between cutting velocity vector V, & the cutting edge of the tool.
(1) Orthogonal cutting process (two dimensional cutting)
(2) Oblique cutting process (three dimensional cutting)
In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to cutting speed direction. In oblique
cutting, the angle between the cutting edge & cutting velocity vector is different from 900. fig 1.9 &
fig.1.10

Fig1.9 Fig1.10

Point Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting


1. Definition - The cutting edge of tool The Cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an
perpendicular to cutting angle other than 900 to V.
speed V;
2. Alternative name Two dimensional cutting Three dimensional cutting
3. Volume of metal Less metal removal due to More metal removal, as greater area of chip is
removal for a cutting square cutting condition. removal for same depth of cut & other
condition. conditions.
4. Tool life - Shorter Longer
5. Friction & - More Less, as small amount of heat developed due
Chatter to friction at the job tool interface.
6. Chip flow &- Shape Chip coils in a tight flat Chip flow sideways in along curl.
spiral
7. Suitable example Slotting, Parting Turning, Drilling.

1.7 Chip formation (MECHANISM):


The portion of the material that has been cut away from the work material is called the chip. Observations
during metal cutting reveal several important characteristics of chip formation:
1) The cutting process generates heat,
2) The thickness of chip is greater than the thickness of layer from which it came.
3) The hardness of the chip is usually much greater than the hardness of parent material,

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4) The above relative values are affected by changes in cutting, conditions & in properties of the material
to be machined to give chip that range from small lumps to long continuous ribbons.
These observations indicates that the process of chip formation is one of deformation or plastic flow
of the material with the degree of deformation dictating the type of chip that will be produced. Fig. 1.11
shows progressive formation of a chip using a wedge shaped (single point) tool. At “a” tool contacts the
work piece material. At “b” compression of material takes place at point of contact. At “c” the cutting
force overcomes the resistance of penetration of tool is begins to deform by plastic flow. As the cutting
force increase, either a rupture or plastic flow in direction generally perpendicular to face of the tool occurs
& the chip is formed as shown at “d”.

tool tool tool tool

a b c d

Fig. 1.11 Progressive formation of a metal chip.

Fig1.12
The mechanism of deformation can be seen from fig. 1.12. Generally speaking there is always
deformation of metal lying ahead of the cutting edge by a process of shear. Here with application of force
the metal deforms by shear in a narrow zone extending from cutting edge to the work surface. This zone is
treated as single plane for purpose of mathematical analysis & is commonly referred to as Shear Plane.
The angle, which the shear plane makes with direction of tool travel, is known as Shear angle.
The process of plastic deformation occurring along the plane elongates the individual crystals of
metal in the general direction indicated by the shear angle. This tends to produce chip. That is thicker than
the layer of the parent metal from which it came. Chip material moves the tool face in layers of distorted
material. Each layer is pushed outward by a fixed amount w.r.t. Its adjacent layer & retains this position as
the whole chip slides up the tool face. The distorted layers now by means of phenomenon of slip & the
layers are called slip planes. The number of slip planes depends upon the lattice structure of parent
workplace material. The distortion of layers tends to strengthen them (work hardening or strain hardening)
& therefore the hardness of chip is much greater than the hardness of the parent material.
Thus in simple language the mechanism of chip formation in any machining operation is a rapid
series of plastic flow & slip movements ahead of the cutting edge. The degree of plastic flow ahead of the
cutting tool determines the type of chip that will be produced. If the w/p material is brittle & has little
capacity for deformation before fracture the chip will separate along the shear plane to form what is known
as a discontinuous segmental chip. Material that are more ductile & have capacity for plastic flow will
deform along the shear plane without rupture. The planes tend to slip & weld to successive shear planes, &
the result is a chip that flows in a continuous ribbon along the face of tool. This is known as a continuous
chip & is usually much harder than the parent material because of its strain hardened conditions.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 7

1.8. Types of Chips:


The tool engineer's handbook lists four different types of chips viz.
1) Segmental chips or Discontinuous chips
2) Continuous chips
3) Continuous chip with BUE or BUE chips.
4) Inhomogeneous chips.

1) Discontinuous Chips: These chips are in the form of small individual segments, which may adhere
loosely to each other to form a loose chip. These chips are formed as result of machining of a brittle
material such as gray cast iron or brass castings, etc. These chips are produced by actual rupture or fracture
of metal ahead of the tool in brittle manner. Since the chips break up into small segments and also shorter
chips have no interference with work surface. The friction between chip & tool reduces resulting in better
surface finish. These chips are convenient to collect, handle & dispose of during production runs. The
conditions favorable for formation of discontinuous chips are:
1) Brittle & non ductile metals (like cast iron brass castings Beryllium, titanium etc.)
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of the tool.
4) Large chip thickness.

2) Continuous Chips: These chips are in the form of long coils having uniform thickness throughout.
These chips are formed as result of machining of relatively ductile materials where definite successive
raptures do not take place, at high cutting speeds. Due to large deformation possible with ductile materials
longer continuous chips are produced. These are referred to as “ideal” chips because,
i) Due to stable cutting excellent surface finish is obtained.
ii) Low friction between chip & tool & hence heat generation is low and,
iii) Power consumption is low. On the other hand, these chips are difficult to handle & dispose off. Chip
coils can cause injury to operation. However these problems can be avoided by use of “chip breakers”
behind to cutting edge. The conditions favorable for formation of continuous chips are
1) Ductile material
2) High cutting speeds.
3) Large rake angle of tool.
4) Small chip thickness.
5) Sharp cutting edge.
6) Efficient cutting fluid.
7) Low friction between chip tool interfaces.

3) BUE Chip (or continuous Chip with BUE): These chips are also produced in the form of long coils
like continuous chips, but they are not as smooth as continuous chips. These chips are characterized by
formation of built up edge on the nose of the tool owing to welding of chip material on to tool face because
of high friction between chip tool interfaces. Presence of this welded material further increases the friction
leading to building up of the edge, layer by layer. As the built-up edge continuous to grow, the chip flow
breaks a portion of it into fragments. Some of them are deposited on the work piece material while the rest
are carried away by the chips. The hardness of this BUE is two to three times higher than the work piece
material. This is the reason why the cutting edge remains active even when it is covered with built-up edge.
The only point in favor of BUE is that it protects the cutting edge from wear due to moving chips and the
action of heat. This brings about an increase in tool life. These chips normally occur while cutting ductile
materials with HSS tools with low cutting speeds. Chips with BUE are under desirable as they result in
higher power consumption poor surface finish and higher tool wear. Generally speaking any change in
cutting conditions that will eliminate or reduce BUE is desirable, since high friction between chip & tool
face is major cause of BUE. Any means of reduction of friction such as use of lubricant & adhesion
preventing agent is often effective to reduce BUE, especially when it is necessary to operate at low cutting

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speeds. Tool material with inherent low coefficient of friction or a high polish on tool face can also reduce
friction & hence BUE. The conditions favorable for BUE chip are.
1) Ductile material
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of tool.
4) Dull cutting edge.
5) Coarse feed.
6) Insufficient cutting fluid.
7) High friction at chip tool interface.

4) Inhomogeneous Chip: These chips are produced owing


to non uniform strain set up in material during chip
formation and they are characterized by notches on the free
side of chip, while the side adjoining the tool face is
smooth. The shear deformation which occurs during chip
formation causes temperatures on shear plane to rise which
in turn may decrease the strength of material & cause
further strain if the material is poor conductor. This process
when repeated several times results in a large strain at the
point of initial strain. Then a new shear plane will develop
some distance from first and deformation shifts to this point.
The resultant chip is banded with regions of large and small
strain. This is characteristic of metals suffering marked
decrease in yield strength with temperature and poor thermal conductivity. These chips are produced while
machining some steels and titanium alloys at medium cutting speeds.

Table 1.1. : Factors responsible for the formation of different types of chips.
Factors Types of chips
Discontinuous Continuous With BUE Inhomogeneous
1. Material Brittle Ductile Ductile Which Shows decreased in Yield
Strength with temp. & Thermal
conductivity medium.
2. Cutting speed Low High Low -
3. Tool geometry Small rake Large rake Small -
4. Friction - Lower Higher -
5. Chip thickness Large Small Small -
6. Cutting fluid - Efficient Poor -
7. Feed - - Coarse -
8. Cutting edge - Sharp Blunt -

1.9 Cutting Ratio (Chip thickness ratio):


During the cutting the mean chip thickness is always greater than, the underformed chip thickness
which is actually fed (or the thickness of metal from which it came) in orthogonal cutting. The ratio of chip
before removal to its thickness after removal from material being cut is termed as the "Cutting ratio", the
inverse of cutting ratio is known as "Chip compression" factor or chip reduction coefficient. However even
in the orthogonal cutting the cross section of chip is not always rectangular. The chip has a tendency to
move side ways so that the width of chip is more than width of cut. In addition thickness of chip is not
uniform throughout its width. It tends to be thicker at center and tapers slightly towards sides. However for
the purpose of analysis chip width is taken to be equal to width of cut & thickness is taken to be uniform
throughout its width. The chip thickness ratio is always less than unity.
Thus, Cutting ratio, r = t/tc
Where t = undeformed chip thickness (i.e. before cutting) and
tc = mean thickness of chip ( i.e., after cutting )
Chip reduction coefficient K = 1/r
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 9

The following methods can be used to determine cutting ratio


1) The cutting ratio "r" can be obtained by direct measurement of "t" & "tc". However since underside of
chip is rough the correct value of "tc" is difficult to obtain and hence tc can be calculated by measuring
length of chip (1c) and weight of piece of chip "W".
tc = W/ (bc .1c. ρ)
Where, bc = length of chip
1c = width of chip
ρ= Density of material assumed to be unchanged during chip
formation.
2) Alternatively, the length of chip (1c) & length of work (l) can be determined. The length of work
can be determined by using a work piece with slot, which will break the chip for each revolution of work
piece. The length of chip can be measured by string.
It can be shown that r = 1/1c as under. When metal is cut there is no change in volume of metal cut.
Hence volume of chip before cutting is equal to volume of chip after cutting i.e.
1.b.t. = 1c.b.tc
or l.t. = 1c.tc (assuming b = bc)
l/lc = t/tc = r
3) Cutting ratio can also be determined by finding chip velocity (V c) and cutting speed (V). The chip
velocity (Vc) can be accurately determined by determining length of chip with a string for a particular
cutting time measured with the help of a stopwatch. It can be shown that r = Vc/V, as under. From the
continuity equation, we know that volume of metal flowing per unit time before cutting is equal to volume
of metal flowing per unit time after cutting.
i.e. V.b.t. = Vc .b.tc
or Vc/V = t/tc = r (assuming b = bc)

1.10 Shear Angle:


The shear angle is the angle made by shear
plane with the direction of tool travel. In fig 1.7a it is
the angle made by the line AB with direction of tool
travel. The value of this angle depends on cutting
conditions, tool geometry, tool material & work
material. If the shear angle is small, the plane of shear
is larger, the chip is thicker and therefore higher fore is
required to remove the chip. On the other hand, if the
angle is large, the plane of shear will be shorter, the
chip is thinner; hence less force is required to remove
the chip. The shear angle is therefore important
parameter in metal cutting.
The shear angle can be determined by various methods. It can be obtained by direct measurement
from the photomicrograph of a partially formed chip. This is done by suddenly withdrawing the tool during
the course of cutting action with a quick stop mechanism. The section of metal in the vicinity of partially
formed chip is cut from work piece, ground, polished & etched for study. This method is not very
convenient. The shear angle is generally determined from the cutting ratio "rc" by the equation.
rc cos γ
tan=
1 − rc sin γ
where = rake angle

the derivation of the above equation is as follows. from fig 1.7 a


t1 = AB sin φ
t2 = AB sin cos (φ - γ )

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t2 1 cos (φ − γ)
= =
t1 rc sin φ
cos φ cos γ + sin φ sin γ
=
sin φ
1
= cot φ cos γ + sin γ
rc
1 
 − sin γ 
r  1 − r sin γ
 c  c
cot φ = =
cos γ rc cos γ

rc cos γ
tan φ =
1 − rc sin γ

1.11 Velocity relationships in orthogonal cutting


There are three velocities in orthogonal cutting process, namely
(i) Velocity of chip (Vf) which is defined as the velocity with which the chip moves over the rake face of
the cutting tool.
(ii) Velocity of shear (Vs) is the velocity with which the work piece metal shears along the shear plane.
(iii) Cutting velocity (Vc) is the velocity of tool relative to the work piece.
Cutting velocity Vc and rake angle α are always known Vf and Vs can be calculated with the help of
following relations, which refer to the velocity diagram of Fig.30.15.

sin φ
Vf = Vc ,
cos (φ − α)
cos α
Vs = Vc, cos (φ − α)
where α is the rake angle,
φ is the shear angle.
From the principle of kinematics, the relative velocity of two bodies (tool and chip) is equal to the
vector difference between their velocities relative to the reference body (here the work piece). The vectors
of these three velocities - Vc, Vs and Vf - should form a close velocity diagram (Fig.30.15)
and
Thus Vc = Vs + Vf

Refer Fig. 30.15(b)


From right-angled ∆ ACE
AC
= sin φ or AC = AE . sin φ = Vc . sin φ
AE
From right -angled ∆ ABC
AC
= cos (φ − α) or AC = AB, cos (φ − α) = Vf , cos (φ − α)
AB
From Eqs. (a) and (b)
Vf . cos (φ − α) = Vc . sin φ
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 11

sin φ
or Vf = Vc .
cos (φ − α)
Consider ∆ ADE
DE
= cos α or DE = Vc . cos α
AE
Consider ∆ BDE
DE
= cos (φ − α)
BE
DE= Vs cos (φ − α)
or
From Eqs. (c) and (d)
Vs. cos (φ -α ) = Vc.cos α
cos α
or Vs = Vc .
cos (φ − α)
1.12 Shear Strain:
During the process of chip formation, each undeformed layer of material passes through the shear
plane and undergoes considerable plastic deformation. Shear strain "" can be defined as the ratio of
displacement of the layer ∆ S along the shear plane to the thickness of layer '∆ x'. Thus shear strain can be
related to the shear angle φ and rake angle "γ " by the following equation:
∆s ∆x cot φ + ∆x tan( φ − γ)
= =
∆x ∆x
= Cot φ + tan (φ - γ )
cos γ
or  = sin φcos( φ − γ)
This relation can be obtained from the pack of inclined cards model suggested by Prof. Pushpanen.
In this model the formation of chip and its motion along the tool face can be visualized from an idealized
model in which a stack of inclined (playing) cards is pushed against the tool (fig.1.16 a). As the tool
advances, segments, which had been part of the work place, become part of the chip. From this figure it can
be seen that card closest to the tool point slips to a finite distance relative to the uncut material as tool point
slips to a finite distance relative to the uncut material as tool advances. When the tool point reaches the
next card, the previously
lipped card moves up
along the tool face as a
part of the chip.

BA = BE + AE
BA = ∆ x cot φ +∆ x cot
{ 90 - (φ -γ )}
BA
ε= = cot φ + cot ( 90 − ( φ − γ ) )
CE

= cot φ + Tan ( φ − γ)
but from velocity relations
vs cos γ
=
v cos φ − γ
vs
ε=
v sin φ

1.13 Undeformed chip thickness:


The underformed chip thickness "t" can be estimated by referring fig. 1.17. Where two consecutive
cuts have been shown and various parameters such as feed f, depth of cut d, width of cut b, thickness of

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undeformed chip t & chip thickness tc have been marked. It can be easily seen that the following relations
exist.

d
t= f sin φ p b= sinφ
p

φ p

φ p=90
0

It is clear that the uncut chip thickness depends upon the primary cutting edge angle as shown in
fig.1.18. In fig. 1.18 (e) a where φ p = 900, the uncut chip thickness, t = feeds "f" (mm/rev ) & width of cut
b = depth of cut "d".
1.14 Cutting forces:
The force system in general case of conventional turning process is shown in Fig.1.19 a. The resultant
cutting force "R" is expressible by its components: "Px" known as the "feed force" in the direction of tool
travel. "Py" called as "thrust force" in the direction perpendicular to the produced surface; and "P z" the
"cutting force" or "main force" acting in the direction of cutting velocity vector. These directions have been
chosen for their suitability of being determined by properly designed tool force dynamometers.
After determining the individual components Px, Py & Pz the resultant force, "R" can be evaluated as
R = (Px + Py + Pz )1/2 = PX + PY + PZ
2 2 2 ........ 1.14.1
This three-dimensional force system can be reduced to a two-dimensional force system if in
orthogonal plane π0 the forces are considered in such a way that the entire force system is contained in the
considered state, when
R = Pz2 +Px2 y ..... . . . 1.14.2
Pxy = Px2 + Py2 ..... . . . 1.14.3
This is possible only when Pxy is contained in plane π 0 which is possible only under conditions of free
orthogonal cutting. This corresponds to 'orthogonal system of first kind' for which conditions are:
i) 0<φ < 90
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 13

ii) λ= 0
iii) The chip flow direction lies on the plane π 0.
Fig. 4.10 shows the cutting forces for the case of orthogonal system of the first kind.
An orthogonal two-dimensional system of second kind can be obtained by choosing λ and φ in such a
manner that either Px or Py can be made zero.
For the orthogonal system of second kind either
i) "Py" is made zero by having λ = 0 and
ii) φ = 90 when two dimensional force system is
R = Pz2 + Px2 ... . . . . 1.14.3
Fig. 4.11 shows the disposition of cutting forces in plane
orthogonal turning with λ = 0 and φ = 90.

Another, alternative way of having an orthogonal system of the


second kind is to have Px=0 during radial turning or facing
operation, when
R = Pz2 + Py2

Fig. 4.12 shows the disposition of cutting forces in plane


orthogonal radial turning or facing with λ = 0 and φ = 0.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
14

However out of all the above cases shown in fig 4.10 4.11 and 4.12 the cutting in the first two cases
is "non free" or 'restricted" type where the auxiliary cutting edge is also active in causing deviation of chip
flow direction from the orthogonal plane.
The contribution of auxiliary cutting edge is to deviate Pxy from the orthogonal plane. This
deviation is small & neglected if the depth of cut is very large compared to feed, such process is called
"Restricted Orthogonal cutting.
However during cutting of a thin pipe with a cutting edge whose length is considered to be
very large compared to the width of cut, a "pure" orthogonal cut of first or second kind could be obtained.
The principal schemes of metal cutting shall be based on pure orthogonal cutting from which schemes for
oblique or other continuous and intermittent cutting processes like drilling, milling, etc., can be derived by
similarly principles.

FIG1.22 FORCES IN METAL CUTTING


In the lathe tool dynamometer the two components of the resultant force can be measured by
selecting suitable orthogonal cutting set up as shown in fig. 1.22. The resultant cutting force is carried by
the shear plane as well as by chip tool interface on tool face "R" can be resolved into friction force "F" &
normal force "N" on the shear plane. "R" can be resolved into shear force, "F x" inclined at an angle φ with
direction of tool travel or along the shear plane and backing up force "E"N setup by material normal to "F".
1.15 Merchant's Analysis (Theory) :
Earnest & Merchant (1941) analysed the mechanics of metal cutting in order to develop mathematical
relationship connecting the variable in metal cutting the model is based on the minimization or rate of
energy dissipation. The simplify the mathematical relationship he made following assumptions:
1) The chip behaves as a free body in stable equilibrium under the action of two equal, opposite and
collinear resultant forces viz. R & R.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 15

2) The tool edge is sharp.


3) The work material suffers deformation across a thin shear plane.
4) This is no side spread (or the deformation is two-dimensional).
5) There is uniform distribution of normal & shear forces on the shear plane &
6) The work material is rigid, perfectly plastic (or behaves like ideal plastic)
7) As, (shear plane area). Ts (shear stress) & "B" (Friction angle), are constant & are independent of
shear angle 'φ '

Forces on the chip (Merchant’s Analysis, theory)


From the concept of chip formation and measuring force Ft and Ff with a cutting tool dynamometer,
Merchant was able to build up a picture of forces acting in the region of cutting which give rise to plastic
deformation and sliding of the chip down the tool rake face.
See fig 30.16(a)

The forces exerted by the work piece on the chip are


Fc - Compressive force on the shear plane.
Fs - Shear force on the shear plane.
The force exerted by the tool on the chips are
N - Normal force at the rake face of tool.
F - Frictional force along the rake face of tool.
The forces acting on the tool and measured by dynamometer are
Ft - tangential or cutting force
Ff - feed force
Angle α is tool rake angle,
φ is shear plane angle and
β is the angle of friction

(a) Graphical Treatment


Using the concept explained in fig. 30.16(a) it is now possible to find graphically the magnitude of force
Fc , Fs, N and F.
The vector diagram of forces is constructed as follows [fig 30.16(b)] Draw Ff and Ft to some
convenient scale and joint AB to obtain their resultant. Bisect AB and draw a circle having the resultant
force as its diameter. Set off BE, making angle φ with force Ft, to cut circle at E. Join EA. The
magnitudes of Fs and Fc are now known. Set off a line BG at an angle (90-α ) with Ft (Ft is vertical and BB'
is horizontal, ∠ DBB' is 900) Join GA. The magnitude of force N and F are thus known, as also the

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
16
coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface (F/N). Angle BAG is the angle of friction between chip and
tool.
Tan β = F/N
(b) Analytical Treatment [See fig 30.16 (b)]
F = GH + HB = AI + HB
Or F = Ff. cos α + Ft. sin α ………….30.17
N = AG = DH - DI
= Ft.cos α - Ft. sin α …………..30.18

F Ff cos α + Ft sin α
Now =
N Ft cos α − Ff sin α
Dividing R.H.S. by cos α
F F + Ft tan α
= f …………..30.19
N Ft − Ff tan α
The resultant tool force, R (eq 30.2) can be resolved into two components N and F normal to and along the
rake surface respectively, Fig. 30.16(b). Since F must be the friction force due to the existence of the
normal load N, as per usual convention.
F/N = µ …………..30.20
Where µ is the average coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool. From eqs 30.16, 30.19 and
30.20.
F F + Ft tan α
µ= = tan β = f …………….30.21
N Ft − Ff tan α
Fs = Ft. cos φ - OD
Or Fs = Ft. cos φ - Ff. sin φ
Fc = AO + OE
Fc = Ff. cos φ + Ft. sin φ

In ∆ AGB, ∠ GBA = 180 – 90 - β = 90 - β


Hence ∠ ABD = 90 – α - (90 - β ) = 90 – α - 90 + β = β - α
Now Ft = BD
BD (or Ft)
From ∆ ABD = cos (β − α)
AB (or R)
Thus Ft = R. cos (β - α ) ………… 30.24
Ft = R. cos (β - α ) ………… 30.25
Fs
Also from ∆ ABE = cos (φ + β − α)
R
Now from Eqs. (30.24) and 30.26)
Ft R cos( β − α)
=
Fs R cos( φ + β − α)
cos( β−α)
or Ft = Fs. cos( φ+β−α) ………….30.27
Assumption Made
The above derived relations (eqs) are based upon the following assumptions
1. The tool is perfectly sharp and it does not make any flank contact with the job.
2. The cutting velocity remains constant.
3. A continuous chip with no built up edge is produced
4. The chip does not flow to either side
5. Chip shears continuously across the shear plane as the shear stress reaches the value of shear flow
stress.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 17

The earlier discussed theoretical analysis of mechanics of metal is of use only if the value of the shear angle
φ is known. Machining is an unconstrained process and the shear angle (or chip thickness) has no obvious
value as, for example, has the exit thickness in rolling.
Apart from the time involved in determining the magnitude of the shear angle experimentally, the
understanding of the machining process is clearly incomplete if one cannot formulate a satisfactory criterion
for the orientation of the shear plane.
1. Theory of Ernst and Merchant
According to this hypothesis, the shear plane orientates itself so that
(a) the work done in cutting is a minimum, or
(b) the maximum shear stress occurs on the shear plane.
Refer Fig.30.16(b), ∆ ABE
Fs
= cos (β − α + φ)
R
or Fs = R . cos (φ + β − α)
and Fs = τs .A s , (from eqn.30.29)
A1
or Fs = τs . (30.35) [Refer article 30.16]
sin φ
From Eqs. (30.34) and (30.35)
τs .A 1 1
R= . (30.36)
sin φ cos (φ + β − α)
Also, from Fig.30.16(b)
F1 = R . cos (β -α ) (30.37)

Now from equation (30.36) and (30.37)

τs A 1 cos (β − α)
F1 = × (30.38)
sin φ cos (φ + β − α)
Eq. (30.38) may be differentiated w.r.t. φ and equated to zero to find the value of shear angle, φ
for which F1 is a minimum.
d F1 cos φ. cos (φ + β − α) − sin (φ + β − α) 
= −τs A 1 cos (β − α).   = zero (0).
dφ 
 sin 2 φ. cos 2 (φ + β − α) 

or cos φ .cos (φ +β - α ) – sin (φ + β - α ) = 0
or cos ( φ + φ + β - α ) = 0
cos (2 φ + β + α ) = 0
π
2φ +β -α = (30.39)
2
π β α π 1
or φ = − + = − (β − α)
4 2 2 4 2
π 1
∴ Shear angle, φ = − (β − α) (30.40)
4 2
-Merchant found that the above theory agreed well with experimental results obtained when cutting
synthetic plastics but agreed poorly with experimental results obtained for steel machined with a sintered
carbide tool.
-It should be noted that in differentiating equation (30.38) with respect to φ , it was assumed that A1, α and
ι should be independent of φ . On reconsidering these assumptions, Merchant decided to include in a new
theory the relationship.
τ s = τ so + k σ s (30.41)
Power and energy Relationship:
The power or the total energy per unit time or the rate of energy consumption is the product of cutting speed
"V" and cutting force Fc i.e. E = Fc x V, K.g. mm/min.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
18
The energy consumed during cutting process is primarily utilized at the shear plane, where plastic
deformation takes place and at chip tool interface where friction resists the flow of chip. The total energy
per unit time (E) is approximately equal to the sum of shear energy (E s), Friction energy (Ef) and negligible
amount of energy required to curl the otherwise straight chip, kinetic energy required to accelerate the chip,
surface energy required to produce new surface etc.
Thus, E = Es + Ef
The energy required per unit time per unit volume of metal removed per unit time is called specific energy
(e)
Thus total specific energy

e = E/b.t.v.
e = Fc V/b.t.v., (Kg/mm/min)/(mm3/min.)
e = Fc/b.t. kg/mm2
Similarly specific shear energy (es) & specific friction energy (ef) can be defined by the following relations.
eS = ES/b.t.v. = FS . VS/b.t.v. = FS . cosν /b.t.cos (φ -ν ), Kg/mm2
and
ef = Ef/b.t.v. = FS . VS/b.t.v. = F/b.tc ,Kg/mm2

SOLVED PROBLEMS :
Example :
1) In an orthogonal cutting operation, following date have been observed :
Uncut chip thickness, t = 0.125 mm.
chip thickness, tc = 0.250 mm
Width of cut, b = 6,500 mm.
V = 100 m/min.
Rake angle, ν = 100
Cutting force, Fz = 70 Kg.
Trust force, Ft = 25 kg.
Determine : Shear angle, the friction angle, shear and normal stress on shear plane, shear strain, shear strain
rate, cutting power, specific shear energy, friction energy, cutting energy.
Solution :
(i) Shear angle : φ
(ii) Friction angle
(iii) Shear and normal stress on shear plane
Shear foce = FS = Fc .cos φ - Ft sin φ = 70 . (.88) - 25 (.47) = 44.85 Kg
Normal force = Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ = 70.(.47) + 25 (.88) = 54.9 Kg.
Area of shear plane = AS = b.t/sinφ = 6.5 (0.125)/.47 = 1.73 /mm2
Shear stress, TS = FS/AS = 49.85/1.73 = 28.82, Kg/mm2
Normal Stress σ n = Fn/AS = 54.90/1.73 = 31.74, Kg/mm2
(iv) Shear strain
∈= cot φ + tan (φ -ν ) = 2.18
(v) Shear strain rate 's = ν S/ts
Where, shear velocity Vs = V.cos ν /cos (φ -ν )
= 100.cos (10)/cos (28.33-10)
= 103.75 m/min.
Shear plane thickness "ts" is assumed equal to one tenth of shear plane length i.e.

Thus, shear rate = 103.75/0.026 = 3938.755-1


(vi) Cutting power
E = Fe V/4500 = 70.000/4500 = 1.55 H.P.
vii) Specific shear energy E's
viii) Specific cutting energy 'e' = Fc x c/b.t.v.
(70)/(6x5x0.125) = 86.15 kg/mm2
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 19

ix) Specific friction energy = E - es = 86.15 - 63.65 = 22.5 kg/mm2

Example 2 : During machining of a C-30 steel with 0-10-6-7-8-80-0.5 mm (ORS) shaped tungsten
carbide tool, the following observations, have been made, depth of cut, d = 2 mm, feed f = 0.2 mm/rev.
speed V = 200 m/min. chip thickness tc 0.40 mm.
Calculate shear angle width of chip
Solution :
d = 2mm, 0p = 800, tc = 0.40, V = 10
Now, thickness of uncut chip t = f.sin 0P = 0.197 mm
Chip thickness ratio, r = t/tc = 0.49
Shear angle, 0 = tan-1 (r.cos v/(1-r sin v) = 23.820
Width of Chip, b = d/sin 0P = 2/Sin 80 = 2.03 mm
Example 3. During machining of C-20, steel with a triple carbide cutting tool 0-8-7-10-70-1mm(ORS)
shape the following data was obtained.
Feed = 0.18 mm/rev., Depth of cut = 2.0 mm.
Cutting speed = 120 mpm, Chip thickness = 0.4 mm.
Determine chip reduction coefficient & shear angle.
Solution : = 8, = 70
Uncut chip. thickness = sin
= 0.18 sin 70 = 0.169 mm.
chip reduction coefficient k = 0.42
Now = tan-1 ( r.cos / ( 1 - r sin ), = 23.980
Example 4 : In orthogonal turning process the feed is 0.25 mm/rev. at 50 rpm. The thickness of chip
removed is 0.5 mm.
(a) What is the cip thickness ratio ?
(b) If the wok diameter is 50 mm before the cut is taken what is the approximate length of chip removed in
the minute. Assume a continuous chip is produced in process.
Solution : Uncut chip thickness, t = f = 0.25 mm & ctc = 0.5 mm
Therefore r = mt/tc = 0.5
Length of chip before cutting = D.N.= 50.50 = 7854 mm/min.
Length of chip after cutting, Lc = r.L. = 0.5.7854 = 3927 mm/min.
1. Show clearly by means of neat sketches only the meaning of the terms (1) Cutting speed, (2) Feed & (3)
Depth of cut as applied to turning process.
2. Explain the basic wedge action in metal cutting. Why is the cutting angle "δ " always positive?
3. Explain the mechanism of chip formation in metal cutting.
4. Explain why built up edge on cutting tool is under desirable ?
5. Classify & explain different types of chips produced in metal cutting.
6. Why are the discontinuous chips preferred over the continuous type ?
7. Differentiate between the orthogonal cutting & oblique cutting process.
8. What is cutting ratio (or chip thickness ratio) and chip compression factor (or chip reduction
coefficient) ?
9. What are the various methods of estimating cutting ratio?
10.What is shear angle ? How it can be measured ?
11. Prove that
tan φ = r cos ν /(1 - r sin ν ) Where, φ = Shear angle.
r = Cutting ratio.
ν = Rake angle.
12. Prove that
Vc = Vsin φ /cos (φ - ν ) and Vs = Vcosν /cos (φ - ν )
Where V, Vc, Vs are cutting, chip & shear velocities respt.
"φ " is shear angle & ν is rake angle.
13. Prove that shear strain "∈" in orthogonal cutting is given by ∈= tan (φ - ν ) + cosφ , where φ is
the shear angle and ν is the rake angle.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
20
14. How is the thickness & width of undeformed chip estimated in turning operation
15. What is metal removal rate ? What is specific metal removal rate ? How can "MRR" be increased ?
16. What is meant by the orthogonal cutting system of first & second kind ? Illustrate with neat sketchs.
17. What are the components of resultant force in an oblique cutting operation ?
18. What are the assumptions of Merchant's theory ?
19 Prove that φ = π /4 + ν /2 - β /2 where φ is shear angle, ν is rake angle & β is friction angle.
20. What is the modified Merchant's theory of metal cutting ?
21. What is meant by power consumed in metal cutting? What are it's various components?
22. What is total specific energy, specific shear energy, and specific friction energy
23. How can the resultant force in orthogonal cutting be estimated by graphical method?
24. What is metal cutting? What are the basic requirements for metal cutting? How are the metal
cutting processes classified?
25. What is the effect of setting up of the cutting edge on rake & clearance angle?
26. In an orthogonal cutting operation the following data is obtained.
1) Cutting force = 180 Kg.
2) Feed force = 100 Kg.
3) Chip thickness ratio = 0.32 Kg.
Find graphically or otherwise shear force on shear plane, normal force on shear plane, Frictional force,
Normal force, and resultant Force.
27. Find the values of F.N, F, FN, R, and µ for an orthogonal cutting process if cutting force is 170 kg.,
thrust force is 90 Kg, shear angle is 300.
28. In an orthogonal cutting operation following data have been observed.

Cutting speed = 15 m/min.


Uncut chip thickness = 0.06 mm
width of cut = 3.00 mm.
chip thickness ratio = 0.50
Rake angle = 200
Cutting force = 38 Kg.
Thrust force = 14 Kg.
Determine : shear angle, friction angle, shear stress along shear plane, chip velocity, shear strain in
chip, cutting power and specific cutting power.
29. A tool making an orthogonal cut has a rake angle of - 100. The feed is 0.10 mm, the width of cut 6.5
mm. the speed 160 mpm, and a dynamometer measures the cutting force to be 180 kg and normal thrust
force to be 140 kg. A high speed photograph shows a shear angle of 200. Estimate,
(a) Chip thickness (b) coefficient of friction. (c) Shear and normal stress on shear plane (d) shearing
strain, (e) H.P. to shear the metal (f) H.P. lost in friction.

CHAPTER - II
TOOL WEAR: TOOL LIFE: MACHININABILITY & SURFACE FINISH

2.1. Introduction:
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 21

A new tool or newly ground tool has sharp cutting edges & smooth surfaces. When put into
operation it is subjected to three distinct factors, viz,cutting forces that are concentrated on relatively small
contact area on rake face & flank, high temperatures over contact surfaces and sliding action due to tool and
the work piece. Under such adverse condition the cutting tool gives unsatisfactory performance. The
unsatisfactory performance may involve, loss of dimensional accuracy, increased surface roughness, and
increased power requirements etc. When tool wears out it is either replaced or reground resulting in loss of
production due to machine down time. Thus, study of tool wear is important from standpoint of satisfactory
performance & economics. However it is very difficult to find out exact cause and nature of tool wear, the
phenomenon being very complex & dependent on many aspects, viz, tool work pair, environment,
temperature of interfaces etc.

2.2. Wear Mechanism or Causes:


Tool wear causes the tool to lose its original shape. So that in time the tool ceases to cut efficiently
or even fails completely. After a certain degree of wear, the tool has to be resharpened for further use. The
following basic causes, which can operate singly or in various combinations, produce tool wear.

2.2.1 Attrition Wear (Adhesive Wear) :


At low cutting speeds the flow of material past the cutting edge is irregular or less laminar & contact
between the two becomes less continuous due to built up edge formation. Under such condition fragments
of tool are torn intermittently from the tool surface. This phenomenon is called Attrition or Adhesion. This
wear progresses, slowly in continuous cutting, but rapidly in interrupted cutting or in cutting where
vibrations are severe due to lack of rigidity. As the cutting speed is increased, the flow of metal becomes
uniform & attrition disappears. Such wear is prominent in cutting with carbides at low cutting speeds
where B.U.E. is likely to form.

2.2.2. Diffusion Wear:


Diffusion wear occurs because of the diffusion of metal and carbon atoms from tool surface into
work material & chips. It is due to high temperature and pressures developed at the contact surfaces in
metal cutting & rapid flow of chip on tool surfaces. The rate of diffusion wear depends upon the
metallurgical relationship between the tool & work material. It is one of the major causes of wear and is of
special significance in the case of carbide tools diffusion is a phenomenon strongly dependent upon
temperature. For example diffusion rate is approximately doubled for an increment of the order of 20 0 C. in
the case of machining steels with HSS tools.

2.2.3. Abrasive Wear:


The abrasive action of the work on tool is basically due to two principal effects.
i) The inherently hard constituents present in the micro structure of the material being cut, such as pockets
of sand on surface of casting;
ii) The strain hardening induced in chip & work due to cutting & the formation of built up edge.
Abrasive wear is caused when these hard particles are swept over the tool surface. These hard
particles acts like small cutting edges as in grinding wheels.

2.2.4. Plastic deformation:


When high compressive stresses act on the tool rake face, the tool may be deformed downwards.
This deformation takes place primarily in the nose area of the tool reducing the relief or clearance angle.
This is a deformation rather than a wear process but it accelerates other wear processes, which reduce life of
the tool. The deformation leads to sudden failure of the tool by fracture or localized heating. The
occurrence of plastic deformation is in itself an indication of the overstressing of the tool material.

2.2.5 Fatigue Wear:


In tension

In compression

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
22

In compression

Stress distribution around the


In tension interlocking asperities

Fatigue wear

When two surfaces slide in contact with each other under pressure, asperities on one surface
interlock with those on other. Due to the frictional stresses compressive stress is produced on one side of
each interlocking asperity and tensile stress on the other side. After given pair of asperities have moved
over or through each other, the above stresses are relieved. New pair of asperities is, however, soon formed
and the stress cycle is repeated. Thus the material of the hard metal near the surface undergoes cyclic
stress. This phenomenon causes surface cracks, which ultimately combine with one another & lead to
crumbing of the hard metal. Further the hard metal may also be subjected to variable thermal stress owing
to temperature changes brought about by cutting fluid, chip breakage & variable dimensions of cut, again
contributing to fatigue wear.

2.2.6. Electrochemical Effect:


This type of wear may occur when ions are passed between the tool & work piece-causing (an
oxidation of the tool surface & consequent) breakdown of the tool material in the region of the chip-tool
interface. It has been argued that since sufficiently high temperatures exist on the chip tool interface, a
thermoelectric E.M.F. is set up in the closed circuit due to the formation of a hot junction at chip tool
interface between dissimilar tool & work materials. This current may assist the wear process at rack face in
same way, for example by aiding the diffusion of carbon ions from the carbide tool to the flowing chip.

2.2.7. Chemical decomposition:


Localized chemical reactions may occur that weaken the tool material through formation of weak
compounds or dissolution of bonds between the binder and the hard constituents, for example, machining of
some type of plastics with carbide tool. This type of wear may be accelerated in certain cutting fluid
environments, where the fluid is active with respect to the tool.

2.3. Types (Geometry) of Tool Wear:


The progressive wear of cutting tools can take two forms:
i) Wear on the tool flank characterized by the formation of wear land as result of the newly cut surface
rubbing against tool flank; and
ii) Tool wear on rake face characterized by the formation of a crater or a depression, as a result of chip
flowing over the tool rake face.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 23

2.3.1. Flank Wear:


These wear produces wear lands on the side & end flanks of the tool on account of the rubbing
action. In the beginning, the tool is sharp & the wear land on the flank has zero width. However very soon,
the wear land develops & grows in size on account of abrasion adhesion & shear.
A typical case of flank wear development is shown in fig. 2.3.a. This figure can be divided into
their definite regions A, B & C. In the region A, the wear grows rapidly within a short period of time
because during the initial contact of sharp cutting edge with work piece; the peaks of the micro-unevenness
at the cutting edge are rapidly broken away. In the region C, the wear rate is rapid and may lead to
catastrophic failure of the tool. In general it has been found that the most economical wear land at which to
remove the tool & re sharpen is just before the start of rapidly increasing portion of the curve. In case of
high-speed steels, the linear rate of wear section of the curve is quite flat & the final failure occurs suddenly
(fig.2.3 b).
During the steady wear phase, flank wear is caused mainly through abrasion, whereas during the
rapid wear phase, it is caused by diffusion. The Flank wear is a phenomenon which normally occurs at low
speeds normally used in cutting with HSS tools and is as a result of protection of cutting edge by the
formation of built up edge. Many times in HSS tools; catastrophic failure is used as criterion for tool
change eliminating the frequent flank wear measurement during tool testing.

The wear land on flank will not be generally uniform along the entire cutting length of cutting edge.
Depending on machining conditions, the following types of wear lands of combinations of these are
generally observed.
1. Excessive wear at the nose end of the flank (fig. 2.4a) is brought about by plastic deformation,
which reduces relief in the area, thus increasing the rate of wear. This can also be brought about if
the crater on the rake face breaks through the nose area.
2. Irregularities in the wear along the whole cutting edge length due to minute chipping or attrition of
the cutting edge (Fig. 2.4 b).

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
24
3. Excessive wear at the line of depth of cut (Fig.2.4 c). This can be either due to the work hardened
surface by the previous cut or heat treat scales or by abrasive materials on the work-piece.

2.3.2 Crater Wear:


It occurs on the rake face of the tool in the form of a pit called as crater. The crater is formed at
some distance from the cutting edge. As the cutting speed is increased the tendency of the cutting tool to
fail by cratering is increased. The tool chip interface temperature increases with cutting speed & at these
higher temperatures the rate of material removed from the tool increases. The careful measurements have
shown that the location of maximum cratering & maximum chip tool interfacial temperature coincide with
each other. It may there fore be assumed that cratering is a temperature dependent phenomenon caused by
diffusion & adhesion etc. fig.2.5 shows how the radius of curvature 'Rc', the depth of crater 'dc', the width
of crater and the distance of start of crater from the tool tip 'a', change with time. The crater significantly
reduces the strength of the tool & may lead to its total failure.

Rc
a b Rake face

dc

Tool

b
Rc

a,b
dc,Rc
dc
a
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 25

Time

Tool failure criteria:


The time for which a cutting edge or a cutting tool can be usefully employed without regrinding ( eq HSS)
or replacement (eg. Throw away carbides tip) is called the tool life. It is not economical to continue to use
the tool beyond its useful life. This is because increased bluntness of cutting edge causes increase in cutting
forces & as a result tool temperature also increases.
Consequently affecting the dimensional accuracy & quality of machined surface, ultimately leading
to rejection. Also, the rate of flank wear-after certain critical value increases rapidly. The progress of
crater wear is also of similar nature. Continued use of worn out tool would ultimately cause catastrophic
failure or total loss of tool & even damage of the component. If tool is ground or replaced prior to
catastrophic failure; the volume of material ground off the tool (therefore the regrinding cost) would not be
excessive. Hence certain tool failure criteria have been devised to specify maximum wear of the tool that
can be tolerated before regrinding or changing it. The tool failure criteria (or tool life criteria) can be
classified as direct & indirect.

n o s e p o r tiomn id d le p o r tio n r e a r p o rtio n

TH h fh f m a x

f la n k
FLA NK W EAR LAN D
E L E V A T IO N

Dc

RC

C R O S S S E C T IO N O FB A A A B

FIG 2.6 WIDTH OF WEAR LAND AND MAXIMUM DEPTH OF CRATER

2.4.1. Direct criteria:


These depend upon measurement of tool wear or direct visual examination of cutting edge (fig.2.6)

i) Limiting value of width of wear land at flank:


The wear land on the flank face is not of uniform width. It is usually larger at nose portion & rear
portion of the active portion of side cutting edge. According to ISO recommendations, following wear land
criteria are appropriate for tools made from different materials, both for roughing & finishing cuts.
hf = 0.3 mm
hf max = 0.6 mm.

ii) Limiting value of maximum depth of crater:


The two parameters of interest in crater wear are its maximum depth 'dc' & the distance 'h c' between
the cutting edge and location where maximum crater depth occurs. It is obvious that larger the depth of
crater becomes, weaker is the tool rendered. ISO recommends the value of dc = 0.06 + 0.3f & as a tool
failure criteria where f is the feed per revolution. Also Opitz & weber has suggested the ratio dc/hc value
between 0.2 & 0.4 as tool failure criteria.

iii) Limiting extent of chipping & crack formation:

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
26
Faulty cutting conditions may lead to appearance of fine cracks near the cutting edge shortly after
the tool is put to operation. This can be detected by visual examination. The situation may be remedied by
correcting the cutting conditions such as selection of a tougher tool material, a more rigid machine; a stiffer
tool material, proper tool angles, proper machining parameters such as speed, feed & depth of cut etc.

2.4.2 Indirect criteria:


These depends upon the measurement of effects produced by tool wear and chipping etc.

1) Limiting value of surface roughness: The roughness of a machined piece increases in proportion to the
damage suffered by the cutting edge & unevenness of the flank wear. Monitoring of surface roughness can
help to keep a control on limiting value of wear land. But surface roughness measurement requires costlier
equipments than measurement of width of wear land, which can be measured by a microscope.

2) Limiting value of change in machined dimensions: In this method, the dimensions of each machined
component are measured. When the tool is new, the dimensional accuracy is satisfactory & deteriorates as
the tool progressively wears out. When the dimensional accuracy falls below a prescribed level, the tool is
said to have failed.

3) Limiting value of increase in cutting forces: With increase in wear the tool forces increases (However,
cutting forces tend to decrease some - what with increase in crater wear on account of increase in effective
rake angle). A tool dynamometer or a power meter can therefore be used to monitor changes in cutting
forces or rate of power consumption. When their increase exceeds predetermined amount, the tool life is
said to have been exhausted.

4) Limiting value of Volume of metal removed: If the cutting conditions are kept constant (eg feed,
speed; depth of cut) the progress of tool wear is directly proportional to actual machining time or volume of
metal removed. Thus limiting value of volume of metal removed can be related to limiting value of width
of wear land on flank & can, therefore be used as tool failure criterion.

5) Complete failure: The tool is totally unable to cut i.e. it jams.

6) Preliminary failure: A narrow, highly burnished band appears on the machined surface. It indicates
very appreciable rubbing between the machined surface & the tool flank.

2.5 TOOL LIFE:


The tool life (T) is the cutting time in minutes at the end of which the tool may be said unusable on
the basis of selected tool life criterion. The various tool failure criteria may be direct or indirect as
discussed earlier.
The tool life equation is an empirical relationship between the tool life and one or more variables of
cutting process, e.g. cutting speed (V), feed (f), and depth of cut (d) etc. The most famous tool life equation
is due to F.W. Taylor. On the basis of experimental work, Taylor showed the tool life 'T' and cutting speed
'V' is related to each other as follows.
V. Tn = C . . . . . . (eqn. 2.5.1)

Where the constant 'n' is called the tool life exponent and the parameter 'C' is known as Taylor’s constant.
Making T = 1 in the above equation, we find that C = cutting speed for 1 min tool life. The constants n & C
depends upon the tool and work materials, feed and depth of cut, type of coolant and tool geometry etc.
Equation 2.5.1 can be written as

LogV + n Log T = log C or log T = (1/n) log C - (1/n) log V . . . . . (eqn 2.5.2)

Cutting speed - Tool life curves can be graphically expressed as shown in fig.2.7. From the graph it can be
seen that 'n' is the negative inverse slope of the curve and C is the intercept velocity at T = 1. The following
values may be taken for 'n'.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 27

n = 0.1 to 0.15 for HSS tools


= 0.2 to 0.4 for carbide tools
= 0.5 to 0.6 for ceramic tools.

V
larg er 'n ' for
(c) d iffusio n w ea r
(b )

LOG T
LOG T

sm a lle r 'n' fo r
a dh esiv e w e ar

LOG V
LOG V

The equation 2.5.1 can be generalized or modified to include the effects of feed and depth of cut one
such relationship is of the form

VTnfn1dn2 = C1 . . .. (Eqn .2.5.3)


Where the exponent n, n1, n2 and constant C1 depend upon tool and work materials, tool geometry and
type of coolants etc.
Following comments can be made from the tool life equation.
(1) Smaller the values of exponent, n, (as in HSS) the steeper is the slope of log V - log T line and
more is the sensitivity of tool life to changes in cutting speed. Thus the ideal tool material is one, which can
be used at any cutting speed without affecting tool life. i.e. when n=1. From this point of view ceramics are
superior to carbides and HSS.
(2) The larger the value of 'C' the greater is the tool life and superior is the tool material.
(3) Even under constant cutting conditions values of ‘n’ and 'C' are found to vary widely.
(4) In some cases, the tool life criterion changes with change in the predominant wear mechanism at
different cutting speeds. For example in cutting steel with carbide tools, the predominant mechanism
changes from adhesion wear at lower cutting speeds to diffusion wear at higher cutting speeds.
Consequently the tool life criterion has to be changed from limiting width of flank wear land to limiting
depth of crater wear. Since the values of exponent are different for different wear mechanisms the log T -
log V graph has two straight-line segments as shown in fig 2.7. (C).

2.6 VARIABLES (FACTORS) AFFECTING TOOL LIFE:


The various variables, which affect the tool life, are as under -
1. Tool material
2. Work material
3. Process variables - speed, feed, depth of cut
4. Tool geometry

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
28
5. Cutting fluid
6. Vibration behavior of machine tool work system

1. Tool Materials:
The life of tool is governed by the various properties of tool materials such as (i) Hot hardness to
resist deformation, adhesion & abrasion at the relatively high cutting temperatures on rake & flank faces of
tool especially at high cutting speed, (ii) Toughness to resist sudden loads in interrupted cutting & large
steady loads when heavy cuts are taken. (iii) Wear Resistance to retain form stability (Shape) & cutting
efficiency apart from this certain other properties such as high thermal conductivity & specific heat
(combined with low coefficient of thermal expansion) recovery hardness, lack of chemical affinity with
work material etc are also of secondary importance.
An ideal tool material is one, which removes maximum volume of material (tool life) at all cutting
speeds. Thus for a given cutting speed cemented carbide will have better tool life than HSS. Hence tool
life is dependant on type of tool material.

2. Work material:
The properties of the work material that tend to increase the tool life are as follows, (a) softness (or
lack of hardness) to reduce cutting forces, cutting temperature & abrasive wear, (b) absence of abrasive
component such as slag inclusions, surface scale & sand, (c) presence of desirable additives like lead to act
as boundary lubricants and sulphur to reduce cutting forces & temperatures by acting as stress raiser, and
(d) lack of work hardening tendency that tend to reduce cutting forces and temperatures and also abrasive
wear and (e) occurrence of favorable microstructure, e.g. presence of spheroidized pearlite instead of
lamellar pearlite in high carbon steel improves tool life. Similarly in cast irons, a structure that contains
large amount of free graphite & ferrite leads to greater tool life than one, which contains free iron carbide.

3. Process variables: (Speed, feed, depth of cut):


The cumulative effect of speed, feed & depth of cut can be seen from the modified Taylor’s tool life
equation. Increase in any one of the above reduces the tool life, but cutting speed has more impact on tool
life followed by feed & depth of cut. Tool life is a direct function of temperature. At higher feed, the
cutting force per unit area of chip tool contact on rake face & work tool contact on flank face is increased
there by increasing the temperature and hence wear rate. Similarly, at higher depth of cut, the area of chip
tool contact is increased roughly in proportion to change in depth of cut (such is not the case with feed
change where the chip tool contact area changes by larger proportion than change in depth of cut),
increasing the temperature & consequently the wear rate.

4. Tool geometry:
Rake angles, cutting edge angles, and relief angles & nose radius affect the tool life by varying
degree.
I) The cutting forces, tool temperatures & tool wear decrease with increase in rake angle (fig.2.8 a)
consequently tool life improves when rake angles are increased. However larger rake angles make the
cutting edge sharper reducing the mechanical strength & making the tool liable to chipping. Therefore
there is an optimum rake angle associated with every tool work pair.

o p tim u m
ra k e
Tool life

N e g a t i v e P o s i t iv e
ra k e ra k e
E ffe c tiv e R a k e A n g le
(a )E ffe c tiv e ra k e a n g le v e rs u s to o l lif e
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 29

ii) Large relief angle increases volume of wear required to reach a particular width of flank wear land
as seen from fig. 2.8 (b) and also reduces the tendency of rubbing between flank & work piece surface,
there by increasing the tool life. However, on the other hand, larger the relief angle smaller is the
mechanical strength of cutting edge & more liable the tool is to chipping fracture. Thus there is maximum
tool life for optimum relief angle as seen for fig.2.8 (c).
f f

hf hf
tool tool

Relief
angle Relief Angle

larger relief angle smaller relief angle


EFFECT OF RELIEF ANGLE ON TOOL LIFE

(C)

α
RELIEF ANGLE

iii) The side cutting edge angle alters the length of engaged cutting edge without affecting the depth of
cut. When end cutting edge angle is increased area of chip tool contact is increased without significantly
changing the cutting forces, thereby assisting to remove the heat at faster rate & keeping the temperature
low. Thus decrease in temperature increases the tool life. The cutting edge angle is beneficial in another
respect also. By moving the point of impact away from the tool tip, it saves it from chipping.
iv) Nose radius - Increase in nose radius increases the ratio of engaged cutting edge length to plan area of
cut thus increasing the tool life.

5. Cutting fluid: -
The cutting fluid cools the tool & work piece, acts as lubricant and reduces friction at chip tool
interface. Therefore the cutting temperatures are decreased & the use of cutting fluid in the tool materials
with low value of hot hardness (e.g.) shows appreciable increase in tool life. However in carbides &
oxides, which have high value of hot hardness, the cutting fluid has negligible effect on tool forces or tool
life.

6. Vibration Behavior of Machine tool Work System: -

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
30
If the machine is not properly designed, if the work piece is long and thin or if the tool overhang is
excessive, chatter may occur during cutting. It is known that chatter may cause fatigue failure or calas
tropic failure of tool due to mechanical shock.

2.7. Machinability: -
Machinability is the property of material to be machined, which governs the case or the difficulty
with which it can be machined under a given set of conditions. In spite of the efforts made by the number
of investigators, so far, there has been no exact quantitative definition of Machinability. It is due to large
number factors involved & their complexity in metal cutting process viz. forces & power, tool life, surface
finish etc. These are dependent upon number of variable such as work material, cutting conditions, M/C
tool rigidity tool geometry. Due to this, it is impossible to combine these factors so as to give a suitable
definition for Machinability. It is of a considerable economic importance for production engineer to know
in advance the Machinability of work material so that he can its processing in an efficient manner.

2.7.1 Criteria of Machinability: -


The case of machining different materials can be compared in terms of various criteria based on tool
life values, cutting forces surface finish. Some other criteria, eg. ease of chip disposal & operator safety can
also be employed.

1. Tool Life Criterion: -


Tool life is usually the most important of the three main criteria used for assessing machinability.
This is due to the fact that the tool life can be conveniently expressed in terms of cutting speed (which being
the direct function of cutting speed when all other variables are kept constantly. Thus the cutting speed for
producing a predetermined value of tool life, termed as specific cutting speed, could be assessed on basis of
comparison of machinability of materials. For example if "Vs" is the cutting speed to produce a tool life
"T" for a standard material, then the machinability of the test material can be expressed as (Vt/Vs) x 100
and is called as machinability index or rating and "Vt" is the cutting speed for producing same tool life "T"
for test material.
The machinability rating for free cutting steel is arbitrarily fixed as 100%. According to this the
machinability indexes for some common material are given below: -
C - 20 Steel - 65
C - 45 Steel - 60
Stainless Steel - 25
Copper - 70
Red Brass - 180
Al. alloys - 300-1500
Mg. alloys - 600-2000

2. Cutting Force Criteria: -


This criterion is important, where it is necessary to limit values of cutting force in keeping with
rigidity of machine tool & to avoid vibration in machining. If the cutting force is high consequently the
power consumption is also high, a larger machine tool may be required, thus increasing the overhead cost
and unit production cost. The specific cutting energy of a given material, defined as cutting power required
for removing a unit volume of material in unit time, is often considered as index for machinability of a
given work material. The larger the specific cutting energy, i.e. higher the cutting forces induced under a
set of cutting conditions during the machining of a material, the lower is its machinability index.

3. Surface Finish Criteria: -


According to this criterion, the work material will have better machinability if under a given cutting
conditions, it takes on a better surface finish (Polish or is less rough) than the other. This criterion is used
in situations where surface finish is the cause of rejection of machined parts. In such case the first two
criteria may not be helpful, because in spite of particular work material permitting the use of higher cutting
speeds without an excessive number of tool changes or power consumption, satisfactory finish may not be
achieved.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 31

4. Other Criteria: -
Several other criteria have been put forward to assess machinability of different work materials.
Prominent among these are (a) Temperature developed at chip tool interface, (b) depth of hole cut out in a
given time by a standard drill that rotates at a standard speed and specified downward thrust (penetration
test), and (c) depth of cut produced by a power hacksaw on a standard bar of given material under standard
sawing conditions of speed and downward pressure (sawing test). Even physical properties like hardness,
tensile strength, shearing strain per unit shear stress in plastic range, and different combination physical,
properties ( eg. hardness, specific weight, ductility etc.) have been correlated with tool life in order to use
them as machinability measures.

2.7.2 Comments or Relative Importance of Various Criteria: -


The relative importance of various considerations for assessing the machinability of material is
governed by the type of machining operations. For example for roughing, the primary consideration is the
maximum metal removal rate, which is directly influenced by the cutting speed. So machinability rating
based on cutting speed will be appropriate and will facilitate pre-selection of optimum speed. In the case of
finishing the surface finish is more important and hence it should be the criterion for machinability. When
rigidity of the machine tool, cutting tool or the work piece, and the power available on the machine tool are
critical factors, the machinability could be based on the cutting forces. In spite of this in some case the
other criteria can also be employed.
In spite of availability of several machinability criteria, a wholly satisfactory unit of machinability
has still not been found. For example, if different tool materials, different cutting conditions or different
operations are used to assess the relative machinability for the same set of work materials, different
machinability ratings are obtained. Therefore the tables of machinability ratings are used only for general
guidance during process planning.

2.7.3. Variables affecting machinability: -


Machinability is influenced by variables pertaining to machine tool, cutting tool, cutting conditions
or work material. These variables are listed as under.
A) Machine Variables: -
1. Capacity of machine: (Power, torque - accuracy of machine)
2. Rigidity of machine & work holding devices.
B) Tool Variables: -
1. Tool material (HSS, Carbide, Ceramics etc)
2. Tool geometry (Tool angles, radii, type etc)
3. Nature of tool engagement with work.
(Continuous of intermittent, entrance & exit conditions)
C) Cutting Conditions: -
1. Cutting speed, 2. Feed, 3. Depth of cut
D) Work material variables: -
1. Hardness, 2. Tensile Shength, 3. Chemical Composition,
4. Microstructure, 5. Degree of cold work, 6. Shape & dimensions of work,
7. Rigidity of work piece, 8. Strain hardenability.
2.8. SURFACE FINISH: (ROUGHNESS)
The quality a machined surface is characterized by accuracy of manufacture in aspect to the
dimensions specified by the designer. Every machining process leaves its evidence on the surface that has
been machined. This evidence is in the form of finely spaced micro-irregularities left by the cutting tool.
Each kind of tool leaves its own pattern that can be identified. This pattern in called surface finish or
surface roughness. Whenever two machined surface come in contact with each other, the quality of the
mating surfaces plays an important role in performance & wear of the mating parts. Some degree of
roughness, which may be extremely small, is always present on any surface.

2.8.1 Factors affecting surface finish:

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
32
The various factors, which contribute to the quality of surface finish, are as follows:
1) Machining Parameters: a) Cutting speed, b) feed, c) Depth of cut.
2) Tool geometry.
3) Work Material
4) Machine tool (i) Mach. Par.
a) Cutting Speed: Increase in cutting speed in general improves surface finish due to continuous reduction
of BUE. The curve 'A' (Fig.2.10 a) represents the machining of steels except high alloy grade steel.
Increase in cutting speed from 'V1' to 'V2' shows increase in roughness as built up edge increase reaches its
maximum value at 'V2'. Then rise in temperature suppresses or reduces formation of built up edge and at
'V3' it almost disappears. This reduces the height of micro irregularities. Further increase in cutting speed
reduces surface roughness. The absence of built up edge formation in curve 'B' for machining of high alloy
steels, non-famous metals & cast iron shows decrease in surface roughness from beginning (i.e. no rise in
roughness as in curve 'A' is observed)
d ry
r e fin e d k e r o se n e

H 100 e m u lsio n

a c tiv a te d
(MICRONS)
(MICRONS)

A k erosen e
H(RMS)

v 1v 2 v 3 v
m /m in 0
(a )E ffe c t o f c u ttin g s p e e d f
0.075
0.10
0.14
0.2

(b) Effect of feed


b) Feed: Increase in feed deteriorates surface, finish. It is observed that a rate of feed (f) in the range 0.12
mm/rev. to 0.15 mm/rev. has a negligible effect on the height of irregularities but further increase in feed
rate increases surface roughness Fig.2.10 (b) shows effect of feed for different coolants on height of surface
irregularity.
c) Depth of Cut: Increase in depth of cut deteriorates the surface finish.

2) Tool geometry: - The effect tool geometry on surface finish is as follows:


a) Nose radius: Increase in nose radius improves surface finish. There is appreciable improvement in
surface finish up to 0.3 mm. nose radius. Higher value of nose radius produces less improvement in surface
finish & on the other hand it causes chatter during machining.
b) Rake angle: Increase in rake angle of tool improves surface finish.
c) Relief angle: Increase in relief angle adversely affects surface finish but the effect, as a whole is small.
d) Side cutting edge angle: An increase in side cutting edge angle improves surface finish largely because
of the reduced chip thickness but the degree of improvement depends upon the rigidity of the work & it’s
mounting.
e) Cutting edge: The height of micro irregularity of the cutting edge affects the micro-geometry of the
machined surface. The jags on the cutting edge are reproduced directly on the ridges of the machined
surface, increasing their height. Therefore cutting edge of the tool should be carefully ground & lapped to
reduce the micro-irregularities of the cutting edge.

3) Work material: Different materials have different machinability ratings when surface finish is selected
criteria. Hence surface finish is affected by the type of work materials.

4) Machine Tool: The accuracy of bearings, the quality of machine tool, vibration behavior of machine tool
etc. has direct impact on the quality of surface finish obtained in machining.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 33

2.8.2. Surface finish Terminology:


a) Roughness: This includes surface irregularities resulting due to the various manufacturing processes.
These irregularities combine to form surface texture.
Other definition Roughness (Primary texture): relatively fined-spaced surface irregularities. On surfaces
produced by machining and abrasive operations, the irregularities produced by cutting action of tool edges
and abrasive grains and by the feed of the machine tool are roughness. Roughness may be considered as
being superposed on a wavy surface.
b) Roughness Height: It is the height of the irregularities with reference to an average line: The value of
roughness height can be expressed in two ways
i) Arithmetic average value (Ra)
ii) Root mean Square (rms) value.
The arithmetic of average height value is given by
Ra = hta -∑ yi/n. . . . .. eqn 2.8.1
Where
Y = Vertical distance of the profile from centerline.
n = Total no. of vertical measurements.

hrms = ∑ yi 2
n
c) Roughness Width: It is the distance parallel to the nominal surface between successive peaks or ridges,
which constitute the predominant pattern of the roughness.
d) Roughness width cut off: It is the greatest spacing of the repetitive surface irregularities to be included
in the measurement of average roughness height. It is always greater than the roughness width in order to
obtain the total roughness height rating.
e) Lay: It is the direction of predominant surface pattern produced & reflects the machining method.
Lay: The direction of predominant surface pattern. A typical surface is shown in Fig. 14.9. The
identification of the macrogeometrical of microgeometrical errors is based on (l/h) ratio as shown in
Fig.14.10. When (l1/h1) > 1000, the deviation is macrogeometrical denoting out-of-roundness, taper or
barrerl form. When 500>(l2/h2)≥ 150 the deviations denote waviness. When (l3/h3) ≤ 50, the
microgeometrical deviations are characteristic of surface roughness.

f) Waviness: This refers to the irregularities, which are outside the roughness width cut off values. It may
be result of work deflecting during machining, working & vibrations.
Waviness (secondary texture other definition): - The surface irregularities, which are of greater spacing
than the roughness. On machined surfaces such irregularities may result from machine and work
deflections, vibrations, etc.
h) Flaws: Cracks, scratches & ridges are called flaws. They are not regularly recurring & are imperfections
outside the regular pattern of surface texture.
other definition FLAWS: Irregularities, which occur at one place or at relatively infrequent intervals in the
surface, e.g., a scratch, ridge, hole, crack, etc.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
34

PEAKS
ROUGHNESS SPACING

CENTRE LINE

VALLEYS
CUT-OFF LENGTH

2.8.2 Ideal Surface Roughness & natural surface Roughness:


The surface finish is dependent upon tool geometry, feed rate & other irregularities or contributing
factors in the machining process. Such roughness is called natural surface roughness. If the other
contributing factors are entirely eliminated them the surface roughness produced will depend entirely on
tool geometry such surface roughness is called ideal surface roughness.

Sum of areas above & below mean line.


Ra = Arithmetic mean or average value =
Sampling length.

The mean line is selected such that the sum of areas above the line is equal to sum of the areas below the
line. If the sampling length is taken equal to feed, 'f' then
area I + area I 2(areaI )
Ra = = ( Area I =Area II)
f f

2(1 / 2)( f / 2)( h / 2) h


Ra orh CLA= =
2 4
Where "h" is the height of the geometry of the surface roughness.
Now from geometry:
f
h = ----------------------------------- . . . . . . . Eqn 2.8.4
tan "SCEA" + Cot "ECEA"
from Eqn 2.8.4 & 2.8.3. we have
Ra = f/4.(tan "SCEA" + Cot "ECEA")
or Ra = f/4.(tan "Cs" + Cot "Ce") . . . . . . . Eqn. 2.8.5.
For rounded corner tool, the ideal value of surface roughness is
hCLA = f2/8R and Ra = f2/18 3 R . . . . . . . . . Eqn 2.8.5.
E
Where "R" is nose radius.CThus, a change in the rate of feed is more important than a change in
nose radius and depth out has no effect on the surface geometry.
H
f

d
ECEA
TOOL
(a)
SCEA
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 35

f
h
/2

I II (b
)

2.8.4 Representation of surface finish:


The surface roughness is represented as shown in fig. 2.13.
The various specifications are as follows.
a. Roughness value, Ra, Um
b. Production method treatment or coating.
b c. Sampling length, mm
c (f) d. Direction of lay
a
e. Machining allowance.
e d
f. = Other roughness value (in bracket)
1S0 have recommended a series of roughness values & corresponding roughness
symbols as shown in the following table.

Table: Surface roughness values.

Sr. No. Type of operation Representation as per IS 3073 - 1967


Symbol Relative values in microns
1. Rough machining ∇ 8 - 25
2. Fine machining ∇∇ 1.6 - 8
3. Grinding ∇∇∇ 0.025 - 1.6
4. Lapping ∇∇∇∇ < 0.025

2.8.5. Cost of surface finish


The cost of machining of any component is greatly dependent on the quality of surface roughness
required on the part. The cost increased, if the specified roughness on the part decreases. In other words
E cost involved. The various reasons for this increase are
smoother the required surface, the greater is the
given below.
1. High feed & depth of cut cannot be used.
2. Frequent tool changes are required as the tool failure criteria permits lower width of wear land.
D h o n o n i n methods,
3. The set up requires more of effective clamping g special tools or inserts and more frequent
closer inspections. C
g r in d in g
lin e a r v a r ia tio n
Machining cost

A
f in is h t u r n in g

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
1 / hC L A
36

R O U G H N E S S A V E R A G E R a - Mµ I C R O M E T E R M

PR O C ESS 1 2 .5 6 .3 2 . 2 1 .6 0 .8 0 0 .4 0 0 .2 0 0 .1 0 0 . 0 5 0 .0 2 5
25

F L A M E C U T T IN G
S N A G G IN G
S A W IN G
P IC N IN G S H A P IN G

D R IL L IN G
C H E M IC A L M IL L IN G
E L E C T . D IS C H A R G E M A C H IN IN G
M IL L IN G

B R O A C H IN G
R E A M IN G
ELECTRON BEAM
LASER
E L E C T R O C H E M IC A L
B O R IN G , T U R N IN G

E L E C T R O N IC G R IN D IN G
G R IN D IN G
H O N IN G

E L E C T R O P O L IS H
P O L IS H IN G
L A P P IN G
S U P E R F IN IS H IN G

Fig 2.15 surface finish produced by machining operations

In the figure the inverse of surface roughness (i.e. surface finish) is plotted against machining cost.
The increase in cost with reduction in roughness is gradual in rough turning (up to points). But for finish
turning it increases exponentially. The surface roughness produced by various machining operations is
given in 2.14 (a)

2.8 Cutting Fluids : -


2.9.1 Functions of cutting Fluid: -
During the metal cutting heat is generated. The heat is generated due to the plastic deformation of
the chips, friction between the rake face & chips & friction between clearance face & work piece. The heat
generated increases the temperature of both cutting tool & work piece. The increase in temperature of tool
decreases hardness & hence wear resistance & life. The effect is more pronounced in H.S.S. tools than in
carbide tools. Fig.2.16 (a) shows zones of heat generation. In shear zone maximum heat in generated (i.e.
60 %). In chip - tool zone, 30% heat is generated, whereas in tool-work zone minimum heat (i.e. 10%) is
generated. In fig. (2.1% (b) it can be seen that at higher cutting speeds the distribution of heat in chips,
tools & work piece is nearly in the ratio 80:10:10
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 37

Moreover, apart from heat generation the chips also create problems in metal cutting such as bad
surface finish due to abrasion of chips to the tool or finished work piece. On these aspects the functions of
cutting fluid can be summarized as follows.
1) Lubrication at chip tool interfaces & work tool interface & hence preventing welding between contact
surfaces.
2) Cooling action or heat dissipation to avoid loss of hardness & wear resistance & hence improve tool life.
3) Flushing of chip to protect surface finish & improve tool life. Cutting fluids, besides fulfilling the above
functions should have following properties.
1) It should be stable & non-foaming.
2) It should not have deleterious effect on the operator, by omitting bad odour or causing skin irritation etc.
3) It should be compatible with the other lubricants & elements of the machine tool.
4) It should have low evaporation rate & should not fume.
The effect of cutting fluids in metal cutting is indicated in Fig.2.17.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
38

2.9.2 Types of Cutting Fluids: -


The detailed classification of cutting fluids is shown in 2.16. They are broadly classified into: (i)
Neat oil, (ii) Soluble oil, (iii) Synthetic coolant, & (iv) Gaseous fluid. Besides this a true solution i.e. water
mixed with corrosion inhibitors, is also used but has poor lubricating action.

Fig.2.13: Family of cutting fluids

a) Neat Oil: - is mineral oil, vegetable oil or blends of these oil straight mineral oil i.e. without additives is
not suitable for high loading & speed & hence used only in light machining of non ferrous metals like
Aluminum & magnesium. Compounded oils (i.e. mineral oil blended with fatty acids like lard oil, oleic
acid, sperm oil etc) have high boundary lubrication properties. Suitable for the machining of tough non-
ferrous alloys, especially in automates, as they do not stain the surface. They are not popular due to low
film strength at higher temperature. However addition of extreme pressure additives (E.P.) likes
phosphorus, Chloride & Sulphur eliminates this drawback. In the inactive EP oil, the EP additives are not
easily available for reaction with work piece. On the other hand in active EP oils the EP additives are easily
released to stain or chemically react with work piece. Hence they are not suitable for machining of copper
& its alloys. Active oils are mainly used in most severe operations on the toughest steels. The triple
combination of fatty oil, chloride & sulphur additives impart wet ability, oiliness & anti-weld properties,
enabling the cutting oil to be effective over a wide temperature range & extreme range of pressure.

b) Soluble Oil or Water emulsion: -


Soluble oil is blend of mineral oil, emulsifying agents & coupling agents. Emulsion is formed by mixing
soluble oil with water in the ratio 1:10 to 1:40 for general machining & up to 1:80 for grinding.
Conventional emulsions are milky in appearance. Translucent emulsions are made by reducing oil droplet
size of emulsion with a high ratio of emulsifier to oil. They have higher film strength & better anticorrosive
properties than opaque emulsions. They also provide improved tool lubrication due to fine dispersion of oil
globules. Heavy-duty soluble oils i.e. soluble oils blended with fatty acids & EP additives, can withstand
heavy cutting pressure & temperature. Heavy-duty soluble oils are used in rich concentration with ratios
ranging from 1:5 to 1:15.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 39

c) Synthetic Coolants: - They are usually non petroleum products, though sometimes a small percentage of
mineral oil is added, many chemical agents blended in water form synthetic coolants. Basically they are
coolants, though some are also lubricants. They are used in grinding than in other operations & they are
mixed in the ratio 1:50 to 1:250 parts of water. The main problem associated with use of synthetic coolant
is its compatibility with the other lubricants, seals metal parts. Because they are chemically active, they
react easily with paints, other metal parts, etc. Before deciding on the use of these coolants, this aspect
should be thoroughly looked into comparative performance of these three fluids is given in the Table 2.1.

d) Gaseous Fluid: The high cost restricts use of gaseous fluid. Mist is commonly used gaseous fluid.
Mostly compressed air is used to atomize the coolant & carry it to the point of cutting in the form of mist.
Gases like carbon dioxide, Freon, and helium are used for special applications.

Table: Comparative Performance of Various Types of Cutting Fluids


Sr. Soluble oil Neat oil Synthetic coolant
No.
1. Promotes better cooling- Promotes better lubrication- Poor lubricating property like
hence effective in hence effective in reducing soluble oil, but better cooling
transporting the heat heat generation. property than soluble oil
2. Prone to bacteria Good service life, no Life better than soluble oil
contamination and unpleasant odour
obnoxious odour-so
frequent change is essential
3. Requires periodic No monitoring required Monitoring is less frequent
monitoring of compared to soluble oil
concentration
4. Not always compatible No compatibility problem Compatibility problem is severe
with the machine must be thoroughly looked into
5. Clean atmosphere Prone to fuming Clean atmosphere
6. Cannot be recycled- Can be recycled Cannot be recycled, less problem
problem of disposal arises of disposal
7. Susceptible to risk of oil Susceptible to risk of skin Some chemicals may be toxic
dermatitis cancer
8. Tramp oil like hydraulic Little effect with tramp oil Little effect with tramp oil
and other lubricating oil
will reduce the life
9. Low initial cost High initial cost Low initial cost

2.9.3. Selection of cutting fluids: -


The major factors which govern the selection of cutting fluids are (i) machining process, (ii) the
cutting tool materials, & (iii) the work piece materials. Besides these factors, compatibility with the
machine, performance requirements, human interaction & economy must also he look into? Specifying a
particular fluid as most suitable for a specific application is almost impossible. When more than one
operation is performed on the machine this problem becomes more difficult. Neat oil may be better choice
than soluble oil when the cutting fluid is likely to see into the drive or control system. The factors
influencing selection of cutting fluid are shown in fig.2.17.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
40

Table - General Guidance to the Selection of Cutting Fluids


Free Non-ferrous,
Non-ferrous,
machining Stainless Tough-machining
Medium- High- easy-machining
Sr. low-carbon and heat- aluminum bronze,
Machining process carbon carbon magnesium, zinc
No. steel, cast resistant gun metal, nickel
alloy steel alloy steel and aluminum
iron, cast alloys copper,
alloys
steel Etc.
1. Broaching 4 5 5 5 2 2

2. Tapping and threading 3.4 4.3 4 4 6.1 6.1

3. Gear cutting 3 3 4 4 6.1 6.1

4. Thread and form grinding 3.4 4.3 4 4 - -

5. Reaming 3.4 4.3 4 4 6 6

6. Drilling-deep-hole 5 5 5 5 9 9

7. Honing 1.2 1.2 2 2 6 6

8. Automats 1.2 1.2 2.1 24 6.1 6.1


Drilling,
9. Boring, turning and 7 7 9.7 9.7 7 8
Milling
10. Sawing 7 7 7 7 7 7

11. Grinding 7.8 7.8 8.7 8.7 7 7


(1) Mild sulphurized fatty oils. (2) Mild sulphc chlorinated oils. (3) Medium sulphurized fatty oils. (4) High sulphur fatty
chlorinated oils. (5) High chlorinated mild sulphurized fatty oils. (6) Fatty mineral oils. (7) Soluble oil (8) Translucent soluble oil
(9) Heavy-duty soluble oil.
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
Example 1: Tool life test has been carried at two different cutting speeds. The width of flank wear
land has been measured after every 10 minutes at each cutting speed. The width of flank wears land at V =
150 m/min were noted as 0.10, 0.15, 0.22, 0.25, 0.30, and 0.35, min after 10,20,30,40,50,60,70 minutes of
cutting respectively. Similarly at the cutting speed "V" = 200 m/min the values of width of flank wear land
were noted as 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.85 mm for cutting time of 10,20,30,40,50,60,70 minutes
respectively. If the criterion of tool failure is selected, as 0.30 mm, width of flank wear land, calculate
values of "n" & "c" of the Taylor's tool life equation.

Solution:
As the tool failure criterion is 0.3 mm, the value of cutting time corresponding to this value will be
the tool life at that cutting speed. From the above data we have,
Tool life T1 = 60 min. for V1 = 150 m/min., and
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 41

T2 = 30 min. For V2 = 200 m/min.


Therefore putting these values in the Taylor's T.L. equation we have.

(V1) (T1) n = C i.e., (150) (60) n = C . . . . . . . . . . (i)


And (V2) (T2) 2 = C i.e., (200) (30) n = C . . . . . . . . . . (ii)
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), we have.
(150/200) x (60/30) n = 1, or 2n = 1.33
n log 2 = log 1.33 i.e.
n = 0.415.
Putting value of 'n' in equation (i) we get C = 820.5

Example 2: In a mass production lathe the number components produced single pass turning
operation between two consecutive tool changes different spindle speeds (N) and feeds (f mm/rev.) were
recorded under. Estimate the number of components that can be produced at a spindle speed of 350, rpm
and feed of 0.150 mm/rev.
Spindle speed (N) 250 250 300
Feed, (mm/rev) 0.100 0.125 0.125
No. of components (m) 311 249 144

Solution:
Let m = No. of components produced between consecutive tool changes,
V = Cutting speed, (m/min)
T = Tool life (min.)
f = Feed rate, (mm/rev)
L = Length of cut, (mm)
D = Work piece diameter (mm)
Tm = time to produce one work piece = L/f.N.
We express the tool life equation as
VTn fn1 = C . . . . . . . . . . (i)
Where n, n1 & C are constants.
V = π .D.N./1000 . . . . . . . . . (ii)
m = T/Tm = ( T.f.N.)/L
Therefore, T = (m.L)/f.N. . . . . . . . . (iii)
Substituting (ii) & (iii) in (i), we get
( π . D.N./1000) x ( m.L./f.N.)n x fn1 = C
N1-n, mn , fn1-n = (1000 C.L. -n/π . D.)
or N1-n, mn. fn1-n = C1 . . . . . . . . . . (iv)
Substituting values of N,f, & m in (iv) we get.
(250)1-n x (311)n x (0.100)n1-n = Cl . . . . . . . (v)
(250)1-n x (249)n x (0.125)n1-n = Cl . . . . . . . (vi)
and (300)1-n x (144)n x (0.125)n1-n = Cl .. . . . . . (vii)
Dividing (vii) by (vi) we get, (250/300) 1-n x (249/144)n = l
or (1-n) log (250/300) + n log (249/144) = 0
n = 0.25 Similarly by dividing (v) by (vi) we get n1 = 0.500
Substituting values of n & n1 in (v) we get C1 = 148.4
Putting N = 350, f = 0.150, n = 0.25 & n1 = 0.500 in (iv) we get m = 75

Example 3 :In a laboratory test on turning operation, the following data have been recorded,
S.No. V, m/min f mm/rev. d, mm T, min.
1 100 0.10 2.0 120
2. 130 0.10 2.0 50
3. 100 0.12 3.0 70
4. 100 0.12 3.0 65

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
42

A tool life equation is to be deducted by computing the values n, n1, n2 & C in the relationship
V.Tn.fn1.d.n2 = C, Also, computes tool life at a cutting speed of 120 m/min, a feed of 0.20 mm/rev. and d =
2mm.

Solution: Putting values of V,f,d & T in T.L. equation we get


100 x (120) n x (0.10) n1 x (2) n2 . . . . . . .. . (i)
130 x (50) n x (0.10) n1 = (2) n2 = C . . . . .. (ii)
100 x (70) n x (0.12) n1 = (2) n2 = C . . . . .. (iii)
100 x (65) n x (0.12) n1 = (3) n2 = C . . . . .. (iv)
Therefore
(i) & (ii) gives (100/130) x [120/50]n = 1 or
n log [ 120/50] = log [130/100]. Therefore, n = 0.30
Putting values of n in (iii) & (iv) & dividing (iv) by (iii) get.
(65/70) x (3/2) n2 = 1 or
n2 log [3/2] = log 1.66, Therefore n2 = 0.38
Putting values of n in (ii) & (iii) & dividing (iii) by (ii). We get
(100/130) x (70/50) n x (0.12/0.10) n1 = 1
n1 log (0.12/0.10) = log (1.18), Therefore n1 = 0.885
Putting these values in eqn (i) we get C = 72.13. Now at V = 120m/min
f=0.20 mm/rev, & d=2mm, we get T = 8.77 min.

Example 4: The tool life equation for a turning operation is given as 36.5 = V. T 0.13, f0.60.60 d0.3 .A 60 min.
tool life was obtained using the following cutting conditions; V = 40 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev. d=2.0 mm.
Calculate the effect on tool life if speed, feed, and depth of cut are together increased by 25% and also if
they are increased individually by 25%

Solution: Putting V = m/min, f = 0.25 mm & d = 2 mm we get,


40 x (60) 0.13 x (0.25) 0.60 36.50
Now of values of V, f, & d are individually increased by 25% i.e. by Selecting.
V = 40 x 1.25 = 50 m/min.
f = 0.25 x 1.25 = 0.3125 mm/rev. and
d = 2.0 x 1.25 = 2.5 mm
Tool life T = [36.50/50 x (0.25) 0.3 x (2.0) 0.3] 1/0.13 = 10.78 min.
Similarly, for, V = 40m/min, f=0.3125 mm/rev & d = 2.0 mm, we
get T = 21.42 min
and for V = 40 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev & d = 2.0 mm, we get T = 35.85 min.
If all these values are increased together i.e. for V = 50m/min, f=0.3125 mm/rev. and d = 2.5 mm,
we get T = 1.26 min.
It can be seen that the impact of increase in cutting speed on tool life is maximum.

Example 5. The tool life for H.S.S. tool is expressed by the relation V.T.0.14 = C1 and for tungsten carbide
is VT0.2 = C2. It at a speed of 24m/min tool life for both the tools is 128 minutes; compare the life of tools
at a speed of 30 m/min.

Solution
For HSS tool, V x T0.14 = C1 . . . . . . . . . . . . (i)
i.e. 24 x (128)0.2 = C2
C1 = 48
For Wc tool, V0T0.20 = C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . (ii)
i.e. 24 x (128) 0.2 = C2
C2 = 62
Let the tool life values for HSS & WC tools be T1, and T2 respectively at V = 30 m/min.
Therefore we have
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 43

For HSS, 30 x (T1) 0.14 = 48


i.e. T1 = 29 min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (iii)
& For WC, 30 x (T2) 0.20 = 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (iv)
i.e. T2 = 38 min.
Thus, at higher cutting speed of 30 m/min. WC Tools gives better tool life than HSS tools or the tool life of
HSS tool T1 = (29/38) x T2 or 0.7 x T2 at V = 30m/min.

Example 6: The cutting speed and tool life relationship for a tool is given by V.T.0.2 = C. During
machining, 18 mm bar on a lathe at a cutting speed of 110 m/min. the tool life is found to be 60 minutes.
Calculate spindle speed to give a tool life of 5 hours. If length of cut per component is 50 mm, what is the
cutting time per piece and how many pieces can be produced between tool changes at a feed of 0.15
mm/rev?
Solution: From tool life relationships.
C = (110) x (60) 0.2 = 249.47
Therefore for T = 60 x 5 minutes, we have
V = 249.47/(300) 0.2 = 79.72 m/min.
Hence spindle speed N = 1000 C/π x D = 1410 rpm.
Cutting time/piece = L/f. N.
= 50 x 60/(0.15 x 1410) = 0.24 min.
Therefore, number of components produced in 5 hours tool life
50 x 60 x 6/0.24 = 1249

QUESTIONS
1.What are the various causes or mechanisms of tool wear? Explain.
2.Explain what is meant by the terms - (Explain with neat sketches)
1.Attrition wears
2.Diffusion Wear
3.Abrasive Wear
4.Fatigue Wear
5.Plastic deformation
6.Electrochemical wear & chemical wear.
3.Differentiate between "flank wear" and 'Crater wear'
4.What is the difference between 'Abrasion wear' & 'Attrition wear’?
5.Why tool wear is important in metal cutting?
6.What is meant by 'tool life’? What is its significance to an engineer who is interested in productivity?
7.What are the various tool life or tool failure criteria?
8.State the general from of Taylor's tool life equation and also give the modified Taylor's tool life equation.
9. Explain the typical cutting speed-tool life curve. If this curve is plotted on log-log graph how can the
value of exponent 'n' and constant 'C' be indicated on this graph?
10.Explain with a typical example how the change in the criteria of tool life changes the value of exponent
of shape of the plot?
11.What are the various factors effecting tool life?
12. Explain the effect of various process variables on tool life?
13. What is the effect of work material and tool material on tool life?
14. How does tool geometry affect tool life?
15. Define the term machinability. Explain how following influences it: -
i) Work material microstructure ii) Type of out, iii) Tool rake angle.
16. What are the various criteria of machinability?
17. Define machinability index.
18. How will you select the machinability criterion for a given set of conditions?
20. What are the sources of best generation in metal cutting? How is the heat distributed in chip, tool &
work piece?
21. What are the basic functions of cutting fluids?

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
44
22. What are the effects of cutting fluid in metal cutting?
23. How are the cutting fluids classified?
24. Compare the performance of neat oil, soluble oil and synthetic coolant.
25. What are the various factors influencing selection of cutting fluids?
26. Which coolants would you suggest for turning of following metals with H.S.S. tool? i) Mild steel, 2)
Aluminum, 3) Copper,
27. Recommend a cutting fluid for broaching or
i) Low Carbon Steel, ii) Stainless steel, iii) Aluminum alloy, iv) Copper.
28. State the factors responsible for surface roughness?
29. Explain the effect of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on surface finish.
30. What is the effect of tool geometry on surface finish?
31. What is surface finish? Describe the elements of surface texture.
32. Explain the following terms.
i) Roughness, ii) Roughness height, iii) Roughness width, iv) Lay, v) Waviness, vi) Flame,
33. What is ideal surface roughness & natural surface roughness?
34. What is hCLA or R-value? Derive an expression for the theoretical roughness of a surface machined with
single point tool.
35. What is the effect of surface roughness on cost of production?
36. In general give a broad range of surface roughness that can be achieved in various machining
operations.
37. How is surface finish represented on drawing?
38. The tool life for HSS tool is expressed by relation V.T.1/7 C1 and for W-C tool is expressed as V.T.= C.
If at a speed of 24 mpm the tool life is 120 minutes, compare the life of tool at a speed of 30 mpm.
39. For a particular machining set up the tool life equation is given as V.T. 0.2 = C. During machining of an
18 mm diameter bar on a lathe at a cutting speed of 110 m/min, the life of tool is found to the 60 minutes.
Calculate spindle speed to give tool life of 5 hours. If a length of 50 mm per component is machined what
is the cutting time per piece and how many pieces can be produced between tool changes? The feed used is
0.15 mm/revolution 40. During the tool life test for HSS tool used to cut special die steel the following
observations were recorded. Use the above values to calculate the constants of tool life equation.
----------------------------------------------------
Vm/. in 52 50 49 46 42
----------------------------------------------------
Tminutes 03 04 4.9 10.5 30
----------------------------------------------------
(Hint: Plot graph on log - log basis)
41. When turning under certain conditions the relationships between the cutting speed and tool life could be
expressed as V.T.n = C. In the tool life test, life of 10 minutes has been obtained at a cutting speed of 200
m/minute. At what speed would the tool have to be operated to get a tool life of 240 minutes? Assume n =
0.2.

CHAPTER-III
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS AND NOMENCLATURE

3.1 Introduction:
Before 1990, machining had been carried out with plain carbon steel tools or air hardening alloy
steel known as Mushet steel. The machining speeds were low due to failure of cutting tool to maintain
hardness at high temperature generated due to high cutting speeds. A big break-through has been achieved
when F.W. Taylor developed a tool material (called high speed steel), which can operate at relatively higher
cutting speeds. The cast cobalt base alloy tools appeared on the scene in 1915. They have higher hot
hardness; wear resistance & fewer tendencies to form BUE. In 1926, Germans introduced a new material
called sintered tungsten carbide tools, manufactured by the powder metallurgical technique. They can
operate at comparatively very high cutting speeds than HSS tools. Addition of carbides of titanium,
tantalum & niobium to basic tungsten carbides enhanced range of application of the carbides. Later on
coating of titanium carbides has been applied on cemented tungsten carbide increasing the permissible
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 45

speed by about 50-80% over the conventional carbides. Ceramic tools (or cemented oxide tools) were
produced & developed in 1960's. The permissible speed with cemented oxides is two three times higher
than those with cemented carbides. However, the brittleness restricts their use to only on rigid or (more of
less vibration free) machine tools. In 1971, Union carbide (USA) developed a new material UCON,
consisting of columbium, tungsten & titanium, permitting increase in cutting speed compared to carbides.
In 1972, a new tool material called cubic boron nitride, (Borozon) with hardness next to diamond has been
developed. Consequently, permissible machining speed with these tools is five to eight times that of
carbides & can he used to cut hardest materials. Polycrystalline diamond bonded to carbide base has been
used as a tool material.

3.2. Desirable Properties of Cutting tool materials:


The three most important desirable properties of tool materials are wear resistance, hot hardness &
Toughness. This is because during machining, the tool tip is subject to relatively high temperature, intense
normal pressure, frictional stress at chip tool contact & work tool contact, impact & vibrations.
Apart from these three important properties some other properties such as thermal conductivity for
removal of heat from chip tool interface, low coefficient of thermal expansion, weldability, hardenability,
dimensional stability, freedom from distortion after heat treatment etc are also desired.

a) Wear Resistance: It is also called as abrasive wear resistance (or AWR). Wear resistance, is necessary
to enable the cutting tool to retain its shape & cutting efficiency. Wear may be caused due to various
mechanisms such as attritition or adhesion, diffusion, abrasion etc. Wear resistance refers to the ability of
tool material to retain its sharpness & shape for sufficiently long time while machining a given material at a
relatively low cutting speed. Wear resistance & toughness are two independent properties. The gain of one
results in loss of other.

b) Hot hardness: It is also called as high temperature stability (or HTS). It is a measure of ability of tool
material to retain its hardness at elevated temperatures developed at chip-tool interface. Higher the value of
hot hardness higher will he the permissible cutting speed & hence higher will be the productivity. The

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
46
elements that enhance hot hardness or red hardness are cobalt, chromium, Molybdenum, tungsten &
vanadium, all of which forms stable carbides. The red hardness of diamond is highest of any tool material.
The effect of temperature on hardness of cutting tool materials is shown in fig.3.2 (a). Related to the term
hot hardness is recovery hardness, (or hardness at room temperature after a given material has been exposed
to an elevated temperature). A tool should fully recover its hardness after a machining pass.
c) Toughness: It is also called as Resistance to Brittle fracture (or RBF). It is the ability of material to
absorb deformation energy before fracture. Thus toughness enables the tool to withstand the forces, to
absorb shocks associated with interrupted cuts & to prevent chipping of the fine cutting edge.
d) Other desirable properties.
The following other properties are also desired by tool materials.
i) High Thermal conductivity for quick removal of heat from chip tool interface.
ii) Low coefficient of friction for reduction of heat generated due to friction at contact surface.
iii) Low coefficient of thermal expansion for reduction of effect of thermal stresses & thermal shocks on
material.
iv) Resistance to distortion after heat treatment.
v) Hardenability to achieve hardness at slower cooling rates during hardening.
vi) Weldability for ease of wedding of tool with shank
vii) Grindability for ease of grinding after tool failure.
viii) Dimensional stability etc.

The basic desirable properties namely RBF, HTS & AWR do not always have concurrent high
attributes in any given tool material. Generally, if a material is made more refractory to gain "HTS", it
becomes more brittle with low "RBF". If it becomes more abrasion resistant, it also becomes brittle
fig.3.31 (a) shows relative "HTS", "AWR", & "RBF" for two arbitrary materials in a ternary plot. Such a
plot may be used to show the comparison between various tool materials fig.3.3. (b) Shows usefulness of
this ternary plot to evaluate the merits of "HSS", "WC", "TC" tool materials. However, the exact location
& the boundary lines for each material will depend on many other parameters which include (a) relative
hardness of tool & work material, (b) Chemical compatibility of tool work pair, (c) interface temperature,
(d) type of operation etc.

TiC

AWR
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 47

TERNARY PLOT
3.3. Carbon Tool Steels:
These are plain carbon tool steels to which no appreciable amounts of alloying elements are added.
The carbon percentage varies from 0.6 to 1.5% in these steels. Increase in carbon percentage increase
toughness and shock resistance whereas decrease in carbon content increases hardness & abrasion
resistance. Very small quantities of Silicon, manganese, chromium or vanadium are added for increasing
the hardness and grain refinement.
Carbon tool steel is broadly classified into two categories water hardening steel (W type) & oil
hardening steel (0 types), depending on the quenching media employed during heat treatment. The W-type
should be quenched in water or brine for obtaining full hardness. The O-type does not require such a
drastic quenching to reach full hardness due to addition of manganese & other alloying elements.
The carbon tool steel has good toughness but relatively very rapidly drops after 2000C & their
recovery hardness is also poor. These tools are cheaper compared to other tool materials. They have better
machinability & Grindability.
They are used for manufacturing various tools such as milling cutters, twist drills, turning tools,
reamers etc, for use on easy to machine materials like wood, magnesium, brass & aluminum due to their
less wear resistance & high toughness. In these cases the chip tool interface temperatures are low (below
2000C) & hence better tool life can be obtained even with carbon tool steels. Form tools of special shapes
for small number of work piece are often made of carbon tools steel for reasons of economy. High carbon
tool steel are also used for manufacturing tool operating at low cutting, speeds & at lighter cuts viz. hand
taps, threading dies, razor blades engraving tools, files, reamers, hand & hack saws. Carbon tool steel with
relatively low percentage of carbon are used in hand chisels, hammers, swages etc., where a combination of
hardness & shock resistance is required.

3.4. High Speed Steel:


High-speed steel is available in large varieties. But is basically high carbon steel to which alloying
elements like tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, vanadium & cobalt have been added to improve their
hardness, toughness & wear resistance properties. These steels can retain cutting edge hardness at
temperature up to 6000C, thus permitting much higher cutting speeds than those possible with carbon tool
steel. Initially the high-speed steel were developed with 18W%, 5.5% Cr, 0.7% C plus small amount of
"Mn", "V" & "Si". Later on "W" was replaced partly or fully by Molybdenum owing to non-availability of
tungsten. There are basically two types of high-speed steel. (As per AISI)
i) T-Type (Tungsten type) : With tungsten as major alloying element which is available in various grades
specified as per AISI such as T1, T2, T4, T5, T6, T15, T-Type HSS contains 0.75 to 1.50% carbon with
other alloying elements such as W(12 to 20%), Cr(4% to 4.5%), V (1 to 5%), Co (0 to 12%). The typical
18-4-1 HSS is of T-1 type with 0.75%C, 18%W, 4%cr, 1%V.
2. M-Type (Molybdenum type): in which Tungsten is party or fully replaced by molybdenum. These type
of HSS are available various grades such as M1, M2, M3, M4, M7, M36, M41, M42, M43, M44, M45,
M46 M-Type HSS contains 0.8% to 1.25% carbon with other alloying elements such as W (1.5 to 6%), Mo
(3.75-9.6%), Cr (3.75 to 4.25%), V(1.15 to 4%), Co (0 to 1.2%), M-Type HSS is usually cheaper than T-
type and have greater toughness at the same level of hardness as compared to T-type. The only drawback is
decarburizatin during hardening in high molybdenum steel, but this can be avoided by using a salt bath or
controlled atmosphere-hardening furnace.
The functions of the various alloying elements used in HSS are given below.
i) Carbon (C): - If combines with iron to form carbide which makes it respond to hardening, thus
increasing hardness, strength & wear resistance.
ii) Tungsten (W) & molybdenum (Mo) - These are strong carbide formers and produces fine structure
adding to both toughness & hardness. But to produce the desired effect "W" is added in larger quantity
compared to "MO". It also improves hot hardness.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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iii) Chromium (Cr): It improves hardenability & forms various carbides of Chromium, which are very
hard. Grain refinement due to addition of chromium improves both toughness & hardness as in case of
"MO" or "W". The alloys of “Cr” improve abrasive wear resistance.
iv) Vanadium (V): It is strong carbide former & hence used in small amounts. It increases the hot
hardness & abrasive wear resistance.
v) Cobalt (Co): It is usually added to increase hot hardness to permit use of higher cutting speeds.

3.4.1. Manufacturing of High Speed Steel:


H.S.S. is made by conventional method of alloy steel manufacture by powder metallurgical
techniques, and the electro slag refining process. The steels produced by last two methods have uniform
composition, finer grain structure free from inclusions & segregations. Properties of HSS tools are very
significantly affected by heat treatment, which, therefore, must be carefully carried out as recommended by
the manufacturer. The surface of HSS tool can be further hardened by work hardening (e.g. ball rolling) A
recent development is that of coating HSS tools (by chemical vapour deposition technique) with thin layers
(less than 10mim thick) of a refractory metal carbide or nitride e.g. titanium carbide, titanium nitride,
hafnium nitride or Albumin.
In power metallurgical technique fine powders of desired alloy are produced by atomization,
compacted under high pressure, in desired shapes sintered at 1500C to get the HSS tool or tip. Whereas the
electro slags refining of process consists of casting a long electrode of required composition and remitting it
through a pool of specially prepared refining lag, which is kept molten by resistance heating employing a
heavy electric current. A new ingot, usually of a bigger diameter than the electrode, is built up gradually in
the water-cooled mould of either copper or mild steel.

Applications: -
1) Conventional HSS of grades M1, M2, M3, M4, M7, M10, T1 & T2 (i.e. without cobalt) are used in
almost 85% of all produced tools. Grade M2 represents most widely used type of HSS with properties
applicable to general-purpose tools.
Grades M2 & M7 are used for milling cutters & end mills, for milling & sawing of ferrous metals
up to 350 BHN.
- Grades M1, M2, M7, of M10 are used for drills & reamer, for steel up to 325 BHN.
- Grades M1 is used for Tape.
- Grades M2 or M7 is used for gear cutting tools such as hob, gear shaper, shaver etc.
- Grade M2 or T2 are used for form tools.

2) Conventional HSS of grades M33, M36, T4, T5, T6, with cobalt are used for heavy duty. They have
better hardness & wear resistance but are less tough compared to M2.
- Grades T4, T5, T6, are used as tool bits for planning & heavy-duty turning.
- Grades M33 & M36 is used for interrupted cuts in tough & scaly forging, for drilling & milling hard alloy
steels, titanium, stainless steels & heat resistant materials.
3) High vanadium high speed selects (represented by grades M3, M4, T15). They have higher hot hardness
but are less tough than M2 grade & are more difficult to grind. They are used for single point lathe tools,
screw machine tools, flat & circular form tools broaches drills etc. for machining of conventional alloys
super alloys & refractory metals.

4) High hardness Cobalt steel (represented by grades M41 to M46) have exceptional secondary hardening
properties and have very good hot hardness their hardness is much higher than conventional HSS. They are
used for machining heat-treated steels, titanium alloys, and high hardness aerospace materials like cobalt &
nickel base alloys.

Table 3.1: High Speed Steels:

AISI e W MO Cr. V Co.


Designation
M1 0.80 1.75 8.50 3.75 1.15 - -
M2 0.85 6.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 - Conventional HSS.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 49

M3 1.05 6.00 5.00 4.00 2.40 -


M4 1.30 6.00 4.50 4.00 4.00 - High Vanadium HSS.
M7 1.00 1.75 8.75 4.00 2.00 -
M10 0.90 8.00 4.00 2.00 -
M33 0.88 1.75 9.50 3.75 1.15 8.25 Conventional HSS with Co
M36 0.85 6.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 8.25
M41 1.10 6.75 3.75 4.25 2.00 5.00 High hardness cobalt steel.
M42 1.10 1.50 9.50 3.75 1.15 8.25
M43 1.20 2.75 8.00 3.75 1.60 8.25
M44 1.15 5.25 6.50 4.25 2.00 12.00
M45 1.25 8.25 5.00 4.25 1.60 5.50
M46 1.25 2.00 8.25 4.00 3.20 8.25
T1 0.75 18.00 - 4.00 1.00 -
T2 0.85 18.00 - 4.00 2.00 -
T4 0.75 18.00 - 4.00 1.00 5.00 Conventional HSS with Co.
T5 0.80 18.00 - 4.25 2.00 8.00
T6 0.80 20.00 - 4.50 1.75 12.00
T15 1.50 12.00 - 4.50 5.00 5.00 High V. HSS.

3.5 Cast cobalt base Alloys - (Stellite)


These castable non-ferrous alloys contain primarily cobalt (40-55%), Chromium (25 to 35%),
tungsten (10-25%) & carbon (1.0-3%). Cobalt acts as a solvent or matrix with chromium (which forms
carbide) as a major alloying element. Tungsten contributes overall hardness of tool. Carbon increases
hardness & wears resistance of the tool. Some times other alloying elements such as Vanadium (to further
increase hardness & wear resistance by forming vanadium carbide), Molybdenum, tantalum, columbium
(which may replace part of chromium and Tungsten) and Nickel (which increases toughness at the expense
of hardness) may he added to them for enhancing specific properties. Cast alloys, have a high wear
resistance surface with a soft core produced by the casting process. The structure exhibits long needles of
chromium carbide oriented perpendicular to the surface at the periphery of the tool & at center it is oriented
at random, resulting in soft core.
The alloy carbides have properties intermediate between HSS & cemented carbides. They as less
tough & more resistant than high-speed steel. They are used at cutting speeds ranging between that for HSS
& carbides. Its important characteristics are high red hardness (up to 760 0 C) low cost of friction, excellent
resistance to corrosion & high resistance to shock & impact.
3.5.1 Applications:
i) They are used for machining cast & malleable iron, stainless steels, non-ferrous metals, nitroloy, bronze,
monel, graphites plastics.
ii) Due to high shock resistance there performance is better than, carbides an interrupted cuts.
iii) Due to castability used for making form tools.
iv) Cast alloys can be used at cutting speed. 25-30% higher than for HSS for roughing cuts (Group A & B)
& for speeds 30 to 50% higher (than for HSS for finishing cuts (Group C)
v) They are used for machining plastics (which contain corrosive curing agents) because of their
anticorrosive property (due to high chromium content).
vi. They are suitable for operations where wide range of cutting speeds are encountered in a single cut e.g.
parting,
vii. They can be used in multiple tooling on automats where operations require surface speeds between HSS
& carbides. In multiple tooling carbides are used on larger diameters where on the cast alloys are used on
smaller diameters cast alloy tool are also used to small diameters jobs where a wide range of speeds are
encountered in a single cut as in case of parting.

3.6 Cemented Carbides:


The first major break through in development of tool materials came in 1926, with advent of
cemented carbides for metal cutting. Earlier materials were mostly manufactured by molten metallurgy
methods & have strong impact of heat treatment on hardness & other properties. These properties were

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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thus affected by the temperature of cutting. The carbides which are manufactured by powder metallurgy
techniques shows very high hot hardness (upto 10000 C) & wear resistance & hence can be operated at very
high cutting speeds compared to HSS tools.
The carbides contain (i) Hard principles (85 to 95%) viz Tungsten carbide (WC), Titanium carbide
(Tic), Tantalum carbide (Tac), Niobium Carbide (Nbc) etc., (ii) Binder metal (5 to 15%) cobalt (for WC).
Nickel (for TiC.) etc. Earlier grades of carbides were made from WC with Co as binder & well suitable for
short chipping materials like cast iron. Later on additions of carbides of titanium; tantalum, niobium etc.
extended their range of applications.

3.6 Manufacture:
The basic manufacturing process of cemented carbides is shown in fig.3.4 and consists of following.
i. Refining the ore & reducing in the hydrogen to get powder of W, Ti, Ta, Nb, etc. & Cobalt.

ii. Mixing & Blending


Fig.3.4ofmanufacturing
individual powders withfor
process lampblack
sintered or carburizing in reducing atmosphere to form
carbides.
carbides of individual elements.
iii. Mixing of individual carbides in proper proportion with cobalt & some lubricants such as paraffin or
volatilizing agents.
iv. Pressing or compacting to desired shape in die.
v. Pre-sintering followed by machining if required.
vi. Sintering in hydrogen or vacuum furnaces.
vii. Grinding or lapping depending on requirement.

3.6.2 Classification or grade selection:


ISO has classified carbides into three main group designated with a particular colour.
i) 'P' group identified with blue colour for (machining of long chipping materials like free cutting
steel) available in various grade P01, P05, P10, P15, P20, P15, P30, P35, P40, P45, P50.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 51

ii) 'K' group identified with red colour for machining short chipping materials like cast irons & non-ferrous
metals, available in K01, K05, K10, K15, K30, K40,
iii) 'M' group identified with Yellow colour for general purpose applications, available in grades M05,
M10, M15, M29, M30, M40 Hardness & wear resistance increases from K40-K30. . . . .
.MK40. . . . . . M05. . . . . .to P50. . . . P01. . . . . i.e. from K to P whereas toughness increases for P to K.

'K' - grade carbides are essentially straight tungsten carbide with cobalt as binder. 'P' grade carbides are
combined carbides, tool materials (Wc, Tic, Tac, Nbc) with Cobalt as binder.

3.6.3 Applications & properties:


Carbides are used for applications employing higher cutting speeds on machine tools having
sufficient power. However the rigidity of the machine tool, tooling & work piece is to be ensured.
Carbides have very high hardness & wear resistance, transverse rupture strength (100-300 Kg/mm 2) & low
coefficient of thermal expansion but have less toughness. Corrosion resistance of carbide is better than that
of binder thus strength of skeleton decides strength of cemented carbides & hence it is not used for
machining stainless steels.
i. Carbides are used for applications employing higher cutting speeds due to high hot hardness on machine
tools having sufficient power.
ii. Due to good hardness & wear resistance used for work rest blades, lathe centers, seal rings, nozzles,
measuring gauges, scribers etc.
iii. Due to low coefficient of thermal expansion. Used for making slip gauges & gap gauges.

3.6.4 Coated Carbides & Laminated Carbides:


Resistance of straight tungsten carbides to crater wear cab be improved by addition of Tic.
Hot hardness is also increased but compressive strength, impact strength & elastic modulus are all reduced
by the addition of titanium carbide. The combined effect of good hardness, wear resistance & toughness
can be obtained by applying coatings of Tic over Wc, Tip. In coated carbides the coating is applied on all
faces of the tip whereas in laminated carbides coating is applied on rake face.
Largely tungsten carbide
and cobalt

Surface layers of Tic Layer of pure ultra-fine grain


(a) Laminated TiC (b) COATED
Like Tic various other coatings are recommended Titanium Nitride multi-coating. (i.e.
Titanium nitride over the Tic coatings), Hafnium nitride,
Aluminum Oxide coating. Due to coating or lamination the life of cutting edge is increased wear resistance
is increased & about 30-50% higher cutting speeds are permitted compared with carbides.

3.6 Ceramic (Cemented oxides)


It appears that the word ‘Ceramics’ is derived from the fact that the materials are made by
sintering at extremely high temperature approaching to that of pottery ceramics. Amongst the numerous
ceramic tool materials available (viz, Aluminum oxide) silicon carbide, Boron carbide, Titanium Carbide,
Titanium boride), the best results have been obtained with alumina (or aluminum oxide) or aluminum oxide
90% combined with other oxides (viz Cr2O3, MgO & Nio).
Ceramics are very hard & have a high degree of compressive strength (30000-35000 kg/cm2
even at elevated temperatures. They have good abrasive wear resistance, low coefficient of friction & can
retain cutting edge hardness up to about 7600 (& exhibit uniform strength up to 6000C) permitting higher
cutting speed (800 m/min). They have low transverse rupture strength (one –half to one – third) of that of

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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carbides) restricting their applications in interrupted cuts only. But through better raw materials,
composition modifications & closer control over process variables can be used in interrupted cuts of light to
medium severity on cast iron & steel work pieces. Ceramics have poor weldability & hence permit their
use on high abrasive & reactive materials at higher cutting speeds. But due to poor weldability brazing of
tip with steel shank is not possible. This problem can be solved by epoxy resin cementing of ceramic tools
to steel shanks. Low thermal conductivity produces some problem of thermal shock due to rise of thermal
gradient but is not of that severity.
Cermets are acid resistant, non-magnetic, non-conducting & non-corrosive. They have more
flexibility of machining i.e. wide range of materials can be machined at various speeds ranging from 200
rpm to 800 rpm. There are two main types of ceramic tools, the pure alumina tools and the alloyed cermets.
The cermets are alumina (A12O3) based materials containing various amounts of titanium carbides or other
alloying ingredients. The cold pressed alumna tools are normally applied for light duty cuts such as
uninterrupted turning and boring. Cermets tools are not pressed & are much tougher than alumina inserts &
therefore applicable for roughing & face milling of materials having hardness in the range 60-68 Rc.
3.7.1 Manufacture:
The ceramics are produced by usually power metallurgical technique. Initially bauxite is
processed into a dense crystalline form known as K – alumina. The pure alumina tools are produced by
cold compacting followed by sintering. Where as the cermets (alloyed alumina) are produced by hot
compacting where pressing & heating (to a temperature just below fusion point) is done simultaneously.
The finish grinding of blanks can be carried out with diamond-impregnated wheels. To get strong hard &
highly wear resistant tools, it is necessary to control grain size, density & percentage of impurities.

3.7.2 Machine tool & tool requirements:


Due to brittleness of ceramics, a very important consideration in use of ceramic tool is the
rigidity of machine tool. Vibration & chatter should be eliminated wherever possible. The tool holder
should be rigid & there should be complete contact between the ceramic inserts and their seating surfaces.
Not only high speed ranges & horsepower but also rigidity & accurate balancing of machine tool parts &
work holding devices are important for proper exploitation of potentialities of ceramic tools. Minimum
spindle run out is essential.
The tool design for ceramic tools is also very important. Use of negative narrow land
ground on cutting edge of tool substantially decreases the tendency of tool tip to fracture. The lands are
called K lands & their width varies form 0.2 to 0.3 mm.
3.7.3 Applications:
1) Ceramics provide good surface finish and quality, eliminating finishing operations like grinding, cast
iron, known for its abrasive characteristics, can be machined to smooth bright finish using ceramics.
2) Heat treated steels up to 65 Rc can be finished up to 5 µ m surface finish, often eliminating the grinding
operations, with a considerably improved tool life vis-à-vis carbide.
3) High temperature alloys such as hastelloy, stellite & Monel can also be machined by ceramic tools.
4) Ceramics are used for roll turning, long tube boring, cylinder liner boring, etc.
3.8. Diamond Tools:
Diamond because of its high modulus of elasticity, chemical inertness & exceptionally high
hardness is ideal for obtaining fine surface finish & accuracy. Though initial cost of the tools in high, the
cost per piece is less due to very high tool life. It can be used as cutting tool material, in the form of either a
single crystal or a polycrystalline compact. The single crystal diamond may be natural or synthetic. It has
both hard & soft axes. If the diamond is used in the direction of soft axis (or parallel to cleavage plane) it
wears out quickly. Polycrystalline diamond is produced by sintering very fine powder of diamond at high
temperature or pressure. Some times polycrystalline diamond compacts are brazed to each corner of
carbide insert. Because of random orientation of diamond particles in diamond compact, any direction can
be used for cutting (as there are no hard or soft axes)
The distinguishing feature of diamond tools is their hardness, which is greater than that of
any tool material (viz – knoop hardness of diamond is 8000 Kg/mm 2 whereas of cubic boron nitride is 5000
kg/mm2, cemented tungsten carbide is 2500 kg/mm2 etc) Fig. 3.6 shows comparative hardness for tool
materials. Diamond has the highest thermal conductivity amongst the cutting tool materials (about 2 to 3
times that of carbide) & thus results in lower temperatures in cutting. Diamond is chemically inert & takes
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 53

high polish. Though diamond has high hot hardness above 8000C oxidation of diamond starts above 8000C
resulting is cracking. Therefore, abundant supply of cutting fluids should be used without any interruption
& light feeds should be employed. Brittleness of diamonds demands rigidity of M/C tool & holder.
Diamonds are not recommended for use on ferrous metals. Cutting speeds when using diamond tools
should be as high as possible, but feed rates should be low of the order of 0.02 to 0.1 mm/rev & depth of cut
should also be limited to 0.5 mm. The cutting speed for single point diamond tools for machining of
carbides is 15-25 m/min, for ceramic is 30-100 r/min for pure aluminum it is 500-600 m/min.

3.8.1 Applications:
i) The diamonds of various forms are used in industrial application such as in grinding wheels, dressing
tools, dressing dies, hones, lapping compounds, core drills etc.
ii) As a cutting tools single crystal diamonds is used for machining non ferrous metals like aluminum, brass,
copper & bronze etc. especially where high silicon content is involved.
iii) It is also used for non-metallic materials like plastics, epoxy resins, hard rubbers, glass & also precious
metals like gold silver & platinum.
iv) Polycrystalline diamond is widely used for machining glass, reinforced plastics, eutectic & hyper –
eutectic alloys etc.

Fig. 3.16 Hardness chart for tool materials

3.9 UCON
It is a nitride metal alloy developed by union carbide, USA & has a composition of 50%
columbium, 30% titanium & 20% tungsten and contains no carbide. The alloy is cast into ingots by
conventional methods, rolled into sheets & then slit to strips from which blanks are formed. The blanks are
then cam ground to the indexible insert geometry & then tumbled to produce 0.05-0.075 mm. radius. The
untreated alloy inserts having hardness of 200 BHN, are nitrided in nitrogen atmosphere at a very high
temperature. The surface hardness of these inserts is greater than that of ceramics & towards the center it is
softer than steel of 60 Rc. Due to this non-homogeneity, its applications are limited to throwaway inserts.
UNCON cuts very cool. It has excellent thermal shock resistance, high hardness toughness.
It also exhibits excellent resistance to diffusion & adhesion wear. It is aimed to give 3-5 times more edge
life than conventional carbides. It can operate at a cutting speed of 250-500 m/min on steels up to 200
BHN.
3.9.1 Applications:
1) It is recommended for roughing semi finishing & finishing cuts in turning, facing & boring.
2) It is not generally applied to milling, parting off, or for operations, using form tools,

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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3) It Is basically steel machining grade & not recommended for machining of Iron, stainless steel &
super alloys having nickel, cobalt & titanium base.

3.10 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)


CBN is the hardest substance known next to diamonds. It consists of atoms of nitrogen &
boron, with special structural Configuration similar to diamond. Boron nitride is polymorplhic & exists
in three forms:
1) Hexagonal graphite like structure.
2) Ultra hard cubic structure.
3) Ultra hard hexag6nal quartzite structure.
With sufficiently high pressure & temperature, the hexagonal form can be converted into cubic form in
presence of catalyst. Unlike diamonds its strength is fairly high in all direction. The third form is
obtained by subjecting boron nitride to high pressure,
CBN has high hardness— (4700 Kroop) & high thermal conductivity CBN is chemically inert, but
an atmosphere of steam it breaks down chemically to boric acid and ammonia 9000 C. (But it has no
reaction with oxygen like diamonds at 8000 c)

3.10. Application:
(1) CBN is successfully used as a grinding wheel, on HSS tool providing good surface finish,
precision high output also on titanium, nitronic, stainless steel stellities.
2. It is used in grinding of hardened steel in the form of lead screws bores, splines, thereales, ball & roller
bearing part .CBN cut cool & grinding affects such as burrs of thermal shocks are net produced.
3. They are also used for grinding the sideways of cast iron beds of housing type components.

TOOL MATERIALS
Q.1 Give a brief account of history of development various tool materials.
Q.2. What are the three basic requirements of cutting tool materials ?
Q.3. What is hot hardness and recovery hardness and compare them for various
tool materials.
Q.4. Define AWR, RBF & HTS. Compare them for Tic, Wc and HSS
Q.5. What are the various properties requirement by tool materials ?
Q.6. List of various tool materials used in metal cutting. Enlist their advantages and disadvantages.
Q.7. Give the composition properties and applications of following tool materials.
1. Carbon tool steels.
2. High speed steels.
3. Cast cobalt alloys.
4. Ceramics
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 55

5. Diamond.
6. UCON
7. CBN
Q.8. What are the merits of HSS tools manufactured by PMT ?
Q.9. Compare the ceramic and carbides as a cutting tool material.
Q.10. How are the cemented carbide tools produced.
Q.11. What are the coated and laminated carbide tools ?
Q.12. What are the various grades of carbides ?
What are the application of various grades of carbides.

CHAPTER 4
ECONOMICS OF MACHINING

4.1. Introduction:
Cost consciousness with respect to
metal cutting process is an essential
element of in efficient manufacturing
system? Large no of industries are
involved in production by chip forming or
metal cutting processes. Because of the
large expenditure involved, it is
essential to analyze metal cutting
processes or operations in order to
operate them at optimum economic
conditions. The money in put to
produce one component is made up of
the following items: money spent for
machine operation and overhead and for
time spent for loading, for rapid
advance, for feed, for rapid return & for
unloading.

The speed of operation (metal cutting) plays vital role in deciding the unit production cost ( or
cost/piece ). At very slow cutting speeds. The time required for production of one component will be high
thereby increasing machining, labor & overhead costs. But at very high cutting speeds, the wear of tool
will be faster, frequent tool changing, regrinding & setting, leading to higher cost. The effect of cutting
speed in unit production cost can be seen from Fig.4.1. The unit cost is obtained by summing up the
individual costs.

4.2. Optimization criteria


As seen earlier the unit production cost varies with cutting speed. So it was felt necessary to find
out some criteria for optimum cutting speed. W.W. Gilbert has evaluated. Two cutting speed (and hence
tool lives)
I. Cutting speed (or tool life) for maximum cost
II. Cutting speed (or tool life) for maximum production.
Okushima and Hitoni (and Armarego and Ressel ) have introduced another criterion viz.
III. Cutting speed for maximum profit rate (which is defined as the profit accrued in a given time
without increasing the price of the commodity).

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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4.3. Components of Unit Production: Cost.
The model used for finding out optimum values assumes the unit production cost to be made up of
four components.
a) Machining cost; b) The tool cost; c) The tool changing cost; d) the handling cost. Each of these
components varies as a function of cutting speed or feed as shown in fig.4.1

a) Machining Cost: This is the cost of labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time required for
cutting per piece.
b) Handling (Idle) Cost: This is the cost of labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time lost in
loading and unloading of job.
c) Tool Changing cost: This is the cost direct labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time lost in
changing of tool. In order to estimate this cost on per piece basis this cost is multiplied by the factor tool
failure per piece.
d) Tool Cost: This is the product of cost of tool lost per job turned with tool failure per piece. The cost of
tool per grinding (in case of HSS tools) or cost of tool/per edge (in case of indexible carbide tips) can be
estimated as under:
Ce = Tool cost No. Of regrinds + 1). For HSS
And
Ce = (Cost of Tool bit/No of cutting edge) + tool holder depreciation per cutting edge.
The total unit production cost can be estimated for a simple turning operation by summing the above
individual cost components for a simple turning process as under. Let
L = Length of machining, mm, D = Diameter of Machined part, mm.
V= Cutting speed, mm/min, f = Feed, mm/revolution.
T = Tool life, mm, T = Machining time, min/piece.
Th= Handling time, min/piece, T = Tool changing time; min.
Ti = Idle time, min/piece, C = cost per cutting edge, Rs/edge.
Cu = Direct labour rate + overhead rate, Rs/min.
Now,
Machining time, Tm = L/f.N., min
= π DL/1000.f. V, min.
= K/V, min.
Where K = π . D.L./1000f
Tool life, T = (C/V) 1/n, min
Therefore,
Tool failure per piece, = Tm/T = K.V.1/n-1/C1/n
Thus,
Cp = Machining cost + Handling cost + tool changing cost + Tool cost.

Cp = CuTm + Cu.Th + Cu .Tc (Tm/T) + Ce (Tm/T)


Cp = Cu ( K/V + Th + K.V.1/n-1. Tc/C1/n) + Ce.K.V.1/n-1/C1/n ….. 4.1
Let the total production time per piece is given by
To = Tm + Th + Tm.Tc/T

Therefore, rates of production (RP) is given by

RP = 1/T0 = 1/(Tm+Th+Tm.Tc/T) . . .. 4.2

4.4. Optimum Cutting Speed for minimum costs:


The optimum cutting speed for minimum cost of production in turning process can be found by
partial differentiation of unit production cost with respect to cutting speed & equating to zero.

From eqn 4.1

We have,
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 57

CP = Cu (K/V + Ti + Th + K.V.1/n-1. Tc/C1/n) + Ce.K.V.1/n-1/C1/n


dC p
∴ = 0 , Gives
dv
Cu (-K/V2 + 0 + (1/n-1).V1/n-2)K.Tc/C1/n+ (1/n-1) V1/n-2.K.Ce/C1/n = 0
-V-2 + (1/n-1) V (1/n-2). Tc/C1/n + (1/n-1) V1/n-2.Ce/Cu.C1/n = 0
(1/n-1).V1/n-2/C1/n.(Tc + Ce/Cu) = V-2
V(1/n-2+2) = C1/n/(1/n-1) (Tc +Ce/Cu)
V1/n = C1/n/(1/n-1) (Tc + Ce/Cu)
Or
Vopt =C/[(1/n-1) (Tc + Ce/Cu)]n . . . . . . . . . . 4.3

Putting value of V = Vopt in Taylor’s tool life equation, we get


Topt = (1/n-1) (Tc+Ce/Cu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3.

This cutting speed correspondence to lowest unit production cost (Fig.4.1)


4.5 Cutting speed for maximum production rate:
The cutting speed for maximum production rate can be estimated by neglecting Tool cost (Ce) i.e. in the eq.
4.3 if we put Ce = 0 we get, the cutting speed for maximum production rate

i.e. V’opt = Vopt at Ce= 0 or


V’opt =[C/(1/n-1) Tc]n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5

Similarly, the tool life for this cutting speed

′ = (1 / n −1).Tc
Topt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
The cutting speed for maximum production rate can also be found by differentiation of rate of
production w.r.t. Cutting speed & equating to zero as under from eqn.4.2 we have

Rp = 1/C (Tm + Th + Tm.Tc/T) = 1/(K/V + Th + (K/V).Ta/C/V)1/n

For maximum production rate

dR p
=0
dv
Vo′pt = C/ [(1/n-1)Tc]n and corresponding tool life Topt
′ = (1 / n −1).Tc

4.6 High efficiency zone:


By comparing eqn 4.3 and 4.5, it can be seen that Vopt for maximum production rate is always higher
than Vopt for minimum cost of production because the term Ce/Cu is always positive. Thus if on one the
graph if unit/production cost and production rate are plotted Vs cutting speed the range between Vopt and
Vopt is called as high efficiency range (or zone). Thus concept of R – E zone was developed by Dr.
Gilbert’s group. The fig.4.2 shows this Hi-E zone

un it cost

C 'o pt C 'o pt>C op t


R 'o pt> R op t
C op t
R 'p prod uction rate
Rp

V op t V 'o p t
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
58

The high efficiency range may be wide or narrow depending on job conditions. If tool cost is
relatively low for a given job the Vopt may be 5% to 10% higher. Where tool cost is high end points of this
range can have 30% to 40% differential. It is always preferable to operate at a cutting speed greater than
Vopt instead of a slightly, smaller value because at least with slightly higher production cost than C p
corresponding V ′ , we get higher production rate. The increase in production rate and hence increase in
revenue may offset the increased unit costs. To investigate this effect, an alternative model based on
maximum profit criterion has been developed.

4.7. Optimum Cutting speed for maximum profit rate:


In the earlier sections we have seen the two criteria viz. minimum cost criterion & maximum
production rate criterion. At the cutting speed for minimum cost production rate may be too low to
maximize profit rate. While at cutting speed for maximum production rate the cost of production may be
too high and hence profit margin too low. Therefore, the cutting speed for maximum profit rate would be
different from that for minimum cost speed and maximum production rate speed.
38.3 ECONOMIC CUTTING SPEED (additional material)
An increase of cutting speed has two main effects upon the economics of cutting; the metal removal
rate is increased, the too] life is decreased. An increase in the metal removal rate will lower the direct cost
of metal removal; a reduction in the tool life will increase the costs of servicing and replacing worn-out
tools. The two separate effects, and their combined influence upon the total cost of machining, are best
illustrated graphically as shown in Fig. 38.1.
The following deductions can be made from Fig. 38.1
(a) As V increases, the time required to remove the metal (and hence the cost of its removal) will fall. The
cost of cutting ∝ 1/V.
1/ n
1 V 
(b) As V increases, the tool life T falls. The costs of tooling ∝ 1/V but by Taylor's equation, =
T  C 
and since C is a constant, the costs of tooling ∝ V1/n.
(c) The inclusive costs of machining will be the sum of the separate costs, and by addition of the separate
cost values for each value of V shown, a third graph or curve drawn dotted in Fig. 38.1 showing the change
of the inclusive cost with respect to changes in cutting speed is obtained. This graph has a minimum value
for inclusive cost, and the ideal (or optimum) cutting speed is the value of V at the minimum point.
Since tooling costs can be seen to depend upon the value of n, it would appear that this exponent is
important in relation to the economics of metal cutting.

38.4 ECONOMICS OF METAL REMOVAL


Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 59

When a manufacturing process consists of removing metal with a single point tool, the type of tool used or
cutting speed chosen can have an effect upon the total cost of the product. It is worth considering this
because the removal of metal in this manner is still a major process in the engineering industry. In a
roughing operation the object is to remove a certain volume of material at minimum cost or minimum time,
or maximum profit, and the type of tool and cutting speed should be chosen accordingly. In a finishing
operation the object is to improve a certain area of material until it is of the desired quality of finish. In the
following discussion the chosen criterion is the removal of certain volume of material at minimum cost.
Again it should be emphasized that the analysis used to obtain the optimum conditions is worthless unless
the cost information used is relatively accurate.
F. W. Taylor introduced the well-known relationship between the cutting speed used in a metal removing
operation and the life of the tool, viz.,
VT" = C ...(1)
where V = cutting speed
T= tool life
(Although in basic SI units meters and seconds should be used, meters and minutes are the practical units)
n = an index closely related to the cutting tool material, and the following values may be used :
0.1 to 0.15 for high speed steel tools
0.2 to 0.4 for tungsten carbide tools
0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tools
C = a constant
This is an empirical relationship and for any given set of cutting conditions over a practical, range of
speeds, it can be considered valid. If the cutting conditions are changed however, (i.e., feed, depth of cut,
rake angle, tool shape, work piece material etc.) then the relationship will cease to be true. It can be seen
then that for a particular machining operation all the variables, other than V and T, must be kept constant
otherwise the law is not valid. It can be shown on a graph as illustrated in Fig. 38.2.
The curve is exponential. Cutting tests must be used to obtain values of n and C. These values are
difficult to obtain accurately, because in turn it is difficult to assess when the effective cutting life of the
tool has ceased during the test. As a tool is tested with varying cutting speeds, a sensible criterion must be
adopted to determine tool life. Then the values obtained for V and T from the test with controlled cutting
conditions can be plotted on a graph. Fig. 38.3, using a log-log scale.
The slope of the straight line will give the value of n, and hence a value for C can be obtained.
—It can be seen that if cutting speed V is increased, then tool life T will decrease. Hence, metal is removed
faster and therefore more cheaply. But tool life is shorter and therefore tools replacement and servicing are
more costly. This cost situation is shown in Fig. 38.4.
VT = Optimum cutting speed where the total cost of machining a batch of components y is at a minimum.
In order to find an expression for V T the tooling cost and metal removal cost (or machining cost) must be
added to give the total cost. Then by calculus the turning point of the curve and hence VE can be found.
Let H = machining cost/minute i.e., labour cost/minute + over- heads/minute.
Let J = tooling cost i.e., cost of changing tool + cost of regrinding + tool depreciation.
Let y1 = cost of machining metal/unit volume of metal cut.
Let y2 = cost of servicing tools/unit volume of metal cut.
Let y = total cost/unit volume of metal cut = y1+y2.

1
= Where d = depth of cut
dfV
f = feed in length/rev
V = cutting speed
Therefore y1 = cost of machining metal/unit volume of metal cut.
= (time to machine a unit volume of metal in minutes)
x (machining cost per minute)
1
or y1 = ×H
dfV

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
60
1 K
Since d and f are constants therefore = where K is a constant.
dfV V
HK
y1 =
V

K K
The number of tool changes in minutes = where T is tool life in minutes at cutting speed V.
V TV
1/ n
JK C
∴ y2 = But T = 
TV V
1−n
JK JK ( V) n
y2 = =
∴ C 
1/ n
C1 / n
  ×V
V 
1- n
HK JK(V) n
∴ y = y1 + y 2 = + …..(2)
V C1/n
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 61

1−2 n
dy − HK  1 − n  JK
Differentiating = +  (V ) n
dV V2  n  C1 / n
dy
For a minimum, =0
dV
1−2 n
H 1− n  J
∴ =  (V) n ( K canceling out )
V2  n  C1 / n
1/ n
1− n  J 1− n   V 
∴ H =  1 / n (V)
1/ 2
= J 
 n C  n  C

tooling costs J
Now if R= the ratio machining costs
then R= …..(3)
H
1/ n
1 1 − n   V 
∴ = .  
R  n  C

1/ n n
V n  n 
∴   = ∴ V = C  …(4)
C R (1 − n ) R (1 − n ) 
=VT at the minimum
This expression will enable VT to be calculated so that the optimum cutting speed can be found to give
minimum cost YT for the batch. It should be noticed that n from Taylor's equation is important in this
equation, hence the need to obtain its value accurately. In this analysis we have not included the costs of
handling the tool.
1/ n
V 1
From eq. (1)   =
C T
1/ n
V n
and from eq.(4)   =
C
  R (1 − n)
1 n
Hence =
T R (1 −n )
R (1 − n )
Or T=
n
T (1 − n )
=
R n
J
Since R= (eqn .3)
H
T  T.H  1 − n 
∴ = .   …..(5)
R  J   n 
38.5 MINIMUM COST/COMPONENT
- The following costs are involved in metal cutting:
(i) Machining costs
(ii) Tool costs
(iii) Tool changing costs
(iv) Handling costs.
Finding the theoretical optimum point at which there is a balance of above-mentioned four
individual costs is the essence of metal cutting economics. The relationships of these four costs are shown
in Fig. 38.5.
It can he seen that machining cost decreases with increasing culling speed. Both the tool costs and
the tool changing costs are observed to increase, since tools are wearing out faster at the higher cutting
speeds. The handling costs are independent of cutting speed.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
62

Machining cost = C0 fm ...(a)


t
Tool cost = CT . m …(b)
T
tm
Tool changing cost = C0 t c . …(c)
T
Handling cost = C0 th
Where C0 = operating cost (Rs/min)
tm = time required to machine the work piece, (min)
Ct = tool cost per cutting edge, (Rs)
T= average tool life, (min)
tc = tool changing time (min/operation)
th = handling time (min) (for loading and unloading of work pieces).
Average unit cost (Cu) = (a) + (b) + (c) + (d) per piece
t t
C u = C 0 .t m + C t . m + C 0 .t c m + C 0 .t h
T T
tm
C u = C 0 .t m + + (C t + C 0 .t c ) + C 0 .t h …(6)
T
There are two cost factors in this basic model (C0,Ct) and three time factors (tm,tc,th) in addition to the tool
life factor. Each of these factors will be discussed briefly.
Operating Cost (C0). The operating cost equals the sum of the machine operator's rate plus appropriate
overhead.
Tool Cost (Ct). The tool cost is the Cost of the insert price and a prorated cost per cutting edge of the
complete tool holder and any other parts such as chip breakers, shim seats, clamps, screws, etc. If regrind
able tooling is used, the tool cost is a function of the tool price, the total number of cutting edges in the life
of the tool, the grinding time per cutting edge, the tool grinder's rate, and the tool room overhead rate.
Machining Time (tm). The machining time is the time in minutes that the tool is actually cutting. The time
may be calculated by dividing the length of cut by the velocity with which the tool moves in the feeding
direction:
L
tm = … (7)
f .N
where L = the axial length of the cut
f = the feed ipm (inch per minute)
N = mm.
Tool Changing Time (tc). The tool changing time is the complete cycle in minutes to remove a tool that has
failed and replace it or index it, reset for size, and be ready for the next cut.
Handling Time (th). The handling time is the time in minutes required to load and unload the work piece
from the machine. It includes the idle time and time necessary to advance and retract the tool.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 63

Tool Life Factor. Tool life is taken from Taylor's equation, VTn = C. The average tool life (T ) in minutes
per cutting edge is :
1/ n
C 
T =  …(8)
V 
38.6 DETERMINATION OF CUTTING SPEED FOR MINIMUM COST (Vmin)
The total cost for an operation is made up of the four individual costs: machining cost, tool costs;
tool changing costs, and the handling costs. The interaction of these factors was shown in Fig. 38.5.
The cutting speed for minimum cost of a given operation is derived by equating the total cost to the
sum of the four individual costs, differentiating the costs with respect to the cutting speed, and setting the
result equal to zero.
C
n
Vmin =  1  C 0 t c + C t  …(9)
 − 1 

 n  C0  

38.7 TOOL LIFE FOR MINIMUM COST (Tm)


The minimum-cost cutting speed, Vmin in, is a function of the operating time costs, tool costs, and
tool changing time, and is a function of the n and C parameters in Taylor's equation. Since the constant C in
Taylor's equation and in equation (38.9) are the same, and if V corresponds to V min, then the tool life that
corresponds to the cutting speed for minimum cost is:
1  C 0 t c + C t 
Tmin =  − 1 
 …(10)
n   C0 
38.8 CUTTING SPEED FOR MAXIMUM PRODUCTION
There are times when it becomes necessary to speed production beyond the point of the
recommended minimum cost. In this case, it is necessary to know what the maximum production rate for
the operation will be. This can be determined from the equation previously developed for the cutting speed
for minimum cost, (38.9), by assuming that the tool cost is negligible, that is, by setting Ct = 0.
C
n
Vmin =  1   ...(11)
 n − 1.t c 
  

38.9 TOOL LIFE FOR MAXIMUM PRODUCTION


By analogy to Taylor's equation, the tool life that corresponds to the maximum production rate is
given by:
1 
Tmin =  −1t c …(12)
n 
The tool life at maximum production rate is a function only of n, the slope of the curve in Taylor's equation,
and the tool changing time. Thus for an HSS tool (n = 0.1) with a tool changing time of 1 min, Tmax =9 min;
that is, the tool should last only 9 min. A carbide tool, where n= 0.25 and I min is needed for tool changing,
should only last 3 min.
38.10 MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE
The unit time required to produce a work piece,

t 
t p = t m + t c  m  + t h …(13)
 T 
Where fm is the machining time
tc is the tool changing time
th is handling time (idle time)
T is tool life.
The minimum unit time will result in maximum production rate as

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
64
1
Q = Production rate = t
…(14)
p

The maximum production rate will correspond to the minimum production time per piece as obtained by
differentiating Eq. (38.13) w.r.t. Cutting speed after substituting time-cutting speed relationship (refer
back).
∴ Cutting speed for maximum production rate is given by Eq. (38.11) and Tool life for maximum
production rate is given by Eq. (38.12)
These optimum values are dependent on index, n, and tool changing time, tc .

38.11 MAXIMUM PROFIT RATE


Profit rate (PR) = Profit per piece ( P R ×Q ) where g is production rate per unit time.

1
Now Q= t (refer eqs. 38.13 and 38.14)
p

1
= t 
t h + t m + t c  m 
 T 
The total cost (CT) per piece is
t  t 
C T = K 1 t h + K 1 t m + K 1 t c  m  + K 2  m  …(15)
 T   T 
Where K1 is direct labour cost (Rs)
K2 is tool-grinding cost (Rs)
th is handling (idle) time per piece (minutes)
tm is machining time per piece (min)
tc is tool changing time (min)
Taking income per piece as I

PR
PR = =1− CT
Q
1−CT
∴ PR = P R .Q = (1 − C T ).Q =
tp
Substituting the value of CT from eq. (15) above
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 65

 t  t 
1 −  K 1 t h + K 1 t m + K 1 t c  m  + K 2  m  
  T   T 
PR =
t 
t m + t c  m  + t h
 T 
 t  t 
1 − K 1  t h + t m + t c  m  − K 2  m  
  T   T 
=
t 
t m + t c  m  + t h
 T 

t 
1 − K2 m 
 T  −K
PR = 1
t 
tm + tc  m  + th
T
πDL λ
Nothing tm = = 0
1000 .f .V V
πDL
Where λ0 =
1000 .f
VTn = C0 (Taylor’s equation)
Where D is diameter of machined part, mm
L is length of machining, mm
f is feed, mm/revolution
V is cutting speed, m/minute
C0 is a constant
The equation for profit (16) reduces to

K 2λ 0
I− .V (1 / n ) −1
C10/ n
PR = − K1 …(17)
−1 t cλ 0 (1 / n ) −1
t h + λ 0V + V
C10/ n
To maximize the profit rate, let
dPR
=0
dV
from which the following condition is derived
(1 − n )[ K 2 t h + I − t c ].V 1 / n + λ0 K 2 V 1 / n −1 − nC 10/ n .I = 0 …(18)
For a known value of Taylorian exponent, n, the Vopt for maximized profit can be numerically obtained.

SOLVED PROBLEMS:

Problem 1:
Brass components 75 mm long x 50 mm diameter is to be machined on an automat, using a
depth of cut of 1.25 mm. Select speed that minimizes machining cost and calculate the corresponding tool
life. Also estimate the cutting speed for minimum time of production. Assume that
Labour plus overhead rate = Rs. 5/hr.
Reconditioning cost of tool edge = Rs.0.25/edge
Loading and unloading time of work piece = 15 sec.
Tool change Time = 5 min.
Feed = 0.2 mm/rev
Tool life relationship is = V.T.0.25 = 300

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
66
Solution: From the above data we have,
Cu = 5/60 = 0.083, Rs/min., Ce = 0.25, Rs./edge, D =50 mm.
L = 75 mm, Tc = 5 min., f = 0.25 mm/rev.,

Putting these values in the formula for the optimum cutting speed for minimum cost of production

c 300
Vopt = =
[(1 / n −1) (Te + C e / C u )] n
[(1 / 0.25 −1) (5 + 0.25 / 0.8)] 0.25
= 135 .6m / min And
Topt = (G / Vopt )1 / n = 24.0 min. Similarly,

Vopt = Vopt at C e = 0 = 152 .4m / min and Topt′ = 50 min .

Problem 2:
Mild steel work piece 150 mm long x 100-mm. diameters are to be turned on the lathe using a feed
of 0.15 mm/rev. And depth of cut of 2.5 mm., using brazed carbide tipped tool. Find out production cost
per piece, cutting speed & tool life for minimum cost of production and maximum production rate,
minimum cost of production and minimum production time. The following relevant data is available.
1) Purchase cost of tool = Rs 110/-
2) No. Of regrinds = 10
3) Labour + Machine + 0.1 rate = Rs.30 per hour.
4) Tool grinding cost = Rs. 2.50/edge.
5) Tool changing time = 5 min.
6) Idle time = 3 min.
7) Tool life equation is V. T.0.25 = 150

Solution: From above data we have


Cu = 30/60, Rs/m = 0.50, Rs/min. Ce = 110/10+1 = 10.0, Rs/edge.
Cg = grinding cost = 2.50, Rs/edge. Tc = 5 min, . Ti = 3 min.
Tm = machining time per piece = π D. L./1000 f.V
= π .100.150/1000 x 0.15 x V. = 100.π , V-if-min.
T = (C/V)1/n = 1501/0.25/V1/0.25 4
.V-4

Tool failure per piece = Tm/T-100 π V-1/(1504.V-4) = 100 π V3/1504,


Now the cost of production per piece Cp is given by
Cp = Idle cost + cutting cost + Tool changing cost + Tool cost + Tool grinding cost.

1) Idle cost = Ti x Cu = 3 x 0.50, = 1.5 Rs./piece


2) Cutting cost = Tm. Cu = 100. π . V-1 x 0.5 = 50 π V-1 Rs/piece
3) Tool changing cost = Tc. (Tm/T) Cu = 5 x 100 π V3/1504 x 0.5
= 2.5 (100 π /1504) V3
4) Tool cost = Ce (Tm/T) = 10. (100 π /1504).V3
5) Grinding cost = Cg ( Tm/T) = 2.50 x 10 π V3/1504

Substituting these cost in the above equation. We get,

Cp = 1.5 + 50Π V-1 + 250 Π V3/1504 + 1000 Π / 1504V3 + 250Π V3/1504 . . . . (i)
DCp/dV = 0 gives
50 Π V-2 = 250 x 3 Π V2/1504 + 3 x 1000 Π V2/1504+3 x 250 Π V2/1504
gives Vopt = 48.7 min. , and Topt = (150/48.7)1/0.25 90 min.
Minimum cost of production can be obtained by substituting value of Vopt in eqn (i)
Cp = 1.5 + 50 x Π (48.7)-1 + Π (48.7)3/1504 x (250 + 1000 + 250,
1.5 + 3.22 + 0.0007163 (1500)
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 67

5.795, Rs/piece.
Cutting speed for maximum production rate is given by
′ = C / 1 / n −1, Tc , n = 150 /( 3 x 5) .25 = 76 .21 m / mm .
Vopt
′ = (1 / n −1) Tc = 1.5 min .
Topt
Minimum production time = Idle time + Cutting time + tool changing time,
= 3 + 100.Π /76.21 + 5 x (100 Π V 76.21)3/1504
= 3 + 4.12 + 1.373
= 8.49 min.
Problem 3 : In machining mild steel workpieces stated in earlier problem if the indexible inserts are used
the following data is available. Compare the unit cost of machining attainable from the two types of tool
and the minimum production time.
Tool tip cost = Rs.15/-
Number of cutting edges =6
Tool holder cost = Rs.350/-
Number of edges/holder = 700/-

Solution : From data we have,


Cu = 0.50, Rs/min, Ce = (15/6 + 350/700) = (3.0), Rs/edge.
Tc = 1, minute
Tm = Π D.L./1000 f.V = 100 Π V-1, T = (C/V)1/n = 1504. V-4
Tool failure per piece = Tm/T = 100 Π V3/1504
Cp = 3 x 0.50 + (100Π V-1) x 0.5 + 1 x (100Π V3)/1504) x 0.5 + 3.0 (100Π V3/1504)
DCp/dV = 0 gives,
150 Π V-2 = Π .150 V2/1504 + Π .900 V2/1504
1504 = ( 3 + 18 ) V4 i.e. V4 = 1504/21
Vopt = 70.07 m/min.
Topt = (1/n – 1) Tc = ( 4 – 1 ).1 = 3 min.
Cp minimum = 1.5 + 2.24 + 0.107 + 0.638 = 4.48, Rs/piece.
′ = (150 /(1 / n −1).Tc ) 0.25 = 113 .98 = 114 m / min .
Vopt
′ = (1 / n − 1), Tc = 3, min .
TOPT
Minimum cutting time,
T = Idle time + Machining time + Indexing time
3 + 100 Π (70)-1 + 100 Π (70)3/1504 x 1 = 7.69 min.
Thus the various parameters for the two tool cn be compared as under :
For throwaway indexible tool Cp = 4.48 Rs/piece
and minimum catting time = 7.69 minutes.
and for brazed tip tool Cp = 5.795 Rs/ & minimum cutting time is 8.49 minutes.

QUESTIONS
1. What are the various components of cost associated with machining ?
What are the various criteria of optimization ?
2. How is the tool changing cost per piece calculated ?
3. What is high efficiency zone ? What is its significance ?
4. Derive the relation for cutting speed for minimum cost of production and from that find out tool
life for minimum cost of production ?
5. Derive the relation for cutting speed for maximum production rate & from that find out tool life
for maximum production rate,
6. A 600 mm long cut is to be made on a 150 mm diameter AISI – 4140 steel bar in a lathe with a
depth of cut of 1.5 mm and feed of 0.25 mm/revolution. The Taylors tool life equation is given
by VT0.22 = 475

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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For above machining operation, two types of tools may be used : (1) brazed tool and (ii) threaway
carbide inserts. The following cost data have been collected.

a) Machine cost :
Machining cost = Rs. 1.00/hour.
Machine overhead = 100% of labour.
Grinding cost (labour) = Rs. 1.50/hour.
Grinding machine overhead = 200 % of labour
Idle time = 5 min.

b) Tool cost :
For brazed tool For throwaway inserts.
Initial tool cost . . . Rs. 8.00 Original cost Rs.3.00
Grinding time . . . . . 5 minutes/edge Tool changing time = 1.5 min.
Tool changing time . . . 2 minutes Total Cutting edges = 8
No. of possible regrinds . . . . . 9

i) Plot the cost per piece as a function of cutting speed and hence find the cutting speed for
minimum cost for each case.
ii) Computes and compare the tool life for minimum cost per piece and for maximum production
rate for both type of tools.

7) In machining a component on Automat following data is available estimate the minimum cost of
production and the high efficiency range of cutting speed.

Length of component, L = mm., Diameter of component, D = mm


Depth of cut, d = 1.25 mm, Feed rate, f = 0.15 mm/revolution
Idle time, T1 = 1 min/piece, Tool changing time, Tc = 5 min.
Labor Plus overhead rate, Cu = 0.1 Rs./min.
Tool cost per cutting edge C = 0.25, Rs/min.
Tool life relationship, V.T0.25 = 300

CHAPTER 5
DESIGN OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS
Introduction
Till the end of nineteenth century metal cutting was treated as more of art than science. Each
machinist has his own method machining the metal & grinding the tools. But at the start of twentieth
century F.W. Taylor & other researchers looked at this aspect scientifically & carried some fundamental
work on machine parameters viz V, f, d. Due to this people on shop floor and production engineers
realized importance of doing the Job on rational basis rather than by intuition. The first thing that received
their immediate attention was cutting tools. As a result better cutting tool materials were developed &
importance of the role of tool angles & signatures was realized.
In this chapter various aspects such as classification, tool nomenclature, selection of tool angles &
cutting variables etc, have been described.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 69

Classification of cutting tools:


Depending upon the number of cutting edges, the cutting tools used in metal cutting are classified as
follows.
1. Single point tools - having only one cutting edge and.
2. Multiple points - having more than one cutting edge e.g. milling, reamers, drills, broaches,
grinding wheels etc. The single point tools can be classified into various types, depending on various
criteria as under.
a) According to construction - Solid Brazed tip and Throway Tip.
b) According to type of operation - Turning, facing. Boring, Knurling, Threading, parting, forming.
c) According to Shape - Cranked, straight, circular, square,
d) According to usage on machine tools - Lathe tools, Shaper tools, Planner tools, boring tools.
e) According to direction of cut - Left hand cut tool. Right hand cut tools.
Single point tool - various parts :
A conventional single point tool has sharpened
cutting part called its point. The point of the tool is never
sharp but is given small radius (called nose radius). The point
of the tool is bonded by rake face (along which chips flows
on topside, principal flank (or major flank or side flank) on
one of the sides-of the tool and auxiliary flank or end flank
on end of the tool. The edge formed by Intersection of face
and side flank is called side cutting edge (or principal
cutting edge or major cutting edge, where as edge formed by
Intersection of face and end flank is called end cutting edge
(or auxiliary cutting edge or minor cutting edge). The point
where the end and side flanks meet is called nose. The bottom portion, of the tool is called base. The
position behind the point portion is the holding or mounting portion of tool called shank. The shank may be
square rectangular or circular in cross section depending on the type of tool.

Cutting tool Nomenclature/Designation:


Designation or nomenclature of a cutting tool means specification of shape of tool, tool geometry or
orientation of face, flank & cutting edge etc. Various systems are used for tool nomenclature.
1) ASA System – American standards Association system or American National standards Institute (ANSI)
2) DIN System – (German system or Orthogonal Rake system (ORS)
3) ISO system – (Normal rake system (NRS)
4) British system – (Maximum rake system (MRS)
ASA System: In this system of tool nomenclature the principal parameters viz. side cutting Edge, end
cutting edge has no reference with their location, inclination or orientation. The orientation of the face &
flank surface is with respect to machine reference system. for defining various angles three mutually
perpendicular planes are used. (Like conventional drawing practice). These planes are
1) Machine longitudinal plane – (or tool transverse plane)
2) Machine transverse plane – (or tool longitudinal plane)
3) Basal plane perpendicular (1 & 2) (i.e. along the base)
In this system as the rake angles are specified in co-ordinate system it is easier to calculated the
setting angle for grinding fixture in terms of back and side rake angles. But it has a drawback that the
angles are not related to actual position of cutting edge.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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The various angles specified in this system are defined below.


i) Back rake angle Angle between face & base of tool measured in plane perpendicular
to base & parallel to axis of tool (m/c transfers plane)
ii) Side rake angle Angle between face & base measured in plane perpendicular to
base & longitudinal axis of tool (m/s longitudinal plane)
iii) End relief angle Angle between end flank immediately below end c.e. & a line
perpendicular to base of tool measured in m/c transverse plane.
iv) Side relief angle Angle between side flank immediately below side c.e. & a line
perpendicular to base of tool measured in m/c
transverse longitudinal plane.
v) End cutting edge angle Angle between end cutting edge & a line normal to tool
shank measured in plane parallel to base.
vi) Side cutting edge angle (also know as lead angle) angle between side cutting edge &
side of tool shank measured in m/c transverse plane or tool
longitudinal plane. The complementary angle to SCEA is
approach angle.

American Standards Association (ASA) System


The American Standards Association (ASA) system specified the tool face by defining its slope in two
orthogonal planes : one parallel to, the other perpendicular to, the axis of the cutting tool, both planes being
perpendicular to the base of the tool. The two angles thus specified are known as the tool back rake and tool
side rake .
— In this system, like the British maximum-rake system, the angles were specified
independently of the position of the cutting edge and, therefore, gave no indication of the behavior of the
tool in practice. The advantage of the system was always considered to be the simplicity of its use in the
grinding of single-point cutting tools, and yet, a tool cannot be ground accurately to the back rake and side
rake without using equations or curves.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 71

Orthogonal Rake System (ORS or DIN)


In this system the various angles (rake) clearance etc. are measured in different planes than that used
in ASA system. In DIN system, the back rake angle is measured in a plane which is normal to the base
plane but parallel to the trace of side cutting edge in base plane. Like wise the side rake angle is defined as
the angle between the rake face & the base plane measured in a plane normal to the trace of side cutting
edge in the base plane. The system satisfies the desirable conditions that the two rake angles are specified
in relation to respective cutting edges. The drawback of this system is that it needs some calculations to
obtain setting edge angles on tool grinding fixture.
German System
The German (DIN) system also specified two rake angles, called back rake and side rake (Fig), but in the
German system the angles were related to the position of the cutting edge. The German back rake was the
slope of the cutting edge measured in a plane containing this edge and perpendicular to the tool base; the
German side rake was the slope of the tool face measured in a plane that was both perpendicular to the
plane in which back rake was measured and perpendicular to the tool base. This system had some physical
meaning in relation to the cutting process because both angles were specified in relation to the edge of the
tool that performs the cutting operation.
—A difficulty arose, however, when the system was used for grinding a cutting tool. The problem is similar
to that occurring in the American system.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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ISO System (NRS) :


In this system, the side rake angle is defined as the angle between the base plane of the tool and the
rake face of the tool measured in a plane normal to the side cutting edge. The back rake angle is the angle
between the base plane & the rake face measured in a plane normal to the end cutting edge. Stabler
suggested backs rake system because he found a good correlation between the cutting forces & the normal
rake angle (i.e. side rake angle of NRS) in oblique cutting. He also showed that the tool rake face could be
ground by directly setting the angles specified in this system on the tool-grinding fixture.

International System (ISO Normal Rake System)


— The new ISO recommendation for the nomenclature of cutting tools first establishes systems of planes
that can be used to define the various angles of the faces and flanks of the tool. It should first be understood
that two systems of angles and planes are required. The first system is the tool-in-hand system of planes and
angles and refers to a cutting tool that is held in the hand and is used for the purposes of grinding and
sharpening the tool.
The second system is the tool-in-use system of planes and angles and refers to the cutting tool being
used in a machining operation.
The reason two systems are required is twofold : First, in a simple turning operation as the feed is
increased, the effective rake angle increases, and the effective clearance decreases; second, it is possible
that a cutting tool (particularly a single-point cutting tool) can be held in a machine tool in various
orientations, thereby altering the effective angles of the tool.
Thus the tool-in-hand system is defined in relation to the tool base (or, for rotating tools, to the tool axis).
The tool-in-use system, on the other hand, is defined in relation to the resultant cutting direction and the
direction of feed motion.
As explained above, there are two systems
(1) Tool-in-hand system
(2) Tool-in-use system.
For identification, planes and angles in the tool-in-hand system are prefixed by the word tool and those in
the tool-in-use system are prefixed by the word working.
Figs. show the various tool angles and working angles for a single point cutting tool.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 73

British System (Maximum rake system or MRS ORBS) :


In this system the rake angle is specified as the steepest slope of the rake face. It is equal to the
angle between the rake face & a plane parallel to base measured in plane perpendicular to base of tool. It
has been suggested that the system could have been based on the supposition that the chip flows in the
direction of the steepest slope (direction MM). However, this assumption has been proved to be wrong.
The main advantage of this system is that the specified rake angle is easy to set on tool grinding fixture for
grinding the rake face. The angle of chip flow & therefore effective rake angle is however difficult to
estimate. Also the rake angle has no relationship with the actual position of cutting edge.
British Maximum - Rake System
The British Maximum-Rake System (BS 1886) uses maximum slope as the criterion for specifying rake
angle of the cutting tools.
The maximum rake is specified in a plane giving maximum slope on back rake face.
The maximum rake angle is measured in a plane, which is square to the tool mounting face.

The British system had the advantage that the specified angles could be set on a grinding vise and
the face ground to the specified angle. The difficulty with this system was that the angles specified were
quite independent of the position of the cutting edge, and, therefore, complicated expressions or a set of
curves had to be used to estimate the direction of chip flow. It has been suggested that the system developed
from the idea that the chip flows in the direction of maximum slope of the tool face. Since this idea is not
even approximately true, the system had no physical significance in relation lo the cutting process.
(Face & flank orientations for different nomenclature systems (comparison)
Item Tool Tool Machine British
Reference Reference Reference System
system: System System
Orthogonal Normal American
1) Location of cutting edges. φ, φe φ, φe φs , φe φ, φe
2) Orientation of face. γo , λ γn , λ γx , γy γmax , φγ

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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3) Orientation of principal Flank. α0 αn α x, α y α x, α y
4) Orientation of Auxiliary Flank. α '0 α 'n - -
5) Nose radius. r R r R

Tool Signature: (for various systems):


The various angles are specified in a particular order viz. rake angle (Back, side), Relief angle (end,
side), cutting edge (end, side) radius. For various systems the tool angles may be specified in the following
sequence called as tool signature.
The shape of a tool may be specified in a special sequence as given

1. American system
γ y - γ x - α y -α x - φ e- φ s – r (ASA)
2. Orthogonal rake system
λ - γ 0 - α 0 -α '0 - φ e - φ – r (ORS)
3. Normal rake system
λ - γ n - α n -α 'n - φ e - φ – r (NRS)
4. Maximum rake system
φ γ - γ max - α y - α x - φ e - φ – r (MRS)

Relationship between tool angles in ORS & ASA for calculating rake angles in ORS from ASA
Equation 2.32 and 2.33 can be rewritten in the form
 tan λ   sin φ − cos φ  tan γ y 
 tan γ  = cos φ sin φ   tan γ 
 0   y
As the rotational matrix has unity determinant
 tan γ y   sin φ cos φ  tan λ 
 tan γ  =  − cos φ sin φ   tan γ 
 x   0
However these relationships embodied in eqn 2.32 through eqn.2.35 relating γ 0 and λ with γ x and γ x are
dependent on the signs of the angles γ and λ .
Significance of Various Tool Angles :

1. Rake Angle (back & side) :


The rake angles are given for easy removal of metal chips and are different for different materials.
The cutting angle (δ ) and shear angle are affected by rake angles. Larger the rake angle, smaller the
cutting angle (& larger the shear angle) & the lower the cutting force & power. However the strength of
tool & heat dissipation capacity reduces when rake angle is increased. Thus the practical values of rake
angles are selected after compromise between larger values for easier. Cutting & small values for strength.
In general rake angle is small for cutting hard materials & large for cutting soft ductile materials. An
exception is brass, which is machined with small rake angle for preventing digging of tool in work.
When we use positive rake angle, the force on tool is directed towards the cutting edge, tending to
break it. Carbide being brittle lack shock resistance & will fail if positive rake angles are used on it. Using
negative rake angles, directs the force back into the body of tool away from the cutting edge. The use of
negative rake angle increases the cutting force. For higher cutting speeds at which carbide cutting tools can
be used, this increase in force in less than at normal cutting speeds. High cutting speeds are therefore
always used with negative rake, which requires ample power of machine tool (Fig.). The use of indexible
inserts has also promoted the use of negative rake angles. An insert with negative rake angle has twice as
many cutting edges as an equivalent positive rake angle insert.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 75

2) Relief angles (SRA & ERA):


These angles are provided so that the flank of the tool clears the work piece surface & there is no
rubbing action between the two. Relief angles vary from 50 to 150 for general turning. Small relief angles
are necessary to give strength to the cutting edge while machining hard & strong materials. Tools with
increased values of relief angles penetrate and cut the work piece material more efficiently and this reduces
the cutting forces. Too large relief angles weaken, the cutting edge & there is less mass to absorb &
conduct the heat away from cutting edge.
3) Side cutting edge angle (SCEA) (150-300):
The side cutting edge angle (the complementary of which is approach angle i.e. φ ’ + φ p = 90)
avoids formation of BUE, controls direction of chip flow, and distributes the cutting force and heat
produced over larger cutting edge. This angle varies from 0 to 900 as SCEA is increased effective cutting
edge length for same depth of cut increases (increasing tool life), thickness of chip, reduces, width of chip
increase. On the other hand, the larger is the value of SCEA, the greater is the component of force tending
to separate work & tool. This tends to promise chatter. For general machining SCEA 150 to 300 is
recommended. The shape of work piece also decides SCEA. To produce 90 0 shoulders, zero degree SCEA
is needed. No SCEA IS required for machining castings or forgings with hard scaly skins, because the least
amount of tool edge should be exposed to destructive action of the skin.
4) End Cutting edge angle (ECEA) (80 – 150):
It provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting edge to prevent rubbing or drag
between machined surface & trailing end only a small angle is sufficient for this purpose. Too large ECEA
takes away the material that supports the point & conducts away the heat. An angle of 80 to 150 has been
found satisfactory. Some times small flat (1.6 to 8 mm long) is ground in the front portion next to nose
radius to level the irregular surface produced by a roughing tool. End cutting tools like cut off necking tool
have no ECEA.
Design consideration in single point cutting tool:
In the design of single point cutting tool following points are considered.
1. Selection of type of tool material.
2. Selection of tool geometry.
3. Assigning cutting variables (depth of cut, feed, cutting g speed)
4. Calculation of shank dimensions from strength and rigidity considerations.
1. Selection of tool material:
A review of history of tool material shows that a new tool material seldom fully replaces an old one.
No single tool material has desired properties to withstand the wide range of stresses, abrasion, impact and
thermal shock to which a cutting tool is subjected during metal cutting. Each cutting tool has a unique
combination of properties that are important for its performance. Plane carbon tool steels are still in use,
having survived competition from HSS, carbides & ceramic. Traditional tool materials like HSS continue
to undergo substantial improvements in their properties through suitable modifications in their composition
by optimizing processing techniques. The applications of various tool materials can be obtained from the
standard books, journal & catalogues of manufacturers of tools & machine tools.
2) Selection of tool geometry:
Tool geometry for the single point tool (i.e. values of various angles) is selected for table from
recommended values suitable for different tool materials and work materials viz. for machining of free
machining steel with HSS tool the end back rake angle is between 80 – 100 and clearance angle is 50, side
clearance is 50 side & end cutting edge angle is 150 i.e. tool signature is ASA system will be 8-10-5-5-15-
15-1.5. The nose radius will generally be dictated by type of operation being performed. But when not
specified can be selected as 1.5 mm. Normally nose radius varies from 1 to 2.5 mm.
Table 5.1 : Recommended geometry of HSS, Brazed & Throwaway turning tools.

Work Material Tool Material BR SR ERA SRA ECEA &

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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(deg.) (deg.) (deg.) (deg.) SCEA(deg.
)
Free machining HSS 8 -10 8 -12 5 5 15
steels Brazed carbides 5-0 6 5 5 15
Throway carbides 5- 0 -5 5 5 15
Cast iron HSS 5 -10 5 5 5 15
Chard Brazed Carbides -5 - 0 -5 5 5 15
Throway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15
Aluminum HSS 15-20 15 12 10 5
alloys 0-5 15 5 5 15
0 5 5 5 15
Copper Alloys HSS 5-10 10 8 8 5
Brazed Carbides 0- 5 8 5 5 15
Throway carbide 0 5 5 5 15

For cemented oxide tools the recommended tool geometry is BR (100 to 250), SR (100 to 250), ERA
(50 to 100), SRA (50 – 150) ECEA (50 – 150) & SCEA (200 – 600). Usual values of these angles are 20, 15,
15, 5, 10, 45) for BR, SR, ERA, SRA, ECEA & SCEA respectively.
3) Assigning cutting variables to the tool i.e., depth of cut, feed & speed.
i) Depth of cut: The value of depth of cut is determined primarily from the magnitude of the machining
allowance. If for example a shaft is to be turned to a diameter of 100 mm from a bar of 104 mm diameter,
the machining allowance will be (104-100)/2 i.e., 2 mm. The nearer the blank is to the finished part in
shape & size i.e., smaller the machining allowance the lesser the amount of metal required to be removed
the shorter the time required for machining, the higher the productivity in manufacturing the given part.
It is advantageous to remove the whole machining allowance in a single pass, or cut, as is
commonly done in rough machining (i.e. depth of cut equal to machining allowance). If the machining
allowance is large then it is divided into more than one cut.
In semi-finish turning a depth of cut of 0.5 to 2.0 mm. is assigned for finish turning the depth of cut
is in the range from 0.1 to 0.4 mm. If the allowance is larger than these values, then these depths of cut
refer to the second (final) pass.
2) Feed: In order to reduce the machining time i.e. to increase the productivity, it preferable to apply
maximum possible rate of feed, taking into account all the factors, which may influence this rate such as
surface, finish, cutting forces available strength & rigidity of work piece & mechanism.
In practice feed is usually selected from tables of cutting conditions contained in various handbooks.
Thus according to commonly applied tables for machining of free cutting, steels for roughing cuts (heavy
cuts), a feed of 1.25 mm/rev. is recommended & for finish machining ( the maximum rate is restricted by
the quality of surface finish) or semi finish machining the feed of 0.25 mm/rev. may be selected.
After the feed is selected it is corrected for the kinematics data of the machine tool in which the
machining operation is to be done.
3) Cutting Speed: After deciding depth of cut & rate of feed & for assumed tool life the cutting speed can
be found from the Taylors tool life equation for a presented tool life,
V = C/(Tn.fn1, dn2), m/min.
After finding the value of V the rotational speed “N” can be found by formula.
N = 1000.V/Π . D, rpm.
This value is corrected according to available range of speeds on the machine tool (the nearest lower
speed or maximum 5% higher speed. This will be actual rotational speed (N) at which the machining
operation is to be carried out. It is used to calculate actual cutting speed (Va).
The values of the recommended cutting speeds for particular selected tool material, depth of cut &
feed can also be selected from standard data available in handbooks or catalogues viz. for rough machining
of free machining steels with HSS at a depth of cut of 2.5 mm & feed of 0.4 mm/rev. as can be seen from
the table 5.2) & for the same parameters the value of cutting speed for carbide tools is 140 to 170 m/min
(table 5.3). These values however will be required to be modified according to available speed (rpm) on the
machine tool.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 77

4) Calculation of shank dimensions from strength and rigidity considerations (Tool


Shank Design):
The shank of a cutting tool is designed for strength and rigidity.
The shank of a single point tool may be rectangular square or round in cross section.
The rectangular cross section is most often
used because the reduction in strength of the shank, at
section I-I Fig.33.1, is less than for a square shank
when a seat is cu for a tip. Rectangular cross sections
with various H-to-B ratios are used. In most cases,
H/B = 1.25 or 1.6 for B = 10 to 40 mm. It is advisable to
use H/B = 1.6 for semi finishing and finishing
operations & H/B = 1.25 for roughing.
Square shanks tools are used for boring, turret lathe or
screw machine tools, as well as in other cases when the
distance from the base of the tool to the line of centers of
the machine tool is insufficient to accommodate a
rectangular shank. Round shank tools are used for
boring and thread cutting. They can be turned in
holder to make adjustments.
The cross sections of the rectangular tool shank are:
B x H = 10 x 16, 12 x 16, 12 x 20, 16 x 20, 16 x 25, 20 x 25, 20 x 32, 25 x 32, 25 x 40, 32 x 40, 32 x 50, 40
x 50 mm.
To determine the maximum permissible size of the shank cross section on a strength basis, it is
necessary to equate the actual, bending moment to the maximum moment permitted by the cross section of
the shank i.e.
Mb = M’b …(33.1)
In turn Mb = F2 l kgf. mm …(33.2)
and M’b = σ b Z kgf.mm …(33.3)
Where1 = tool overhang (see Fig.33.1)
σ b = permissible bending stress of the shank material , kgf per mm2, for
Unhardened structural steel with σ t = 60 to 70 kgf per mm 2 , σ b = 20 kgf per mm2, for shanks of
carbon steel, but heat-treated by the procedure for high-speed steel, the permissible bending stress can be
approximately doubled.
Z = section modulus of tool shank, mm3.
The section modulus of a rectangular cross section is
BH 2
Z = mm 3
6
Where B and H are the width and height of the shank at the critical section, mm
Hence we can write from Eqs. (33.1), (33.2) and (33.3) above
BH 2
Fz l = σ b Z = σb
6
from which
6 Fz l
BH 2 = …(33.4)
σb
In rectangular shanks of a height H = 1.6B
6 Fz l
B (1.6 B)2 =
σb
Therefore
6 Fz l
B =3 mm …(33.5)
2.56σ b
Since in square shanks the width is equal to the height, then from (33.4)

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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6 Fz l
BB 2 =
σb
6 Fz l
B =3 mm …(33.6)
σb
The section modulus for a round cross section is
π d3
Z= mm 3
32
hence from (33.2) and (33.3)
π d3
Fz l = σb
32
from which
32 Fz l
d =3 mm …(33.7)
π σb
The calculations given above for the plane bending of tool shanks are simple but not entirely exact. Only
the force Fz is taken into consideration and only the bending deformation it causes. But three forces – F z or
Ft or Fc – the cutting force, Ff cutting force, Ff - the feed force and Fr - the radial force (Fig. 30.10a and b) -
act on the tool in cutting and their action leads to additional stresses so that the shank is subject to combined
stresses.
Combined stresses are higher (in comparison to stresses in plane bending due to force F z) by about
100 per cent, and they are influenced by the plan approach angle and the construction of the tool point.
Table 33.1 lists permissible stresses when calculations are based on plane bending, but the values take
combined stresses into account.
- Sometimes it is necessary to carry out checking calculations in respect to the rigidity of the tool shank.
The maximum load permitted by the rigidity of the tool can be determined by the formula

TABLE 33.1 Permissible stress values σ b for tool shanks of structural carbon steel subject to plane
bending (with combined stresses taken into account.)
Shanks Permissible stress σ b kgf/mm2, in plane bending, depending upon the plan approach
angle, deg. and the shape of the tool point.
300 450 600 760 900 450 (Bent shank)
Unhardened 12 10 8 6.5 5.5 13
Hardened 24 20 16 13 11 26

3 fEI
Fz r = ….(33.8)
l3
Where f = permissible deflection of the tool, mm (f ≈ 0.1 mm for rough turning and 0.05 mm for
finishing)
E = Young's modulus of the tool shank material, kgf/mm2 (for carbon structural steel, E= 20,000 to
22,000 kgf/mm2)
I = moment of inertia of the shank cross section (for a rectangular cross section
BH 3
I= and for a round cross section I=0.05 d4, where d is the diameter of the shank, mm).
12
In designing a single-point tool for a definite machine tool, the calculated shank size (height) should
be checked against the distance from the supporting surface for the tool to the line of center of the given
machine.
The above calculations are based on the assumption that the critical section is one at a distance from
the tool nose equal to l, the tool overhang [usually l ≅ (1 to1.5) H]. In most cases, however, the weakest
place is at the tool point in which a seat is cut for the tip (section I-I in Fig. 33.1. Design and checking
calculations should concern the section, which is actually the weakest in the given construction.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 79

Along with the cross section (B x H), the overall dimensions also include the tool length L that is
established by standards and depends upon the cross section (L = 100 to 500 mm). The length L should be
assigned on the basis of the size of the tool point, tool overhang from the holder, dimensions of the tool
holder (tool post or square turret), the number of clamping screws (a tool should be clamped by at least two
screws) and the distance between these screws. In choosing the tool length, it is desirable to take into
account further utilization of the shank after complete wear of the carbide tip in performing the given
machining operation.

Design of a parting off tool:


The general design procedure followed for single point tool design is
also applied for parting tool. Viz. selection of tool material selection of
tool geometry, selection of cutting variables & checking the cutting
variables & finding tool dimensions & overhang. However the
geometry of parting tool varies slightly & some standard shapes are
suggested for parting tool as shown in fig. In strength calculations
of the critical cross section of a cut off tool is neck. I.e. the place where
the tool body terminates in the tool head is considered, values of φ is
taken as 10 to 20 relief angle between 60 – 100 , rake angle between 50 –
250 (lower for hard & higher for soft material ). Normally width of parting tool in cutting region bears
distinct relationship with the diameter of the work piece to part off. There are very many empirical
relationships with diameter of work piece to part off.
Width of parting tool (thinner section), b = 0.6 D , mm
Length of thinner section of tool 1’ = 4b to 6b, mm
Height of cutting parther of tool H = 4b to 10b, mm

Problem 1:
In a parting off operation in mild steel with HSS tool the cutting force “FZ” is given by FZ = 264.d.f.,
where “d” is depth of cut in mm & ‘f’ is feed in mm/rev. If feed is 0.8 mm/rev. & depth of cut is not more
than 5 mm, design a suitable cross section of the parting tool, assuming the permissible shear stress of tool
material as 40 kg/mm2 & = 4, Young’s modulus for tool material = 2 x 104 kg/mm2.
If maximum deflection of tool point is limited to 0.05 mm, find the extent by which the tool can be
projected out of the tool post. The work piece and the tool post are assumed to have sufficient rigidity.
Solution:
Cutting force, “FZ3” = 264 x 5 x 0.8 = 1056 kg.
shear stress
Permissible shear stress = = 40 / 4 = 10 kg / mm 2
F .o.s.
If height of tool is denoted by “H” the critical portion (weakest section, at Neck) will have area 5 x H
Permissible force Fpr = c.s. Area x permissible stress = 5 x H x 10 = 50H
Equating cutting force “F2” with permissible force “Fpr” we have
Fpr = Fz
i.e. 50.H = 1056. Or H = 21.1 ≅ 22 mm.
Assuming the worst condition i.e. the cross sectional area of the transverse cross section of tool is uniform
over the entire length of the overhang. The deflection of tool “δ t” can be obtained from the formula.
σ t = F2.13/(3.E.I.) Where, I = 5 x 223/12 = 4436 mm4
and δ t permissible = 0.05 mm.
Therefore 0.05 = 1056 x 13/ ( 3 x 2 x 104 x 4436 )
1 = 24 mm ≅ 25 mm.
Thus, maximum permissible length of overhang is 25 mm.

Problem: 2
0
A 10 back rake tool is used for machining on a lathe at a speed of 60 m/min. The diameter of work
piece is 100 mm. Find the cross section of rectangular tool shank if maximum permissible deflection at tool

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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point is 0.012 mm & maximum allowable stress in the tool shank is 7.5 kg/mm 2. Assume a rectangular
shank with height to width ratio 1.6 & tool overhang as 1.3 times the height. The recorded value of cutting
force under these processing conditions is 250 kg. Assurance the suitable value of young’s modulus.
Solution:
We know that F2.1 = B.H.2σ /6/t Substituting the values,
7.5 x B.(1.6 B)2/6 = 250 x ( 1.3 x 1.6B)
or B = 12.7 mm & H = 20.32 mm. The dimensions may be rounded to next higher preferred size i.e. B = 16
mm & H = 25 mm. These values must be checked for maximum permissible deflection.
Assuming E = 20 x 103 kg/mm2, we have
δ t = F2 .13d/(3..E.I.) Putting the values we get
δ t = 0, 066 mm i.e. < 0.12 mm
As the actual deflection is less than permissible deflection the design is safe.
Cutting frequency = N = 1000 x V/(Π x D x 60) = 3.18 cycle/sec.
Natural frequency of cutting tool having deflection δ t is given by
Natural frequency = 0.625/(δ t)1/2, cycles/sec.
= 7.69 cycles/sec.
The natural frequency of cutting tool is much more than the cutting frequency hence the designed
cross section with required overhang is safe.
Problem 3 :
The cutting force component on a tool point while machining mild steel with 100 back rake angle,
HSS tool is given by empirical formula is 103 kg. for feed = 0.6 mm/rev. depth of cut ≅ 2.2, mm, design a
suitable cross section of the tool assuming the shear strength of tool material to be 20 kg/mm2 & Eos of 2.5.
The young’s modulus of tool material is 20 x 103 kg/mm2. If the maximum permissible deflection of tool
point is 0.04 mm., find ‘δ t overhang. Give a neat sketch of designed tool.
Solution :
Assuming rectangular shank with H = 1.6 B, we have
B. (1.6 B)3 = 6 x 103 x 1/(20/2.5) or 1 = B3/(30.2) . . . . . . (I)
The permissible deflection of tool is 0.04 mm. Hence we have
0.04 = 4.FZ.13/(E.B.H.3)
Putting the values we get B4 = 0.126 13 . . . . . .(II)
Putting values of “1” from equation (I) in equation (II) we have
B = 11.69 = 12.0 mm
H = 1.6 x B = 18.10 x 20 mm and
1 = B3/30.2 = 57.2 = 57 mm.
The recommended tool signature is 8-10-5-5-15 = 1.5

Chip breakers:
During high speed machining of ductile materials, long chips are continuously produced which must
be broken into small piece for easy disposal and to protect the finished surface from coiling chips. Further
the long chips, which may get entangled, can cause machine stoppage besides being unsafe for the operator.
The chip breaker may be added to a cutting tool for this purpose.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 81

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
82

From the chip breaking point of view the chips can be classified as small chips (Acceptable chips)
with value of Rs between 3 to 10 & long continuous chips (Unacceptable chips) with value of R greater
than 10. Where R is volume ratio given by
R = (Volume of chips)/(Volume of same material in bulk)
As the chip leaves the plastic zone, it becomes elastic again then the chip breaker imposes an
additional straining action, which damages the radius of chip. This additional shin causes fracture or
breaking of the chip. The chip breaking can be achieved in the various ways as shown in Fig.5.11.

DESIGN OF FORM TOOLS


FORM TOOLS FOR TURNING APPLICATIONS
A form tool is defined, as a cutting tool having one or more cutting edges with a defined profile or
contour that will be reproduced as the desired form on the work piece surface. Form tools for turning
applications are classified according to type of cross-section, such as flat tools or circular tools or end-form
tools as shown in Table 20.1. Flat or block tools are further classified according to setting of the tool with
respect to work piece like radial-fed or tangential-fed type. Further form tools are also classified with
respect to orientation of tool axis in relation to work piece axis.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 83

fig 20.3 & fig 20.4

Classification of Form Tools


Form Tools

According to cross-section

Flat or block Circular end-form

according to setting according to orientation


of cutting edge of tool axis

radial tangential parallel angular


(skiving )

Fig.20.1 shows flat tool applications while Fig. 20.2 shows a circular form tool and Fig. 20.3 shows
an end-form tool. Fig.20.4 shows the case of angular setting of tool axis of a circular form tool with respect
to work axis. When the surface to be formed is accessible only with orientated axis, angular setting is used.
Usually such settings are avoided.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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20.2. FLAT FORM TOOLS


Straight and flat form tools have a square or rectangular cross-section with the form along its side or
end. These tools are similar in appearance to turning tools. These are usually set to center so that they will
cut with their contour, which is identical to the desired contour of the work piece. A typical example is a
V-notching tool shown in Fig.20.5. This type of tool is suitable for making deep straight-sided form
grooves. The type of cutting is non-free or restricted type because of mixed chip flow. Consequently, for
good surface finish, this type of tool must be operated at very low cutting speeds.
Fig. 20.6 shows a typical flat form tool with no rake angle. It is necessary to compute X to be
machined in the tool in order that the depth BC is correctly profiled. This distance X is to be planed by a
fly cutter or planning tool and is measured normal to
the clearance face. The amount of X is less than the
actual depth of form AB produced on the work piece
because of the clearance angle a. From the geometry
of Fig.20.6,
X = AB .cos a .. Eqn. 20.1

Fig.20.7 shows a flat form tool with rake angle. The wedge angle, β , is given by (900 – y – a ).
Using the geometry of Fig.20.7, the depth X to be ground or machined can be determined can be
determined in the following manner:
h = r sin y , l1 = r cos y, l = (R 2 − h 2 )
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 85

Therefore,
l 2 = ( R 2 − h 2 ) - r cos y = ( R 2 − r 2 sin 2 y - y cos y … Eqn. 20.2
Now, X = l 2 cos( a + y )

Hence,
X = { (R2 − r 2 s 2i yn) - r c o ys } c o+ ys () a … Eqn. 20.3

Introduction of rake angle to facilitate cutting action modifies the profile on the tool. Consider, as
an example, the case of a single point V-notch tool shown in Fig.20.8 where ξ is the included angle to the
produced. Let ξ1 be the included angle ground on the form tool. From the geometry of Fig.20.8,

ξ1 S ξ S
tan = and tan =
2 2X 2 2m
ξ1  m  ξ
Hence, tan =   tan
2 X 2
ξ
( R − r ) tan
2 … Eqn.20.4
=
{ (R − r sin y ) − r cos y cos( a + y )
2 2 2
}
Hence, the work piece profile angle, ξ , should be modified into ξ 1 to be machined or ground in
the form tool so that correct profile is reproduced on the work piece.

DESIGN OF FORM TOOLS


1 Introduction
- Form tools are intended for producing the desired contour on a work piece by means of a turning
operation.
- The form tool is used for production work on capstan and automatic lathes in order to ensure
(a) High production rate.
(b) Uniform cut shapes on all the parts,
(c) Accuracy in work piece shape and dimensions.
Mostly form tools are made up of high-speed steel, but now, carbide-forming tools are also gaining
popularity, owing to productivity being raised by 30-40%.

Types of Form Tools


Different types of form tools have been discussed below:
(a) Circular form tool
A circular form tool is a specially shaped disc cut to produce the cutting edge.
The tool has 30 to 150 mm diameter and is used on cross-side of single spindle
automatic bar machine, (Fig. 33.19a).
(b) Flat form tool
The profile of the tool is flat (Fig.33.19b) and it is used in horizontal position. The tool shape can be
produced easily and quickly on one end of the rectangular shank. Usual clearance and rake angle are to
be provided on the cutting edge.
(c) Dovetail form tool
A dovetail form tool can be produced economically and maintained efficiently. It can be tipped with
cemented carbide.
Dovetail form tool is called so because it is fitted to its holder through a dovetail joint (d)End form tool
End form tool is shown in Fig.33.19d.
Fig. 33.19e shows a carbide-tipped circular form tool, where ‘I’ is the body of the
cutter, ‘2’ is the contoured tip and ‘3’ is the backing member.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
86
(f)A Radially fed form tool shown in
Fig.33.19f is fed in the direction of feed
during
cutting operation, till the final shape
is imparted on the work piece.
(g)A Tangentially fed form tool
(Fig.33.19g) travels at right angle to the
axis of the
rotating work piece.
- Fig.33.19h shows clamping of a
circular form tool in the holder.
The tool is turned in relation to the
holder by means of lever ‘I’ having
radial serrations on one side which
match those on the tool and by
adjusting screw ‘2’.

Form Tool Geometry


-A form tool should have the proper rake and relief angles so that the metal is cut under sufficiently
advantageous conditions.
-Rake angles are listed below for the form turning of various materials.

Material Hardness (BHN) Rake angle (Deg.) (γ )


Mild steel Up to 150 25
Hard steel 235.290 12 - 20
Soft cast iron Up to 150 15
Hard cast iron 150-200 12
Aluminium, copper - 20 - 25
Bronze, leaded brass - 0-5

The relief angle (α ) depends upon the type of form tool. On circular form tools it is 100 to 120 and on
flat form tools it varies from 120 to 150. On form tools intended for relieving form-milling cutters, the
relief angle may reach 250 or 300.

Design of a Flat Form Tool (Using Graphical Method)


-The profile of a form tool can be determined by
(1) Graphical method
(2) Analytical method
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 87

The graphical method is straight and simple, however analytical method is more accurate in determining
the dimensions.
The design procedure of flat form tool using graphical method has been discussed below:
(1) The profile of the work piece is drawn in two views, that is, the front view and the top view.
(2)The basic points of the work piece profile with dimensions l1 and l2 are projected on the axis I-I
drawn perpendicular to the work piece axis. The projected points are 1′, 2′and 3′ . From point 01 as
the center draw circles corresponding to work piece radii r1, r2 and r3
(3) Apex of the cutting tool ‘1’ should lie on the work piece axis.

(4) From point 1 (the apex) draw the line


representing the tool face (F) at the angle γ and the line of the tool flank (K) at the angle α .
(5) From points 1, 2 and 3 draw lines parallel to the tool flank, (K).
(6) To construct the cross section of the tool perpendicular to the flank, K
(section N – N), draw line L L (perpendicular to the flank, K.
From line L L lay off the lengths l1 and l 2 since the dimensions of the tool profile
measured along the work piece are equal to the corresponding axial dimensions of the work piece. At
lengths l1 and l 2 draw lines parallel to L.L.
Denote by 2” and 3” the points of intersection of these lines with the lines drawn from points 2 and 3
parallel to the tool flank, K.
(7) Points 1” , 2” and 3” are the points of the profile of the flat form tool in section N – N.

Design of a Flat Form Tool using Analytical Method.


- Refer last one fig. of same topic.
-It will be sufficient to determine the dimensions denoted by P2 and P3 in this figure.
-If the dimensions C2 and C3 are known or they can be calculated by formulating a set of equations,
dimensions P2 and P3 can be readily determined since they are sides of the right angled triangles 1A2 and
1B3.
-The following equations are used to solve the right angled triangles.
∈1 = α + γ
P2 = C2.cos ∈1
P3 = C3.cos ∈1
Dimensions P2 and P3 should be calculated to an accuracy within 0.001 mm.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
88
Design of Circular Form Tool

-Refer above Fig. which shows the graphical method of determining the profile of a circular form tool.
(1) The profile of the work piece is, first, drawn.
(2) Next, the basic points of the profile on axis 1-1 are projected, drawing them perpendicular to the
work piece axis.
The projected points are 1′, 2′and 3′
(3) From point O2 as the center, circles corresponding to 1′, 2′ and 3′ i.e .radii r1 , r2 and r3 are described.
(4) After assigning definite angles γ and α (refer Table 33.21) and the outside diameter of the tool,
determine the location of the centre O2 of the circular form tool. It is on line II-II which is drawn a
distance, Ht = R1 x sin α above the center of the work piece.
Centre O2 is found by setting a compass to the outside radius R1 of the form tool and drawing an are from
point 1 which is the intersection of horizontal axis I-I with the circle of radius r1.
Point O2, the intersection of line II-II with the arc drawn from point 1, is the center of the circular form
tool.
(5) Next, draw line aM along the tool face. For this purpose, draw a line from point 1 at an angle γ to line
I-I.
By connecting points 1, 2 and 3 (points of intersection of the line representing the tool face with the
corresponding circles of radii r1, r2 and r3) with center O2 of the form tool, obtain the corresponding radii
R1, R2 and R3 of the form tool.
(6) Next, to construct the tool profile in a radial cross-section, it is necessary to draw radial line N/N and to
lay off dimensions l1 and l 2 to the right on a line perpendicular to line NN (in the case when the axis of
the work piece and circular tool are parallel to each other).
The dimensions l1 and l are equal to the corresponding axial dimensions of the work piece.
(7) From the end point 1′ of the axial dimensions, lay off dimensions P2 and P3 in a direction parallel to
line NN.
Dimensions P2 and P3 are equal to the differences between the corresponding radii of the form tool
( R1- R2 and R1 – R3, respectively).
On the intersections of the lines corresponding to dimensions P2 and P3 with the lines
determining dimensions 1l and l 2 , obtain points 2” and 3”.
By connection points 1” , 2” and 3” by straight lines, one obtains the profile of the form tool in a radial
cross-section.

Circular form tool:


Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 89

The circular form tool is circular in shape having depth ‘x’ or projection of distance ‘x’ produced all around
the diameter in the form of annular groves. The outside diameter of circular form tool is determined in
accordance with the height of profile to be turned. A graphical method is recommended for this purpose.
(Fig.5.17)

1) Draw two concentric circles corresponding to maximum & minimum radius of contour to be turned.
2) Through point A ( on minimum diameter circle ) draw one line inclined at an angle γ , (which
represents trace of plane ground to produce the tool face) below the line. “OA”
Through same point draw another line above ‘OA’ inclined at an angle ∝ (relief angle). The value of ∝ is
100 to 120 for circular form tool.
At a distance K ( = 3 to 12 mm) depending upon chip thickness & amount of chips to be cut, draw a line
perpendicular to OA to permit minimum amount of space for chip disposal.
From the point of intersection ‘C’ ( of vertical line with the tool face line) draw a line bisecting angle. The
point of intersection of this line with line drawn at angle of ∝ is the point being sought as centre of circular
form tool 02.
From O2 draw circle representing outer diameter of tool with radius O2 A = R
To determine diameter of the mounting hole, the wall thickness ‘m’ is taken in the range form 6 to 10 mm.
On circular form tool for internal (boring) operations, the tool diameter is taken from 0.6 to 0.85 of the hole
diameter. If tool is too small to make a mounting hole for the holder, it is made integral with the holder or
welded to the shank.

Holding arrangement for form tool :


The circular form tool for external operations essentially have a mounting hole for the holder. The radial
serrations with 900 degree profile (Normally 34 serrations) are made on one and face of circular form tool
for setting up and clamping purposes. By very simple arrangements these serrations are used to turn the
tool for sharpening ( by grinding the tool face ). For example in one type of holder

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
90

(Fig.5.20) The tool is turned in relation to holder by means of lever ‘1’ having radial serrations on one side
which match those on the tools, by adjusting screw ‘2’. The tool holder has tension shaped projection (4) to
locate in the matching T-slot on the tool post. The holder is then fixed on the tool post by means of T-bolt
(3). After the cutting edge is set to desired height the central bolt is tightened to restrict the rotation of the
circular form tool.
The flat form tool have dovetail form on the back side. The holder for flat form tool thus must posses a
similar matching dovetail form with the help of screws the position of cutting edge can be adjusted to the
desired height after re-sharpening.

Problems
1) How are the single point tools classified?
2) With a neat sketch explain geometry of single point tool in ASA system?
3) What are the various systems of tool nomenclature?
4) What is tool signature?
5) Explain how will you proceed for designing single point cutting tool ?
6) What is the significance (a) Rake angle (b) Clearance angle?
(c) and cutting edge angle ?
7) What is chip breaker? What is the significance of volume ratio of chips in metal
cutting ?
8) Explain the various methods of chip breaking with neat sketch.
9) What are form tools? How are they classified?
10) How in the distance “X” to be machined perpendicular the flank of the tool calculated for a zero rake
flat form tool?
11) What is the effect of rake and clearance angle on the distance “X” to be machined (Perpendicular to
flank) on a form tool? Derive the relation for the same.
12) A 300 clearance angle is to be produced on a work piece by end turning tool with 100 clearance angle
and 00 rake angle end form tool? Will the value of angle to be produced on the flank be same? If not
explain why?
13) Explain a mounting arrangement for circular form tool with heat sketch?
14) Design a circular form tool for the work piece shown in the following figure, from a bar stock of 50 mm
diameter from a free cutting steel (σ t = 60 kgf/mm2). The work piece is to be turned with a subsequent
view of parting.
15) For the above work piece how will you design the flat form tool? Explain.
16) Design a single point cutting tool from the following data
a) Young’s modulus of HSS tool material is 20,000 kg/mm2
b) Maximum permissible deflection of tool point 0.035 mm.
c) Shear strength of tool material = 20 kg/mm
d) Cutting force, “FZ” for machining mild steel work piece = 115 kg.
e) Depth of cut = 2.5 mm, and feed = 0.5 mm/rev.
17) Design a suitable cross section for a straight type of parting tool from the following data.
a) Cutting force FZ = 1105 kg.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 91

b) Permissible shear stress of tool material = 40 kg/mm2


c) Young’s modulus for HSS tool material = 20,000 kgf/mm2
d) Permissible deflection of tool = 0.06 mm.
Also select the various angles and draw neat sketch of the designed tool.

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DEAS

CHAPTER 6
DESIGN OF BROACH
6.1. Introduction:
Broaching is used for machining through holes of any cross sectional shapes, straight and helical
slots, external surfaces of various shape, external and internal toothed gears. A Broach is a multiple point
tool used in broaching, usually secured to the main slide of the broaching and travels with the slide. Since
the teeth gradually increase in size from front to rear end of the broach, each successive tooth removes a
layer of material, thereby increasing size of the hole in internal broaching (or removing entire depth of
material equal to machining allowance). If the force is applied from the front end the broach shank is in
tension and the broach is called pull broach. If the force is applied to the rear end of the broach, the shank
is in compression and the broach is called push broach.
Broaching is rapid and efficient because both roughing and finishing can be done in a single pass.
Close tolerances, smooth surface finish and higher accuracies are added advantages of broaching process.
Although the cutting speeds are relatively low ( 2 to 15 mpm) the production capacity is very high. Since
the total length of cutting edges that are simultaneously in operation is very high. Broaches cannot be used
in production of tapered holes. Further the length of the stroke and the heavy tonnage required makes this
process unsuitable for heavy stock removal. Broaches are expensive tools, however, and their use is
justified, in the main, only large lot and mass production.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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6.2 Basic Process:


A broach is usually a tapered bar upon which teeth are cut to produce desired contour in a work
piece in a single pass of the tool. A typical broach for producing a round hole is shown in fig.6.3 (a). A
broach has these cutting zones; roughing teeth, semi-finishing teeth and finishing teeth. The broach tapers
from first roughing tooth to the first of the finishing tooth, the outside diameter of each tooth being larger
than the tooth that proceeds. Normally the finishing teeth are all of same diameter.
A work piece to be broached, must be provided with a starting hole through which broach is pushed
or pulled. This hole is just large to permit the front pilot portion of the broach to enter freely. As the
broach advances through the part, cutting starts gradually, and as each succeeding tooth engages the work,
it removes small amount of metal.
6.3(b) shows the various geometric elements of broach tooth. The chips in broaching are accumulated in
the chip space. Unlike the other machining processes where chips are thrown away.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 93

Cutting variables in broaching:


The determination of the cutting variables in broaching consists of assigning the cutting speed, since the
feed per tooth ‘SZ’ and width b of uncut chip are predetermined by constructional elements of the broach.
The cutting speed is decided more by the surface finish requirements rather than the hardness of the work
piece material. For high-speed steels the cutting speeds lie in the range of 3 to 30 mpm moreover increase
in cutting speed does not substantially reduce the cycle time as the cutting time is quite small compared to
the non cutting time in most of the broaching operations. Round holes require lower cutting speeds,
compared to internal surfaces with straight faces. External broaching speeds can be higher than those of
internal broaching speeds can be higher than those of internal broaching speeds should be reduced for long
cuts to avoid overheating.
The feed per tooth’s ‘SZ’, or, for as it is called in broaching the cut per tooth is the difference in
height between two successive cutting teeth. The cut per tooth is usually determined from the empirical
data (table 6.1) for a particular type of broach and type of work piece material.
The width of uncut chip ‘b’, is measured along the cutting edge. In keyway broach it is the width of
keyway, in round or spleen broach, it is equal to active length of the cutting edge.
The cross sectional area of uncut chip per tooth can be calculated as under.
a = S2.b.n, mm2 … for spleen broach
a = S2 . Π . D , mm2 . . . . For round broach
Where,
b = splines width, D = diameter of round broach.
n = number of spleens (n =1 for keyway broach )
The total cross sectional area of the under formed chip is given as –
A = a.Z, mm2
Where m , Z = number of teeth simultaneously in operation.

Chip formation and cutting forces in broaching :


All the phenomena of the cutting process occur during chip formation in broaching; deformation, heat
generation, formation of BUE, friction and wear. The cutting process is often accomplished in broaching
with very thin chips, especially in internal broaching where SZ may be as small as 0.015 mm. The chips
formed in broaching are accumulated between the chip spaces or gullet. The chip breakers or notches are
usually provided in the cutting edge to produce narrower chips that fill easier in the chip spaces.
The cutting force ‘FZ’ depends upon physic-mechanical properties of work material, broach tooth
geometry, cut per tooth ‘SZ’ and the number and shape of tooth that are in operation simultaneously.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
94
The cutting forded in broaching is –
F = KS ( total cross sectional area of uncut chip)
(Blunt broach factor)
F = KS ( Π .D.SZ x Zmax).K . . . for round broach

= KS (b.n.S1 . Zmax . K . . . . for


Where,
Zmax = maximum number of teeth cutting at a time.
KS = specific cutting force for work piece material,
(kgf/mm2)
b = width of spine, mm
SZ = cut per tooth, mm
The values of specific cutting forces can be selected for various work piece materials from table 6.10

6.5. Modes of Cutting

The different modes of cutting in the internal broaches are shown in Fig.6.4. In this figure the layers
of metal removed by different broaches is also shown. The following are the common modes of cutting.
i) Full form cutting : where each tooth removes a thin layer of metal (chip) on the full width of machined
surface, for example along full width of spine or keyway, along the whole length of circumference. Such
broaches are often called as plain broaches.(Fig.6.4.a)
ii) Generation Cutting : Where each tooth removes a thin layer of metal on the part of the full width of
machined surface except the last finished teeth which removes the metal over the entire width of contour of
the surface (Fig.6.4.b) Such broaches are comparatively easier for manufacturing the complex forms.
iii) Group Cut Broaching : Where the teeth are divided into two or more groups of teeth having same
diameter but increasing the width within each group. Though such broaches have on an average double life
than the form relieved broaching, greater difficulty is encountered in manufacturing of such broaches. Such
procedure is often called as progressive broaching.

Types of Broaches:
Broaches are broadly classified, based on their purpose into internal broaches (for machining holes) and
external or surface broaches (for machining ruled surface of open contour). The internal broaches can
further be classified as under
i) Solid broach : In which the desired profile of breach is produced from a solid piece (Fig.6.5 a)
ii) Sectional broach : in which the desired profile of broach is produced from a solid piece (Fig.6.5 a)
iii) Helical cut broach : in which the teeth are positioned along the same helix as in work piece. If the
helix angle is less than 15 degrees the axial pull or thrust will be sufficient to rotate the broach provided
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 95

broach’s pull or push head are made free to revolve on antifriction bearings. If the helix is greater than 15
degrees, the broach head is to be rotated positively with the help of lead screw and gear box (Fig.6.5.c)
iv) Burnishing broach : in which non cutting teeth carry out compression, cold work or burnishing a thin
layer of metal. These broaches can enlarge the hole by small amount (Fig.6.3.d)

v) Spleen broaches : such as straight spleen broaches (Fig.6.5.e) helical spleen broach (Fig.6.5 g), serration
spleen broach (Fig.6.5.h),

vi) Keyway broach : which is used for producing keyway in a hole. This broach is of rectangular shape and
is guided through a bushing (called horn) with a rectangular slot to guide and support the keyway broach to
avoid wear of (Fig.6.5.k, bushing called horn) with a rectangular slot to guide & support the keyway
broach. To avoid wear a hardened wear strip may be provided.

vii) Combination broaches, for example combination round and spleen broach, (Fig.6.5.i). Where front
portion produce round hole of desired dimension and rear portion produces the spleen portion. Similarly
the keyway & round hole operations can be combined together to make a combination round and keyway
broach. The length of these broaches is usually high due to combination of two activities simultaneously.
viii) Square broach for producing a square hole from round are (Fig.6.5.J)
The external surface broaches may be of either solid or built up construction. In the case of internal
broaches the designer is restricted by the diameter of the hole and cannot make the broach stronger than this
factor allows. In the external surface broaching on the contrary, the broach can be designed with any
feasible overall size providing a sturdy built-up construction.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
96

Large external broaches are designed as separate sections, or inserts damped in a special holder,
several methods of clamping the inserts in the holder are illustrated in Fig. 6.6. Some broaches are made up
with separate inserted blades. All the fastening elements of built up broaches with either inserts or inserted
blades should be checked by calculating their strength.
There is no way of expending internal broaches and one or more finishing teeth are converted into
cutting teeth in each sharpening. The size of external broach on the contrary can be adjusted by means of
gibs or spacers. Such spacers are shown in Fig.6.6.

6.7. Resharpening of broaches :

The broaches are sharpened mainly by grinding the tooth faces. Less frequently, the backoff
clearance is ground. The grinding of the tooth face in sharpening a round broach is illustrated in fig. 6.7.
To avoid wheel edge interference in which the tooth face is ground square with the broach axis, entirely,
eliminating the face angle, the radius of the wheel in section N-N should be less than the radius of curvature
of tooth in this section. The backoff clearance of a round broach can be ground in a cylindrical grinder.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 97

6.8. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN BROACHING :


The following considerations are done in design of internal broaches.
1. Study of geometry & other features of work piece for getting the necessary information for broach
design. The following information is normally obtained in designing a circular or internal broach
a) Tolerance on the hole to assign the tolerance to the broach.
b) Quality of surface finish to check necessity of burnishing teeth.
c) Wall thickness of the component to estimate size variations after broaching.
d) Quantity of production to study feasibility of broach design

2) Selection of material for broach.


The broaches are normally manufactured from high speed steels (normally grade m2 or m7.). The
carbide tool inserts are used in surface broaching of cast iron work pieces because of their good flank wear
characteristics against abrasive chips. The brazed carbide broaches are not normally used due to problems
accompanied with them at all stages. The built up condition of surface broaches has promoted the use of
brazed or index able inserts to a great extent.

3. Calculation of broaching allowance (A) :


The allowance for broaching is defined as the total thickness of metal to be removed by broaching
( or it may be called as stock left for broaching. The nominal allowance for round holes, machined by
drilling or core drilling previous to broaching is given machined by drilling or core drilling previous to
broaching is given as

A = 0.005 D + (0.1 to 0.2) L


Where L = Basic diameter of the hole, mm
L = Length of the hole to be broached, mm.
Several (two to four) semi finishing teeth with gradually diminishing cut per tooth is made between
cutting & finishing teeth. For example, if S2 = 0.03 mm and semi finishing teeth are three in number then
for 1st , 2nd & 3rd semi finishing teeth cut per tooth can be taken as ½ 5 Z .015 mm, 1/3 S2 = 0.01 mm, & 1/6
S2 = 0.04 mm.
The allowance for broaching cylindrical holes can also be selected from table 6.1. The diameter of
primacies hole (Do) can thus be determined as DO = D – A

4. Selection of cut per tooth per side (SZ),


The values of SZ may be selected for different type of broaches and work piece materials from
standard table (table 6.2). For example for round broach (HSS) for machining steel value of SZ is 0.015 to
0.03 mm whereas for cast iron SZ is 0.03 to 0.1 mm.

5.Selection of broach tooth and chip space


The cross sectional area of gullet (chip space) Ag is found from the longitudinal cross sectional area
of chip “Ac”
Ag = K Ac
The volumetric factor K should be taken between 2 to 5 (smaller values for brittle material when a
discontinuous chip is obtained)
Ac = L.SZ, where L = length of surface broached, mm corresponding to the value of Ag, the other
parameters (like pitch ‘t’ width land ‘b’, tooth depth ‘h’ radius ‘r’ and ‘R’) can be selected for a particular
type of profile from table 6.3.
The pitch can also be calculated by empirical formulae depending on the broaching length.
t = (1.25 + 1.5) L . . . . . . . For plain broach.
t = (1.45 to 1.9) L . . . . . . for progressive cutting broaches.
A factor to be kept in mind while selecting broach pitch is that commonly at least three teeth should
be in contact with work piece at one time. It is permissible to have two teeth in contact for short parts.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
98
Very small parts are broached in stacks of several pieces and the pitch of the broach is determined for the
total length of stack.
The pitch of sizing teeth ‘t’ (semi-finishing teeth) is taken as ts = 0.6 to 0.8 for round broaches and for other
type of broaches ts = t.
The pitch of cutting teeth is made variable from t + (0.2 to 1mm) to t – (0.2 to 1 mm). The other parameters
of the tooth profile can also be estimated by empirical formulae given below.
h = 0.4 t, r = 0.5 h,
b = 0.3 t, r = 0.7 t,
The value of pitch is required to be reduced if the maximum number of teeth in contact with work piece (i.e.
2 max) at a time is less than three.
i.e. Z max = L/t + 1 , should be minimum three.
6. Selection of geometry of cutting and sizing teeth :
The back off or clearance angle ( ) can be selected in accordance with the kind of broach and
teeth from table 6.4. The sizing or finishing teeth have narrow straight (cylindrical) wear land of a width ‘f’
= 0.05 + 0.02 mm ( fig.6.3 c)
The backoff (or the hook or rake or face ) angle are made as small as possible so as to minimize the
loss of size in a cross section of the broach when broach is resharpened after grinding the tooth faces. The
values of backoff angle for finishing teeth is small for the same reason. The face angle is selected to suit
the work material (Table 6.5)
7. Selection of number of chipbreakers and their dimensions :
The chipbreaker grooves or nicks divide a wide chip into a several narrower ones. This reduces load
on broach and improves the condition for carrying the chip in chip space without crowding. The number
and the dimensions of the chip breakers can be selected from Table 6.6.
8. Determination of number of cutting & sizing teeth :
The number of cutting teeth Zc = A/(2 SZ) + (2 or 3)
The number of sizing teeth depends upon the type of broach
The number of sizing teeth ZS for various types of broaches are given in the bracket.
Round holes (5 to 8), spine, serration & involute (5), keyway & rectangular (4) & For roughing broaches of
all types (2-4)
9. Determination of dimensions of cutting teeth (or roughing teeth) and semifinishing
teeth.
The diameter of the first tooth is taken equal to the front pilot diameter Dt = D – A. The diameter of
each subsequent tooth is incremented by 2 SZ. The cut per tooth for last three finishing teeth preceeding,
the sizing or finishing teeth is gradually decreased as suggested in step (2)
10. The dimensions & tolerance of the sizing teeth (or finishing teeth)
The diameter of the sizing teeth DS = DmaxJB , where Dmax is the maximum diameter of the
broached hols, δ is the change in the hole diameter after broaching (when the diameter is oversized, take
sign as ‘-‘and’ +’ when the diameter is undersized.
The tolerance on cutting tooth = ± 1/5 SZ but maximum 0.02 mm, the tolerance on finishing tooth
= - 1/3 hole tolerance but maximum IT 7
11. Selection of pull end and rear pilot for round breaches :
The pull end of the broach serves to engage the broach to the machine through a puller head. The
three types of pull ends are given in fig.67.8. The details of each pull end can be obtained from standard IS
7773. These values can be selected from tables 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9.

12. Calculation of length of broach :


The total length of broach is given as
L = Length of toothed portion + length of pull end + length of rear pilot.
Length of torthed portion, L = tc Zc + tS . Zs
Where, tc , ts represents pitch for cutting of sizing teeth and Zc & ZS represents number of cutting and
sizing teeth.
13. Determination of force and calculation of strength of broach –
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 99

The force required for broaching & hole of desired dimension in a work piece is calculated from the
specific cutting force for the work piece material (Table 6.10)
For round broach, F = KS Π D.S.Z Zmax K
The broach strength for pull end breaches is checked for tensile failure is the permissible pulling force ‘F’
given by product of area of critical cross section and safe tensils strength of broaching material should be at
least equal to the broaching force F. or F. The area of critical cross section is the area of gullet cross section
for first teeth.
Critical cross section area = Π ( Dt – 2 h )2/4
Where ‘Dt’ is the diameter of pilot or first tooth and “h” is the depth of gullet. The values of permissible
stresses for material of pull and push broaches can be obtained from table 6.9.
The push broach strength is checked for failure in buckling as follows :
If L/D ratio < 25, the design is safe for buckling (as it is treated as a short column) and for L/D >
25, the Euler’s formula gives permissible force for avoiding buckling (F) which should be at least equal to
broaching force F.
Permissible pushing force F = Π . E.I. / (FOS.L), where
FOS = factor of safety & is selected as 3 or more
I = moment of Inertia of broach
D = Root diameter at half length of broach (centre of broach)
L = Length from push end to first tooth.
14. The working drawing preparation :
The working drawing of broach is prepared with indication of basic specifications (Fig.6.9)
Solved Example
Example 1 : Design a circular broach for machining a cylindrical hole, diameter D = 25H7 (+ 0.021) and
length 10 = 562 ± 0.95 in a toothed wheel blank of free cutting steel (σ t = 70 kgf/mm2)
Solution :
1) The broach material selected for this job is HSS (m2)
2) Broaching allowance ‘A’ and diameter of premachined hole ‘DO
A = 0.005 D + 0.12 L = 0.9735 say 1.0 mm
D0 = D – A = 25 – 1.0 = 24 mm.
3) Cut per tooth SZ
From standard table (62) S2 is selected as 0.03 mm for steel. Assuming the number of semi
finishing teeth as B the SZ is distributed as ½ SZ – 0.15 mm, 1/3 SZ = 0.01/mm, and 1/6 S = 0.04 mm.
4. Selection of broach tooth & chip space dimensions :
Longitudinal cross sectional area of chip = L.SZ = 50 x 0.03 = 1.5 mm2
Ag = cross sectional area of gullet = K x 3.15 = 4.5 mm2
From table (6.3) for re-utilize profile nearest value of Ag is 5.8 mm and of pitch is 7 mm. and h = 2.3, b =
3.0 r = 1.25, OR
These dimensions can also be estimated by the empirical formulae as under.
T = 1.25 L = 8.8 9.0 mm
H = 0.4 t = 3.6 mm
R = 0.5 h = 1.8 mm
B = 0.3 t = 2.7 mm
Let us assume the values selected from standard table i.e. t =7.0, h = 2.3 mm, b = 3.0, r = 1.25 mm.
The pitch for finishing or sizing teeth = ts = 0.8 t = 5.6 mm. Now checking for Zmax i.e. maximum
number of teeth in contact Zmax = maximum number of teeth in contact = L/t + 1 = > 3 hence the
condition that Zmax should be ≥ 3 is satisfied and the selected of pitch is safe.
5.Selection of geometry :
From table 604 & 6.5 we get
∝ roughing = 3 + 30’ , , roughing = 150
∝ Semifinishing 20 + 1 Semifinishing = 150
∝ Sizing = 10 + 151 √ sizing = 50
6. Selection of number of chip breakers -

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
100
From table 6.6 for D = 25 mm number of chip breakers is equal to 12 and width m = 1.0 mm r = 0.3 mm
7. Determination of number of cutting and sizing teeth
Number of cutting teeth Zc = A/2.SZ + (2 or 3)
= 1.0/2.0.03 + 2
= 16.66 + 3 = 20
Out of total cutting teeth 17 teeth are used for roughing and 3 are used for semifinishing where the value of
SZ = is reduced gradually No. of sizing teeth ZS = 6
8. Determination of dimensions of cutting teeth
diameter of 1st tooth = Diameter of pilot i.e. 24.0 mm. The value of the various teeth diameter are entered
in the working drawing of broach as shown in fig.6.9
The dimensions of tooth 2 to 17 are obtained by adding 2 SZ i.e. .0.06 to previous diameter. The 2 SZ is
distributed as 2.1/2 Sz , 2.1/3 Sz & 2.1/6 Sz for tooth number 18, 19 and 20 as stated earlier (.03, .02, .
006) for the six finishing or sizing teeth the dimension is kept constant i.e. 25.016 mm.
9. Dimensions and tolerance of sizing teeth -
DS = Dmax ± = 25.021 – 0.005 = 25.016 mm
Assuming the diameter will be oversized by 0.005, δ is ‘-‘
Tolerance on cutting teeth = ± 1/5 SZ = ± 0.006
Tolerance on finishing teeth = -1/3 rd tolerance on hole = - .0007
10. Selection of pull end & rear pilot dimensions –
From table 6.7 d1 = 22 mm, d2 = 17 mm. d4 = 22 mm, C = 0.5 mm
L1 = 140 mm, L2 = 25 mm, L3 = 25 mm, L4 = 16 mm, r1 = 0.3 and r2 = 1.0 mm
∝ = 300 for pull end Dt = 24.0 -.04
-.073
From table 6.8
Drp = minimum diameter of broached hole = 25 –0.021
1rp = 25 -0.041
t = 1.5
11. Length of broach – (L1)
Length of portion = Tc Zc + ts .Zs
= 7.20 + 5.6 x 6
= 173.6
Length of front pilot = L1 + 65 (for tapered portion)
= 75 (for cylindrical front pilot)
= 140 + 65 + 75 = 280 mm
Length of rear pilot = 25
L = 173.6 + 280 + 25 = 478.6 mm
12. Force & strength calculations -
F = Ks Π D SZ Zmax K.
Ks = 425 Kgf/mm2, D = 25 mm, SZ = 0.03 mm, Zmax = 8,
K=1.25
F = 10008.75 Kgf.
Cross sectional Area of critical section = Π (Dt-2h)2/4 = 295 mm2.
Permissible putting stress for HSS = 35 kgf/mm2
Permissible pulling force F’ = 35 x 295.44 = 1034 kg/mm2
F1 > F hence the design is safe.

PROBLEMS
1. What is broaching ? What are its advantages and disadvantages over boring ?
2. What are the geometric elements of broach teeth ?
3. Explain the constructional features of broach teeth with a neat sketch.
4. What are the various types of internal broaches ?
5. What is the external broach ?
6. What are the various modes of cutting in broaching ?
7. How is the broaching allowance a round broach calculated ?
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 101

8. Draw a neat sketches of an two types of pull ends used in round broaches.
9. How is the number of cutting and sizing teeth calculated in broaching ?
10.How is the force required for broaching calculated ?
11. What is cut per tooth ‘Sz’ ? How is SZ distributed in semi-finishing teeth ?
12. How is the pitch decided in broaching ?
13. How are the broaches resharpened ?
14. How is the length of broach decided ?
15. Design a broach for producing a cylindrical hole, of diameter ‘D’ and length ‘L’.
For variants of the problem see following table.

CHAPTER 7
DRILLS AND REAMERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION :
Drilling is one of the most widely used methods of making holes. The cutting tool in this case is a
drill with which a hole can be made from the solid or the diameter of a previously drilled hole can be
increased. The primary cutting motion in drilling is rotary, straight line feed motion is used. The drill is
clamped in the spindle which rotates it and feeds it downwards into the work piece clamped stationary on
the table.
7.2 ELEMENTS OF (TWIST) DRILL:
The peripheral elements of the drill point are lip, chisel edge, helix angle, point angle, chisel edge
angle, rake angle, clearance angle etc. (7.1)

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
102

1) Lips: These are main cutting edges of the drill and are formed by the intersection of the flank and flute
surfaces. For efficient cutting, the lips should be straight, equal in length and symmetrical with the axis of
the drill.
2) Chisel edge: This is the point end of the web and it is formed by the intersection of flank surfaces.
3) Helix angle: Helix angle practically determines the rake angle at the cutting edge of the drill. As the H.
A. decreases, the rake angle also decreases and makes the cutting edge stronger. With the lower H. A. the
chip election through the flutes is not efficient. However, low helix drills are recommended for hard
materials like marble, slate, carbon and hard rubber. With increase in helix angle, the rake angle increases
and the cutting edge becomes weaker. High helix drills, which are also known as fast helix drills, are
recommended for soft material like copper. All alloys, Zinc alloys, molded plastics, etc.
4) Point angle (2ϕ ) : The most commonly used point angle is 1180. Reducing the point angle leads to an
increase in the width of cut, and it is generally adopted for brittle materials. By increasing the point angle,
the width of out is reduced and thicker chips are produced for the same feed rate. They are generally
adopted for hard and tough materials. It is suggested that guide bushings be used for drills of increased
point angles since they have a tendency to skid or walk on the surface of the work when starting a hole.
Sometimes double angle points are used for hard cast iron and
other brittle materials.
5) Chisel edge angle (ψ ): The angle between the chisel edge and the
cutting lip, as viewed from the end of the drill, is the chisel edge
angle (ψ ). This angle is an indication of the clearance on the
cutting lip. This angle generally varies from 130 to 145 deg.
Since bigger relief angles are recommended for small diameter
drills, larger values of chisel edge angle are preferred.
6) Clearance angle: Clearance angle (alpha) at any point on the lip
is the angle between the tangent to the flanks and the tangent to the
surface of revolution at that point. The actual value of the relief
angle during drilling also depends on the feed. A higher feed
results in reduced working clearance. This is explained by the fact
that the drill not only rotates but also travels axially during cutting.
(Fig.7.2.a)

7) Rake angle : (γ ) Rake angle is the angle, the flute surface


makes with the normal to the surface of revolution described by
the lip. The rake angle acquires its maximum value at the
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 103

periphery of the drill, where in a plane parallel to the drill axis (plane A-A), it is equal to the helix angle w
of the helical flutes. (Fig. 7.2.b) The minimum value of the rake angle is at the apex of the point. The rake
angle at the chisel edge is negative so that the cutting angle exceeds90 degree and the cutting conditions are
unfavorable. A larger rake angle, however, reduces the lip angle, leading to more rapid heating of this part
of the drill and consequently, to maximum wear.
In deep-hole drilling with a large diameter drill, a wide chip is formed that is difficult to dispose of
through the flutes. Such a chip also increases friction and impedes cutting fluid delivery to the drill lips.
The width of the chip can be reduced by providing special chip-breaker grooves or notches either on the
face (Fig.8.3.b) or on the lip relief surface (Fig.8.3.a). The depth of the grooves should be approximately
0.05 D and their width approximately 0.07D, where D is the drill diameter. Such grooves divide a wide
chip into several narrow

7.3. Cutting Variables and the Undeformed Chip in Drilling


The cutting speed varies for various points on the drill lips; It is a maximum at the periphery and
decreases in approaching the drill axis. It is equal to zero at the centre of the drill. The maximum cutting
speed (at the periphery) is taken for calculations as :

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
104
nDn
v=
1000 m per min
where D = drill diameter, mm
n = drill speed , rpm.

FORCES ACTING ON DRILL


The feed s (mm per revolution) is the amount the drill advances axially in one revolution (or in one
revolution of the work if it rotates and the drill only advances). A drill has two main cutting edges (lips)
and the feed per lip is
s
sz = mm per rev
2
As in turning operations, the feed can also be measured in millimeters
per minute :
sm = sn mm per min
The thickness a of the undeformed (uncut) chip (Fig.182a) is measured in a direction
perpendicular to the drill lip
s
a = sz sin ϕ = 2 sin ϕ mm
The width b of the undeformed chip is measured along the lip and is equal to the length of the lip :
D
mm
b= 2 sin ϕ
The cross-sectional area of the unreformed chip per lip is
s D Ds
l z = ab = sin ϕ = mm 2
2 2 sin ϕ 4
The total cross-sectional area of the unreformed chip (for both lips of the drill) is
2 Ds Ds
f = 2 fz = = mm 2
4 2
The depth of cut in drilling (not generally used in calculations) is the distance from the machined
surface to the drill axis, i.e.
D
l= mm
2
The machining time in drilling and enlarging holes is
L l + y +∆
Tm = = min
ns ns
l = hole length or depth, mm
∆ = over travel ( l or 2 mm), mm
y = length of travel required before the drill cuts the full diameter, mm.

7.4. CHIP FORMATION IN DRILLING :


Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 105

A drill is more complex than a single point tool. The cutting process in drilling also proceeds under
more complex conditions due to the reasons explained below.
Chip disposal from and cutting fluid delivery to the drill lips present difficulties, there is considerable
friction between the chips and the flute surfaces and between drill and machined surface, a sharp drop in
cutting speed (from Υ max to zero) occurs along the drill lips so that at various points of the lips the layer
being out is deformed and out at different speeds. Non-uniform deformation is also due to the variable
angle along the lip of the twist drill, i.e. the chip deformation (contraction) decreases as the point on the lip
approaches the drill periphery (owing to increase in V and γ ).
These factors create more severe conditions for chip formation in drilling than in turning.
7.5 : Force acting on a drill :
The resultant forces of resistance of cutting can be resolved into three components at each point of
the lip viz., (Fig.7.5)
1) Force ‘F’ : acting upward impede penetration of drill in work.
k
2) Force Fh : acting horizontally ( and are supposed to be counter balanced ).
3) Force ‘Fz’ : acting horizontally & responsible for setting up moment of resistance (Mrc = Fz .x)
4) Force F1 : acting vertically on the chisel edge.
5) Force Ff : due to the flow of chip (Friction force)
Thus total axial thrust force “F” can be written as
F= ∑ v
(2 F + F + F )
1 f

Out of total resistance, Fm is 40%, F1 is 57% & Ff is 3%. The value of ‘F’ applied to drill must be less
than or equal to maximum force permitted by the feed mechanism. The total moment of forces of
resistance to cutting (M) is made up of the moment of forces ‘Fz’( = 80% M), moment of the forces due to
scraping and friction of the chisel edge, Mce , ( = 12% of M), moment of the friction forces on the margin
Mm , and the moment of the forces of friction of the chip on the drill and the machined surface, Mc, (Mm +
Mc ) = 8%M)
M = Mrc + Mce + Mm + Mc

7.6 Effect of various factors on axial thrust and torque :


Drill torque and axial thrust are functions of the following factors (1) work piece material, (2) Drill
diameter and feed, (3) Drill geometry, (4) Cutting variables, (5) Cutting fluid.

1) Drill diameter and feed : The larger the drill diameter and the rate of feed per revolution, the larger the
cross-sectional area of the under formed chip will be the greater the chip formation and, consequently, the
greater the axial thrust and torque.
2) Drill geometry :
a) Helix angle N : It is related with rake angle & hence increase in its value reduces axial force and torque.
b) The point angle 2ϕ : It affects the ratio of the forces Fh & Fv’ as well as under formed chip thickness.
Thus, upon increasing angle 2ϕ axial thrust is increased (due to increase in Fz) and torque is reduced.
c) Cutting fluid efficiency : Efficient application of cutting, fluid reduces axial thrust & torque.
d) Drilling depth : Increase in depth deterio-rate cutting conditions & hence adversely affect the thrust &
torque.
e) Cutting speed: Axial thrust & torque first decreases with an increase in cutting speed.

7.6 REAMING:

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
106

Drills are not a precision hole-producing tool. When size must be held to close limits or the surface
finish is important, a reaming operation usually follows a drilling operation.
Reaming is a finishing operation and is not intended to remove a large amount of material.
However, enough stock should be removed to allow the cutting edge to get under the chip or the reamer will
burnish the work rather than cut it, especially when reamer starts to dull.
The speed for reaming is generally considered to be two thirds of the speed used for drilling the
same material. Reamers speeds should always be reduced when chatter occurs.
Reaming feeds are much higher than drilling feeds because there are more teeth in the reamer.
Reamer feeds that are too low may cause burnishing, glazing or chatter. High feeds tend to reduce the
accuracy of the hole and the quality of the finish. Reaming is one of the important operation used in the
manufacturing of interchangeable parts of mass production and provides the most economical means of
achieving precision fits and interchangeability.
The maximum diameter of reamer must be equal to the maximum diameter of the hole minus (0.15
x Hole tolerance). The minimum diameter of reamer must be equal to the maximum diameter of the hole
minus (0.35 x Hole tolerance).
The reamers usually have even number of teeth to facilitate diameter measurement . Use is made of
non-uniform angular pitch “W” which helps is improving surface finish. The value of “W” for a particular
number of teeth can be selected from standard table.
The reamers may be straight flutes or helical fluted (with helix grooves directed against direction of
rotation.

QUESTIONS

i) What are the various types of drills? Give their uses.


ii) Explain the elements of twist drill ? With a neat sketch.
iii) Draw a drill point (standard) showing rake angle and clearance angle.
iv) Draw a neat sketch showing the various forces acting on a twist drill.
v) What is the difference between a drill and a reamer ?
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 107

vi) What is the various types of reamer and drill shanks ?


vii) Draw a neat sketch showing geometric elements of straight fluted reamer.
viii) Explain the difference between drilling & boring ?
ix) What are the various types of drill points ?
x) Explain the difference between drilling & boring ?
xi) Explain clearly the need for reamers. Why cannot drills be made to finish holes
to a close tolerance ?

CHAPTER 8
MILLING
INTRODUCTION:

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
108

Milling is the machining process in which metal is removed by advancing a work piece against a rotating
multipoint cutting tool called milling cutter. As the cutter rotates, each tooth removes a small amount of
material from the advancing work for each spindle revolution. What distinguishes milling from other
machining processes is interrupted cutting, relatively small size of chips and variation of chip thickness
within a chip itself.
The milling process is generally divided into two basic forms, referred to as peripheral milling and face
milling. In peripheral milling, the finished surface is parallel to the axis of the milling cutter and is
generated by teeth located on the periphery of the cutter.
Types of milling cutters :
The milling cutters are used for machining of external surface slots and contoured surface. The milling
cutters may be of various types plain milling cutter, face milling cutter, side milling cutter, end milling
cutters, metal slitting saw, angle milling cutter, form milling cutter (concave or convex) etc. These cutters
are shown in figure 8.1

8.3 Cutting elements of milling cutters :


Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 109

The geometry of plain milling cutter is shown in Fig.8.2.a. The rake angle when measured in plain normal
to cutting edge (section c.c.) is called normal rake angle. And when rake angle is specified in a plane
perpendicular to cutter axis.(Section D.D.). The following formula can be used to find the normal rake
angle “γ ” when the radial rake angle “γ ” when the radial rake angle “γ ” is given.
Tan Υ = tan Y’. Sin. ϕ + tan w. cos ϕ
Where ϕ is the entrance angle in case of face milling cutter and is defined as the angle made by main
cutting edge with the peripheral cutting edge. For a plain milling cutter with helical flutes, this angle
coincides with helix angle ‘w’.
The radial relief angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to cutter axis (Section D-D). It is the
angle between the tangent to the tooth flank at the point being considered on the main cutting edge and
tangent to the circle described by this point. The value of normal relief angle can be obtained as

Tan α = tan α n.cos w . . . . . for plain milling cutter.


tan αn
Tan α = Sin ϕ . . . . . for peripheral cutter.
The recommended ranges of various angles are
α = 120
to 300, α n =
60 to 150, for
face milling
cutters and
α h = 100
to 250 for side
milling cutters.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
110

8.4. MILLING PROCESS AND CUTTING VARIABLES:


The tooth of plain milling cutter removes chip of varying thickness whose section is confined within
two arcs of curate trochaics.
The chip formation in milling is accompanied by the same phenomenon as in single point cutter
tool, however, there are certain inherent features.
1. The tooth comes in contact with work for relatively short period of time during one revolution, hence
during rest of the time it cools down giving favorable effect to tool life.
2. The tooth is subjected to impact loads, shortening the tool life & may lead to catastrophic failure.
3. The chip thickness is not constant but varies along the entire length e.g. In conventional or up milling is
minimum at start or entrance of tooth & maximum at end or exit, whereas, vice versa for down or climb
milling.
Let, Number of teeth on milling cutter = Z, width of cutter = Bc , diameter of cutter = D, depth of cut = t,
width of cut = B, chip thickness measured in a radial section = ‘a’. The angle for which tooth is in contact
with work piece i.e. the tooth contact angle = δ , feed per revolution = S, feed per minute = Sm, feed per
tooth = Sz , rotational speed of cutter = N, number of teeth in contact, = m

Elements of cutting
process in straight flute
plain milling cutter
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 111

Now,
SZ = S/Z = Sm/(N.Z.)
Tooth contact angle can be estimated from fig. 8.4
Cos δ = (D/2-t)/(D/2) = 1 – 2t/D.
In case of straight flute plain milling cutter the uncut chip thickness is constant alone the length of the tooth
and can be determined from triangle KNP (if NP is assumed to be straight line)
A = KN = KP cos (90 - ψ ) = KP sin ψ = s.sin.ψ
Where ϕ is instantaneous tooth contact angle, or the angle corresponding to the given position of tooth.
Thus, maximum thickness of chip i.e. at exit = amax ‘S2’
, amax = Sz ‘sin; δ
The cross sectional area of uncut chip removed by one tooth of a straight flute cutter is (denoted by
f)
F = a.b = B.Sψ . sin
To find total cross sectional area of all uncut chips it is necessary to know the number of teeth that
are simultaneously in operation and instantaneous tooth constant angle for each tooth.
The number of teeth that are simultaneously in operation on a straight flute cutter is
m = δ .Z/(Angle between adjacent teeth) = δ .Z/360.
or
m=Z. Sin-1( 2 t / D − t / D ) / 360
2

If 1 < m < 2, then maximum two teeth are simultaneously in operation, if 2 < m < 3, then maximum three
teeth are in operation simultaneously.
Since,
Sin δ = 1 – cos2δ = 2 t / D − t / D
2 2

Thus, the value of number of teeth simultaneously in operation depends upon (1) ratio t/D, (ii) D, (iii) Z.
The larger t & Z, and the smaller D is, the greater ‘m’ will be for any cutter (Specified with D and Z), m
will depend only on the depth of cut.
The number of teeth in operation for a helical flute cutter can be determined by graphical method or
by the formula given below.
m = δ .Z/360 + B.Z/(Π .D.cot w)
The larger t, z, B and w are, and the smaller ‘D’ is, the greater the number of teeth in operation,
simultaneously.
The machining time in peripheral milling is
Tm = ( 1 + y + ∆ )/ Sz . Z.N.) min.
Where, ‘1’ is length of milled surface, ‘y’ is cutter approach and ‘∆ ’ is over travel.

8.5. Conventional (UP) Vs Climb (Down) milling :


Milling can be accomplished with cutter rotating in the direction opposite to feed of the work piece
(Fig. 8.5.a), or in the same direction (Fig. 8.5.b). The first method is called conventional, or up milling the
second is called climb or down milling. The comparison of these milling processes is given in the
following table.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
112

POINTS CONVENTIONAL MILLING CLIMB MILLING


1. Uncut chip thickness Zero at entrance max. at exit Max. at entrance & zero at exit.
2. Load Gradually increases Gradually reduces
3. Machining of work Easy, as cuts from under the Cuts through the scale & hence the
piece with Sandy skin foundry skin, breaking it from cutter life reduces.
or scale in casting or under with & the hence cutter
forging life is good.
4. Effect of cutting Tends to lift the w/p from table W/p is forced against the guide
forces of vibration & or fixture, or lift work table ways, eliminating excessive.
surface finish. increasing the clearance Clearance – in joining surfaces.
between the table & bed or Thus - reducing vibrations and
saddle ways which leads to improving surface finish.
vibrations & bad S.F.
5. Accumulation of In front of surface to be Chips accumulation is behind the
chips machined pick-up by cutter & cutter, does not harm surface finish.
impairs surface finish.
6. Power consumption More as more power is Less compared to conventional
consumed in feed milling.
7. Excessive back lash in The traverse nut is The force is such that the backlash
table screw & nut. continuously in contact with is not eliminated.
lead screw on same side. So
backlash is eliminated.

8.6. Cutting forces in Milling


In milling, the rotating cutter has a no., of cutting edges, which engage with the work piece only in a
part of its rotary path, the remaining being through air. This results in pulsation of cutting forces. The
chips thickness varies along the cut and for calculation of cutting force, an average value of chip thickness,
should be taken into account.
The total resultant force of resistance ‘R’ of layer of stock bring cut by a straight flute plain milling
cutter can be resolved into the following forces, tangential ‘Fz’ and radial ‘Fy’ or horizontal ‘Fh’ and
vertical ‘Fy’ (Fig.)
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 113

The tangential (peripheral) force ‘F’ sets up the moment of resistance of cutting (M) and tends to bend the
arbor.
M = Fz.D/2 , Kgf-mm.
1) This moment of resistance should be overcome by the torque developed by the electric motor of the
milling machine. Thus main drive mechanism is designed and power required in milling is calculated on
basis of force Fz.
2) The radial force Fy exerts pressure on the basis of force Fz and also tends to bend the cutter arbor.
Thus cutter arbor is subjected to bending due to resultant of two forces Fz & Fy (i.e. R) and tortional force
due to moment of resistance to cutting.
3) The horizontal or feed force “Fh” is used in designing the feed mechanism of milling machine, in
calculating the required damping force for the work piece and designing various components of milling
future.
4) The vertical force Fy in climb milling tends to keep the cutter pressed against the work piece, while
in conventional milling tends of lift the work piece from table.
The value of aggregate tangential force “R”, can be calculated from the equation.
R = Ks . m. as . B Kgf
Where, Ks = Specific cutting force corresponding to given material
as = Average value of thickness of chip.
m = number of teeth simultaneously in contact
B = Width of chip.
In helical flute plain milling cutter, the acting forces Fz, Fy Fh and Fv will be supplemented by the
axial force Fa acting in a direction depending upon the hand of the helix which has a helix angle w.
From figure.
Fa = Fz . tan w
But, friction force T also acts along the tooth in a direction in which it reduces force Fa.
Therefore, Fa can be calculated from the formula.
Fa = 0.28 – Fz,. tan w.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
114

Depending upon the hand of the flute spiral, force ‘Fa’ either tends to slide the cutter off the arbor or
holds it against the shoulder on the spindle nose, the axial force can be compensated by using interlocking
cutters with helical flutes of different hands.
The power required for milling can be calculated from the tangential force Fz
E = Fz .V, Kgm/min.
The following relationships can be used to determine the forces Fh and Fv.
Fh = ( 1 to 1.2 ), Fz and Fv = (0.2 to 0.3) Fz for conventional milling
And Fh = (0.8 to 0.9) Fz & Fv = (0.75 to 0.8 ) Fz for climb milling.

QUESTIONS

1) What is milling ? How it differs from the turning process ?


2) What is the difference between up milling and down milling ?
3) With a neat sketch explain the geometrical elements of a helical flute plain milling cutter ?
4) What are the various types of milling cutter ? Explain geometry of a face milling cutter ?
5) How are the maximum number of teeth in operation decided in milling ? What are the factors affecting
this ?
6) What is tooth contact angle ? Derive the relation for the same.
7) What are the components of tangential force “R” in milling be resolved ?
8) What are the effects of various components of cutting forces in milling ?
9) Why are the inter locking cutters used ?
10) He is the time is milling a flat surface calculated ?

CHAPTER 9
GEAR CUTTING AND THREAD CUTTING.

Basic Principles (Processes) of gear


cutting :
Teeth are produced on gears by
removing the stock from the tooth
spaces with cutting tools. This is
accomplished by milling, hobbing,
planning, shaping, broaching, shaving
and grinding. Milling and allied
operations (hobbing, generating etc.) are
performed with gear milling cutters of
the disk cutter or end-mill type (both are
form relieved), straight or tapered gear
hobs and face-mill type cutters with
blades for roughing and finishing
curved-tooth bevel gears.
Planning is done with
reciprocating tools (called cutters)
having a straight cutting edge in single-
purpose straight bevel gear generators.
Shaping is carried out in gear
shaping machines with a multiple edge
tool called a gear shaper cutter.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 115

Broaching is done with a special cutting tool and is seldom employed as a gear cutting method.
Shaving is a gear-finishing process using a cutting tool in the form of a gear ( or rack in some
cases ) with teeth on the flanks of which narrow grooves separated by narrow lands are provided. These
narrow grooves are called serrations.
Grinding is employed as a gear-finishing process. Fine-module gear are sometimes ground from the
solid.
Gear teeth are cut by two general processes called : (1) Form cutting in which the shape of the
cutting edge of the tool is identical with the shape of the tooth space of the gear (disk and end-mill type gear
milling cutters and gear shaping cutter – heads operate on this principle ), and (2) generating, in which the
tooth flanks are obtained as a result of machining with a tool whose cutting edges reproduce the profile of
the conjugate rack or the profile of a tooth of a conjugate gear. During the machining process, the tool and
gear blank form a conjugate (properly meshing) toothed pair, or gearing.
Various gear cutting tools, hobs, shaping cutters, rack, type cutters shaving cutters, etc. operate by
the generating principle.
Disk type gear milling cutters (Fig.9.1.a) are form milling cutters usually of the form-relieved type,
in which the tooth profile is formed. For this reason, tool designers try to use profile sharpened teeth on
gear cutting tools wherever feasible.
The rake angles of gear cutting tool, especially of those intended for finishing operations, are also very
small or equal to zero (to simplify profiling of the tool).

9.2.1 Gear Shaping Process:


Gear shaving as stated earlier is a process of gear cutting using generating principle. Gear shaping
cutters are used in a machine called a gear shaper in which the cutter and blank rotates as if they are two
gears in mesh, i.e. their pitch circle roll together without slipping.
In addition to the rolling (generating) motion, the cutter reciprocates along with the axis of the gear
blank. This is the primary cutting motion. Chips are cut in the down stroke of the cutter. In the return
stroke the blank is withdrawn slightly from the outer (to prevent the flanks of the cutter teeth from rubbing
against the machined surfaces of the gear teeth). At the beginning of the working stroke, the blank is
advanced to the cutter again.(Fig.9-2 & Fig.9.4)

In addition to the reciprocating and rotary motions, the shaping cutter is also in fed to the depth of
the teeth of the gear being cut. This process has following advantages over the hobbing process.
1) Gears with adjacent shoulders can easily be produced.
2) The gears produced by the method are of very high accuracy.
3) Both internal and external gears can be cut by this process.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
116
4) Cluster gears can be manufactured.
However with this process worm & worm wheels cannot be produced.

9.2.2. Geometric elements of gear shaper cutter :


The gear shaper cutter are of different types. These cutter have different geometry depending upon
the type of gears produced viz, spur gears or helical gears. A rotary gear shaper is basically a gear in which
teeth are relieved to provide cutting edges and
clearance. According to construction the gear
shaping cutters are classified as disk type, shank
type, deep counter bore type, hub type and
combination type. The geometric elements of a
disk type gear shaper cutter are shown in fig. 9.3

Gear hobbling process :


Hobbling is machining process similar to milling, but in hobbling the work piece is not held stationary but
is caused to rotate with a definite ratio to the velocity of the cutter. The cutter is called a hob, the chief
feature of which is a thread or lead developed to produced teeth on a cylindrical work piece. Hobs are used
for the production of spur gears, helical gears, worm gears, spine shafts, etc.

Hobbling is process of generating a gear by means of a rotating cutter called hob. It is a continuous
indexing process. Gear hobbling is faster than milling, because several teeth are cut at a time and because
of the continuous meshing process. In gear hobbling, the cutting tool and work piece rotate in a constant
relationship while the hob is being fed into work. A hob resembles a worm, with gashes made parallel to its
axis to provide cutting edges. For in volute gears the hob has essentially straight sides at a given pressure
angle. The hob, is fed into the gear blank to the proper depth and the two are rotated together as if they are
in mesh. Each hob tooth cut its own profile, but the accumulation of these straight cuts produces a curved
form of the gear teeth, thus the name generating process. The gear cutting with a hob involves three basic
motions all of them occurring at a time. The hob and a blank have a rotating motion and the third one is
radial advancement for the hob, thus causing the cutting and indexing simultaneously.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 117

9.4. Thread Cutting Tools :


9.4.1. General
Screw threads are produced by three methods :
1. Cutting with a cutting tool made of carbon tool steel, high speed steel or cemented carbide (single-point
threading tools and chasers, taps, threading dies, self-opening die heads, thread milling cutters and thread
generating cutters).
2. Grinding with fine-grain single-rib and multiple-rib wheels.
3. Rolling (based on plastic deformation) with cylindrical dies, flat dies and heads with narrow thread-
rolling dies (with longitudinal travel of the head or the work).
9.4.1 Thread Tapping
A tap is used to cut internal threads. A tap is a screw on which longitudinal straight or helical flutes
have been milled to form cutting edges. It operates with two simultaneous motions: rotation of the work or
tap and tap advance along the thread axis.
Taps can be classified into the following main types hand, nut, machine, master, die, adjustable and
collapsible.
The principal parts and constructional elements of a tap are shown in Fig.9.9.
The thread lengthily refers to the part of the tap on which thread is cut. It is made up of the chamber
and sizing section. The chamber or cutting section is the front tapered end of the tap and serves for rough
cutting of the thread. The sizing section cleans up the thread cut by the chamber.
The shank is the portion of the tap by which it is held in a chuck or tap wrench; the square serves for
transmitting the torque to drive the tap.
Elements determining the construction of a tap include the flutes for accommodating the chips,
lands and core (central portion of the tap below the flutes which joins the lands).
The geometry consists of the rake or hook angle y. relief angle z, chamber angle and the flute lead
(helix) angle w (in Fig.9.9 the flutes are straight, parallel to the axis and w = 0 ).
Depending upon the type of material to be tapped, the rake angle y may range from 50 to 300. In
taps for machining medium-hard steel; y = 100 ; in those for tapping cast iron, y = 50 chamber relief is
obtained by relieving the thread only on the crests along the length of the chamber. In underground hand
taps, a = 4 to 8 ; in put taps with ground thread, a = 80 to 120.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
118
There is usually no relief on the sizing section and at the flanks of the thread. Only taps with ground
thread are relieved in a thread grinder; the relief, value is very small (0.2 to 0.3 mm) along the width of the
land ) but this is sufficient to reduce friction drastically and facilities tap operation.
Another measure for reducing friction in tapping is to provide & back taper on the tap. This makes
the major and minor diameter of the thread smaller near the shank than those at the chamber by the
following amount; 0.05 to 0.10 mm per 100 mm for ground taps and taps in which threads are formed by
rolling; 0.08 to 0.12 mm per 100 mm for underground taps. Fig.9.10

If a tap is used to cut thread in a hole with longitudinal slots or recesses (the tapping of a threading
die with a die tap can serve as an example) the number of flutes should not be a multiple of the number of
clearance holes in the threading die for vice verse), since otherwise the tap lands may drop into the
clearance holes.
To ensure productive operation, the tap flutes should be of a shape that provides sufficient chip
space (without appreciably weakening the tap) and enables the tap to be necked out of the hole without
damaging the thread with the heel of the lands.
Three of the more widely used shapes of flutes are shown in Fig.9.10.c. In Type a (Fig. 9.10.c the
flute is milled with a convex half-circle cutter profiled to a single radius. In backing out the tap the heel of
the lands may cut a chip and spoil the thread. This shape of flute is used only in exceptional cases and then
only for hand master taps. The external angle at the heel should be nearly 900. Most of the short coming of
the Type a flute are into found in Type b (Fig.9.10.e.). This can be recommended for nut taps which do not
have to be backed out of the threaded hole.
A more efficient flute is Type c (Fig.9.10.c) which is used in tool plants for tap manufacture. This
shape of flute provides a straight cutting face and the rake angle is sufficiently constant on the chamber and
sizing sections of the tap.
In the Type c shape, the total flute angle is 460 or 470. The width of the lands and the core diameter
are taken as follows (after data of the Frezer Plant,; b = 0.34d for four-flute taps (where d0 is the major
diameter). This flute shape can be recommended for both hand and nut taps.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 119

Most taps have straight flutes. Certain special taps have helical flutes.
The direction of chip flow can be changed by changing the hand of the helical flutes on the tap.
Taps with helical flutes of different hands are illustrated in Fig. Flutes of the type shown in Fig. Drive
the chips forward, ahead of the tap, and can be used for tapping through holes. Chip flow is forward the
shank for a tap with flutes of the opposite hand (Fig.9.11.b.). This is applicable for tapping blind holes.
A straight-
flute tap will also
direct the chips
forward, ahead of the
tap, if a spiral point is
ground on the cutting
face of each land at
the chambered end.
It is formed at an
angle λ (Fig.9.11.c)
with the tap axis.

In hand tapping, the work is usually


distributed between two or three taps (a set of
taps is used). Only the finishing (No.3) tap
has a full thread profile. The roughing and
middle (Nos. 1 and 2) taps have reduced
major diameters. The chamber length differs
on three taps. It is longest on the roughing
tap (4S) and shortest on the finishing tap
(1.5S to 2S).
The most commonly applied stock
removal distribution has 50 to 60 per cent
removed by the roughing tap, 28 to 30 per cent by the middle tap, and 16 to 10 per cent by the finishing tap.
Taps are made of high-speed steel or, more frequently, of carbon tool steel.
9.5. Thread-Cutting Dies
A threading die is an internally threaded tool used to cut external screw threads by screwing on the
work piece. Threads are usually cut in one pass.
Threading dies may be solid or split; they may be round, square or hexagon (Fig.9.13 a, b and c ),
spring (Fig.333d) or two-piece adjustable dies for a hand stock.
A threading die operates in a manner resembling the operation of a tap, except that it cuts external
and not internal, thread.
Parts and constructional elements of round threading dies (Fig.9.14). The elements associated with
the cutting process are: rake angles γ and γ N and angle λ ; die lands (land width B and width of gap
between lands H1); clearance holes; chamber length l1; chamber angle ϕ ; die thickness H; number of lands
z; chamber relief K and relief angle a.
Elements associated with the dimensions of the formed screw threads are; major, minor and pitch
diameters of the thread; angle of thread and thread pitch.

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
120
Elements which provide for mounting the die in a machine tool or die stock are : outside diameter
D1 rim thickness e and e1, adjusting slot, spot holes for clamping screws and spot holes for adjusting
screws.
Round thread-cutting dies are used to
cut threads and to size previously cut
threads.
Thread cutting is accompanied by the
removal of a considerable amount of chips,
and the clearance holes must be large
enough to avoid being clogged by the chips.
Only a very thin layer of metal is
removed in sizing screw threads and
therefore dies for this purpose do not
require large clearance holes. Such dies
may also be of lower strength.

PROBLEMS
1. What are various types of gear cutting processes?
2. What are the various gear cutting tools operating by form cutting principle?
Give geometric details of an/one.
3. What are the various types of gear cutting tools operation by the Generating principle ? Explain the
geometric element any one.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 121

4. What is gear shaping? What are it’s advantages of hobbling?


5. What are the advantages of gear hobbling?
6. What are the various methods of thread production?
7. What are the various types of flutes widely used in taps?
8. How can the direction of chip flow be changed?
9. Draw a neat sketch of a tap showing various elements?
10. Draw a neat sketch of a die, showing various elements?
11. Explain the difference between milling a spur gear manufacturing on hobbling Machine tap ?

S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI

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