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Shirbhate 1
CHAPTER – I
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
1.1 Introduction :
Metal cutting process forms the basis of engineering industry & is involved either directly or
indirectly in the manufacture of nearly every product of our modern civilization. The theory of metal
cutting is of vital importance and a basic knowledge of fundamentals of machining of materials and of the
theory of metal cutting will help to develop scientific approach in solving problems encountered in
machining.
A metal cutting tool is the part of a metal cutting machine tool that, in the cutting process, acts
directly on the blank from which the finished part is to be made. The metal cutting process accompanied by
deformation in compression, tension & shear by a great deal of friction & heat generation is governed by
definite laws. Metal cutting operation involves three basic requirements. (1) There must be a cutting tool
that is harder and wear resistant than the work piece material, (2) there must be interference between the
tool & the work piece as designated by the feed and depth of cut, and (3) There must be relative motion or
cutting velocity between the tool & the work piece with sufficient force and power to overcome the
resistance of work piece material. As long as above three conditions exist, the portion of the material being
machined that interferes with free passage of the tool will be displaced to create a chip.
1.2 Classification of production process :
The metals are given different usable forms by various processes. These processes may be
classified as under.
Metal Forming
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1.3 Basic elements of cutting tools:
The cutting tool consists of three basic elements (1) cutting element or Principle element – This is
the element, which is actually fed into the material of work piece to cut the chips ex. In drilling lips (or
cutting edges) are cutting elements. (2) Sizing element – The part, which serves to make up any
deficiencies of cutting element after sharpening, is sizing element. It imparts final shape to the machined
surface and also provides guidance in tool operation ex. In drill sizing element; (flute portion) immediately
follows the lips). (3) Mounting element – It serves for securing the tool in machine or holding it in hand of
worker ex. In the twist drill the shank is mounting element. The cutting & sizing element taken together is
referred as working element of the tool.
SPEED
It is the travel of the cutting edge in the direction of feed motion relative to the machined surface in
unit time. The feed may be expressed as distance traveled by the tool in one minute (fm) or distance
traveled by the tool in one revolution (f). The terms ‘f’ and fm are related by
f = fm / N, mm/rev . . . . . . . . . 1.43
In lathe work, distinction is made between longitudinal feed, when tool travels in a direction
parallel to work axis, cross feed when tool travels in a direction perpendicular to the work axis, and
angular feed when tool travels at an angle to work axis (for example, in turning tapered surface.)
K
M N N
N P
P
L
Fig. 1.2 Force acting on an indenting wedge Fig. 1.4 Force triangle at the wedge check
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in fig.1.3. The body resists the motion of the wedge. The reaction N.N. appear at the cheeks of the wedge.
The forces N.N. are perpendicular to the cheeks in absence of friction. From the equilibrium of forces
(fig.1.4)
N KM 1 1
= = =
P KL KL / 2 2 sin β
2
KM 2
Work surface
K
N
N P
N L 900
P
Fig.1.4 Orientation of the wedge during Fig.1.5 Orientation of the wedge
the parting or cutting by the indentation process during the separation of chips
Thus, the mechanical advantage in force is dependent on the wedge angle 'B'. The smaller the angle of
wedge, the greater will be the gain in force. In other words, the wedge angle ' ' determines the resisting
force of the cutting edge.
The cutting edge must be oriented at certain required angles with the work surface depending on
nature of operation to be performed. Fig.1.5 shows that the wedge must be set at right angles to the work
surface, so that the driving force "P" is in the direction of parting. Fig.1.6 shows during chipping the wedge
must be set at an angle inclined to work surface so that separation of chip can be done.
Thus for the wedge two geometric parameters can be defined i.e. (1) The wedge angle '' and (2)
the axis of symmetry along which 'P' acts. In addition to above, two more parameters are introduced to
confirm conditions of chipping action. These parameters are set with respect to velocity Vector, 'V' and are
defined as (3) cutting angle 'δ ' and (4) clearance angle , as shown in fig.1.7. The sign convention for
describing these angles are set wr.t. left handed cork screw rule with "Z" axis coinciding with the direction
of the velocity vector, V, and the cutting edge lying along 'Y' axis. Hence, 'δ ' & 'α ' are measured positive,
when moving from 'Z' to 'X' axis as shown in fig.1.7. The parameter ' γ ' defines the inclination of the top
face of the wedge (called Rake face) w.r.t. velocity vector V, while the parameter 'α ' describes the relief
provided from the bottom face of the wedge (called flank), often another derived parameter, called (5) Rake
angle 'γ ', is used to describe the inclination of the top face of the wedge. This is derived parameter given
by
γ = 900 - δ.
However if δ > 90 , then ' γ ' is negative. Thus from this equation it may be seen that while 'δ ' is
always positive the rake angle can become positive or negative depending an value of angle 'δ '.
v
δ
δ
β
β
However in Fig.1.7 (b) the cutting edge of the wedge has been set at right angle to velocity vector,
V, along Y-axis. A new situation arises when the cutting edge. Shifts from Y axis and another parameter
called (6). Inclination angle is needed to describe the orientation of the wedge with respect to velocity
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 5
vector "V". The angle " " is measured positive when it lies in the direction or rotation of left hand cork
crew rule in the x-y-z system as shown.
When wedge shaped tool is set w.r.t. the work-place the actual values of the rake angle 'ϒ' and
clearance angle 'α ' depend on the actual direction of velocity vector V with respect to the wedge. The
effect of setting the wedge has been shown in fig.1.8. It the wedge is set high w.r.t. line of centers, the rake
angle increases to (+ ϒ ) from ϒ & clearance angle decreases to ( α - ) from 'α ' opposite is the case
when wedge is set low.
Fig1.9 Fig1.10
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4) The above relative values are affected by changes in cutting, conditions & in properties of the material
to be machined to give chip that range from small lumps to long continuous ribbons.
These observations indicates that the process of chip formation is one of deformation or plastic flow
of the material with the degree of deformation dictating the type of chip that will be produced. Fig. 1.11
shows progressive formation of a chip using a wedge shaped (single point) tool. At “a” tool contacts the
work piece material. At “b” compression of material takes place at point of contact. At “c” the cutting
force overcomes the resistance of penetration of tool is begins to deform by plastic flow. As the cutting
force increase, either a rupture or plastic flow in direction generally perpendicular to face of the tool occurs
& the chip is formed as shown at “d”.
a b c d
Fig1.12
The mechanism of deformation can be seen from fig. 1.12. Generally speaking there is always
deformation of metal lying ahead of the cutting edge by a process of shear. Here with application of force
the metal deforms by shear in a narrow zone extending from cutting edge to the work surface. This zone is
treated as single plane for purpose of mathematical analysis & is commonly referred to as Shear Plane.
The angle, which the shear plane makes with direction of tool travel, is known as Shear angle.
The process of plastic deformation occurring along the plane elongates the individual crystals of
metal in the general direction indicated by the shear angle. This tends to produce chip. That is thicker than
the layer of the parent metal from which it came. Chip material moves the tool face in layers of distorted
material. Each layer is pushed outward by a fixed amount w.r.t. Its adjacent layer & retains this position as
the whole chip slides up the tool face. The distorted layers now by means of phenomenon of slip & the
layers are called slip planes. The number of slip planes depends upon the lattice structure of parent
workplace material. The distortion of layers tends to strengthen them (work hardening or strain hardening)
& therefore the hardness of chip is much greater than the hardness of the parent material.
Thus in simple language the mechanism of chip formation in any machining operation is a rapid
series of plastic flow & slip movements ahead of the cutting edge. The degree of plastic flow ahead of the
cutting tool determines the type of chip that will be produced. If the w/p material is brittle & has little
capacity for deformation before fracture the chip will separate along the shear plane to form what is known
as a discontinuous segmental chip. Material that are more ductile & have capacity for plastic flow will
deform along the shear plane without rupture. The planes tend to slip & weld to successive shear planes, &
the result is a chip that flows in a continuous ribbon along the face of tool. This is known as a continuous
chip & is usually much harder than the parent material because of its strain hardened conditions.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 7
1) Discontinuous Chips: These chips are in the form of small individual segments, which may adhere
loosely to each other to form a loose chip. These chips are formed as result of machining of a brittle
material such as gray cast iron or brass castings, etc. These chips are produced by actual rupture or fracture
of metal ahead of the tool in brittle manner. Since the chips break up into small segments and also shorter
chips have no interference with work surface. The friction between chip & tool reduces resulting in better
surface finish. These chips are convenient to collect, handle & dispose of during production runs. The
conditions favorable for formation of discontinuous chips are:
1) Brittle & non ductile metals (like cast iron brass castings Beryllium, titanium etc.)
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of the tool.
4) Large chip thickness.
2) Continuous Chips: These chips are in the form of long coils having uniform thickness throughout.
These chips are formed as result of machining of relatively ductile materials where definite successive
raptures do not take place, at high cutting speeds. Due to large deformation possible with ductile materials
longer continuous chips are produced. These are referred to as “ideal” chips because,
i) Due to stable cutting excellent surface finish is obtained.
ii) Low friction between chip & tool & hence heat generation is low and,
iii) Power consumption is low. On the other hand, these chips are difficult to handle & dispose off. Chip
coils can cause injury to operation. However these problems can be avoided by use of “chip breakers”
behind to cutting edge. The conditions favorable for formation of continuous chips are
1) Ductile material
2) High cutting speeds.
3) Large rake angle of tool.
4) Small chip thickness.
5) Sharp cutting edge.
6) Efficient cutting fluid.
7) Low friction between chip tool interfaces.
3) BUE Chip (or continuous Chip with BUE): These chips are also produced in the form of long coils
like continuous chips, but they are not as smooth as continuous chips. These chips are characterized by
formation of built up edge on the nose of the tool owing to welding of chip material on to tool face because
of high friction between chip tool interfaces. Presence of this welded material further increases the friction
leading to building up of the edge, layer by layer. As the built-up edge continuous to grow, the chip flow
breaks a portion of it into fragments. Some of them are deposited on the work piece material while the rest
are carried away by the chips. The hardness of this BUE is two to three times higher than the work piece
material. This is the reason why the cutting edge remains active even when it is covered with built-up edge.
The only point in favor of BUE is that it protects the cutting edge from wear due to moving chips and the
action of heat. This brings about an increase in tool life. These chips normally occur while cutting ductile
materials with HSS tools with low cutting speeds. Chips with BUE are under desirable as they result in
higher power consumption poor surface finish and higher tool wear. Generally speaking any change in
cutting conditions that will eliminate or reduce BUE is desirable, since high friction between chip & tool
face is major cause of BUE. Any means of reduction of friction such as use of lubricant & adhesion
preventing agent is often effective to reduce BUE, especially when it is necessary to operate at low cutting
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speeds. Tool material with inherent low coefficient of friction or a high polish on tool face can also reduce
friction & hence BUE. The conditions favorable for BUE chip are.
1) Ductile material
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of tool.
4) Dull cutting edge.
5) Coarse feed.
6) Insufficient cutting fluid.
7) High friction at chip tool interface.
Table 1.1. : Factors responsible for the formation of different types of chips.
Factors Types of chips
Discontinuous Continuous With BUE Inhomogeneous
1. Material Brittle Ductile Ductile Which Shows decreased in Yield
Strength with temp. & Thermal
conductivity medium.
2. Cutting speed Low High Low -
3. Tool geometry Small rake Large rake Small -
4. Friction - Lower Higher -
5. Chip thickness Large Small Small -
6. Cutting fluid - Efficient Poor -
7. Feed - - Coarse -
8. Cutting edge - Sharp Blunt -
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t2 1 cos (φ − γ)
= =
t1 rc sin φ
cos φ cos γ + sin φ sin γ
=
sin φ
1
= cot φ cos γ + sin γ
rc
1
− sin γ
r 1 − r sin γ
c c
cot φ = =
cos γ rc cos γ
rc cos γ
tan φ =
1 − rc sin γ
sin φ
Vf = Vc ,
cos (φ − α)
cos α
Vs = Vc, cos (φ − α)
where α is the rake angle,
φ is the shear angle.
From the principle of kinematics, the relative velocity of two bodies (tool and chip) is equal to the
vector difference between their velocities relative to the reference body (here the work piece). The vectors
of these three velocities - Vc, Vs and Vf - should form a close velocity diagram (Fig.30.15)
and
Thus Vc = Vs + Vf
sin φ
or Vf = Vc .
cos (φ − α)
Consider ∆ ADE
DE
= cos α or DE = Vc . cos α
AE
Consider ∆ BDE
DE
= cos (φ − α)
BE
DE= Vs cos (φ − α)
or
From Eqs. (c) and (d)
Vs. cos (φ -α ) = Vc.cos α
cos α
or Vs = Vc .
cos (φ − α)
1.12 Shear Strain:
During the process of chip formation, each undeformed layer of material passes through the shear
plane and undergoes considerable plastic deformation. Shear strain "" can be defined as the ratio of
displacement of the layer ∆ S along the shear plane to the thickness of layer '∆ x'. Thus shear strain can be
related to the shear angle φ and rake angle "γ " by the following equation:
∆s ∆x cot φ + ∆x tan( φ − γ)
= =
∆x ∆x
= Cot φ + tan (φ - γ )
cos γ
or = sin φcos( φ − γ)
This relation can be obtained from the pack of inclined cards model suggested by Prof. Pushpanen.
In this model the formation of chip and its motion along the tool face can be visualized from an idealized
model in which a stack of inclined (playing) cards is pushed against the tool (fig.1.16 a). As the tool
advances, segments, which had been part of the work place, become part of the chip. From this figure it can
be seen that card closest to the tool point slips to a finite distance relative to the uncut material as tool point
slips to a finite distance relative to the uncut material as tool advances. When the tool point reaches the
next card, the previously
lipped card moves up
along the tool face as a
part of the chip.
BA = BE + AE
BA = ∆ x cot φ +∆ x cot
{ 90 - (φ -γ )}
BA
ε= = cot φ + cot ( 90 − ( φ − γ ) )
CE
= cot φ + Tan ( φ − γ)
but from velocity relations
vs cos γ
=
v cos φ − γ
vs
ε=
v sin φ
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undeformed chip t & chip thickness tc have been marked. It can be easily seen that the following relations
exist.
d
t= f sin φ p b= sinφ
p
φ p
φ p=90
0
It is clear that the uncut chip thickness depends upon the primary cutting edge angle as shown in
fig.1.18. In fig. 1.18 (e) a where φ p = 900, the uncut chip thickness, t = feeds "f" (mm/rev ) & width of cut
b = depth of cut "d".
1.14 Cutting forces:
The force system in general case of conventional turning process is shown in Fig.1.19 a. The resultant
cutting force "R" is expressible by its components: "Px" known as the "feed force" in the direction of tool
travel. "Py" called as "thrust force" in the direction perpendicular to the produced surface; and "P z" the
"cutting force" or "main force" acting in the direction of cutting velocity vector. These directions have been
chosen for their suitability of being determined by properly designed tool force dynamometers.
After determining the individual components Px, Py & Pz the resultant force, "R" can be evaluated as
R = (Px + Py + Pz )1/2 = PX + PY + PZ
2 2 2 ........ 1.14.1
This three-dimensional force system can be reduced to a two-dimensional force system if in
orthogonal plane π0 the forces are considered in such a way that the entire force system is contained in the
considered state, when
R = Pz2 +Px2 y ..... . . . 1.14.2
Pxy = Px2 + Py2 ..... . . . 1.14.3
This is possible only when Pxy is contained in plane π 0 which is possible only under conditions of free
orthogonal cutting. This corresponds to 'orthogonal system of first kind' for which conditions are:
i) 0<φ < 90
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 13
ii) λ= 0
iii) The chip flow direction lies on the plane π 0.
Fig. 4.10 shows the cutting forces for the case of orthogonal system of the first kind.
An orthogonal two-dimensional system of second kind can be obtained by choosing λ and φ in such a
manner that either Px or Py can be made zero.
For the orthogonal system of second kind either
i) "Py" is made zero by having λ = 0 and
ii) φ = 90 when two dimensional force system is
R = Pz2 + Px2 ... . . . . 1.14.3
Fig. 4.11 shows the disposition of cutting forces in plane
orthogonal turning with λ = 0 and φ = 90.
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However out of all the above cases shown in fig 4.10 4.11 and 4.12 the cutting in the first two cases
is "non free" or 'restricted" type where the auxiliary cutting edge is also active in causing deviation of chip
flow direction from the orthogonal plane.
The contribution of auxiliary cutting edge is to deviate Pxy from the orthogonal plane. This
deviation is small & neglected if the depth of cut is very large compared to feed, such process is called
"Restricted Orthogonal cutting.
However during cutting of a thin pipe with a cutting edge whose length is considered to be
very large compared to the width of cut, a "pure" orthogonal cut of first or second kind could be obtained.
The principal schemes of metal cutting shall be based on pure orthogonal cutting from which schemes for
oblique or other continuous and intermittent cutting processes like drilling, milling, etc., can be derived by
similarly principles.
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coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface (F/N). Angle BAG is the angle of friction between chip and
tool.
Tan β = F/N
(b) Analytical Treatment [See fig 30.16 (b)]
F = GH + HB = AI + HB
Or F = Ff. cos α + Ft. sin α ………….30.17
N = AG = DH - DI
= Ft.cos α - Ft. sin α …………..30.18
F Ff cos α + Ft sin α
Now =
N Ft cos α − Ff sin α
Dividing R.H.S. by cos α
F F + Ft tan α
= f …………..30.19
N Ft − Ff tan α
The resultant tool force, R (eq 30.2) can be resolved into two components N and F normal to and along the
rake surface respectively, Fig. 30.16(b). Since F must be the friction force due to the existence of the
normal load N, as per usual convention.
F/N = µ …………..30.20
Where µ is the average coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool. From eqs 30.16, 30.19 and
30.20.
F F + Ft tan α
µ= = tan β = f …………….30.21
N Ft − Ff tan α
Fs = Ft. cos φ - OD
Or Fs = Ft. cos φ - Ff. sin φ
Fc = AO + OE
Fc = Ff. cos φ + Ft. sin φ
The earlier discussed theoretical analysis of mechanics of metal is of use only if the value of the shear angle
φ is known. Machining is an unconstrained process and the shear angle (or chip thickness) has no obvious
value as, for example, has the exit thickness in rolling.
Apart from the time involved in determining the magnitude of the shear angle experimentally, the
understanding of the machining process is clearly incomplete if one cannot formulate a satisfactory criterion
for the orientation of the shear plane.
1. Theory of Ernst and Merchant
According to this hypothesis, the shear plane orientates itself so that
(a) the work done in cutting is a minimum, or
(b) the maximum shear stress occurs on the shear plane.
Refer Fig.30.16(b), ∆ ABE
Fs
= cos (β − α + φ)
R
or Fs = R . cos (φ + β − α)
and Fs = τs .A s , (from eqn.30.29)
A1
or Fs = τs . (30.35) [Refer article 30.16]
sin φ
From Eqs. (30.34) and (30.35)
τs .A 1 1
R= . (30.36)
sin φ cos (φ + β − α)
Also, from Fig.30.16(b)
F1 = R . cos (β -α ) (30.37)
τs A 1 cos (β − α)
F1 = × (30.38)
sin φ cos (φ + β − α)
Eq. (30.38) may be differentiated w.r.t. φ and equated to zero to find the value of shear angle, φ
for which F1 is a minimum.
d F1 cos φ. cos (φ + β − α) − sin (φ + β − α)
= −τs A 1 cos (β − α). = zero (0).
dφ
sin 2 φ. cos 2 (φ + β − α)
or cos φ .cos (φ +β - α ) – sin (φ + β - α ) = 0
or cos ( φ + φ + β - α ) = 0
cos (2 φ + β + α ) = 0
π
2φ +β -α = (30.39)
2
π β α π 1
or φ = − + = − (β − α)
4 2 2 4 2
π 1
∴ Shear angle, φ = − (β − α) (30.40)
4 2
-Merchant found that the above theory agreed well with experimental results obtained when cutting
synthetic plastics but agreed poorly with experimental results obtained for steel machined with a sintered
carbide tool.
-It should be noted that in differentiating equation (30.38) with respect to φ , it was assumed that A1, α and
ι should be independent of φ . On reconsidering these assumptions, Merchant decided to include in a new
theory the relationship.
τ s = τ so + k σ s (30.41)
Power and energy Relationship:
The power or the total energy per unit time or the rate of energy consumption is the product of cutting speed
"V" and cutting force Fc i.e. E = Fc x V, K.g. mm/min.
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The energy consumed during cutting process is primarily utilized at the shear plane, where plastic
deformation takes place and at chip tool interface where friction resists the flow of chip. The total energy
per unit time (E) is approximately equal to the sum of shear energy (E s), Friction energy (Ef) and negligible
amount of energy required to curl the otherwise straight chip, kinetic energy required to accelerate the chip,
surface energy required to produce new surface etc.
Thus, E = Es + Ef
The energy required per unit time per unit volume of metal removed per unit time is called specific energy
(e)
Thus total specific energy
e = E/b.t.v.
e = Fc V/b.t.v., (Kg/mm/min)/(mm3/min.)
e = Fc/b.t. kg/mm2
Similarly specific shear energy (es) & specific friction energy (ef) can be defined by the following relations.
eS = ES/b.t.v. = FS . VS/b.t.v. = FS . cosν /b.t.cos (φ -ν ), Kg/mm2
and
ef = Ef/b.t.v. = FS . VS/b.t.v. = F/b.tc ,Kg/mm2
SOLVED PROBLEMS :
Example :
1) In an orthogonal cutting operation, following date have been observed :
Uncut chip thickness, t = 0.125 mm.
chip thickness, tc = 0.250 mm
Width of cut, b = 6,500 mm.
V = 100 m/min.
Rake angle, ν = 100
Cutting force, Fz = 70 Kg.
Trust force, Ft = 25 kg.
Determine : Shear angle, the friction angle, shear and normal stress on shear plane, shear strain, shear strain
rate, cutting power, specific shear energy, friction energy, cutting energy.
Solution :
(i) Shear angle : φ
(ii) Friction angle
(iii) Shear and normal stress on shear plane
Shear foce = FS = Fc .cos φ - Ft sin φ = 70 . (.88) - 25 (.47) = 44.85 Kg
Normal force = Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ = 70.(.47) + 25 (.88) = 54.9 Kg.
Area of shear plane = AS = b.t/sinφ = 6.5 (0.125)/.47 = 1.73 /mm2
Shear stress, TS = FS/AS = 49.85/1.73 = 28.82, Kg/mm2
Normal Stress σ n = Fn/AS = 54.90/1.73 = 31.74, Kg/mm2
(iv) Shear strain
∈= cot φ + tan (φ -ν ) = 2.18
(v) Shear strain rate 's = ν S/ts
Where, shear velocity Vs = V.cos ν /cos (φ -ν )
= 100.cos (10)/cos (28.33-10)
= 103.75 m/min.
Shear plane thickness "ts" is assumed equal to one tenth of shear plane length i.e.
Example 2 : During machining of a C-30 steel with 0-10-6-7-8-80-0.5 mm (ORS) shaped tungsten
carbide tool, the following observations, have been made, depth of cut, d = 2 mm, feed f = 0.2 mm/rev.
speed V = 200 m/min. chip thickness tc 0.40 mm.
Calculate shear angle width of chip
Solution :
d = 2mm, 0p = 800, tc = 0.40, V = 10
Now, thickness of uncut chip t = f.sin 0P = 0.197 mm
Chip thickness ratio, r = t/tc = 0.49
Shear angle, 0 = tan-1 (r.cos v/(1-r sin v) = 23.820
Width of Chip, b = d/sin 0P = 2/Sin 80 = 2.03 mm
Example 3. During machining of C-20, steel with a triple carbide cutting tool 0-8-7-10-70-1mm(ORS)
shape the following data was obtained.
Feed = 0.18 mm/rev., Depth of cut = 2.0 mm.
Cutting speed = 120 mpm, Chip thickness = 0.4 mm.
Determine chip reduction coefficient & shear angle.
Solution : = 8, = 70
Uncut chip. thickness = sin
= 0.18 sin 70 = 0.169 mm.
chip reduction coefficient k = 0.42
Now = tan-1 ( r.cos / ( 1 - r sin ), = 23.980
Example 4 : In orthogonal turning process the feed is 0.25 mm/rev. at 50 rpm. The thickness of chip
removed is 0.5 mm.
(a) What is the cip thickness ratio ?
(b) If the wok diameter is 50 mm before the cut is taken what is the approximate length of chip removed in
the minute. Assume a continuous chip is produced in process.
Solution : Uncut chip thickness, t = f = 0.25 mm & ctc = 0.5 mm
Therefore r = mt/tc = 0.5
Length of chip before cutting = D.N.= 50.50 = 7854 mm/min.
Length of chip after cutting, Lc = r.L. = 0.5.7854 = 3927 mm/min.
1. Show clearly by means of neat sketches only the meaning of the terms (1) Cutting speed, (2) Feed & (3)
Depth of cut as applied to turning process.
2. Explain the basic wedge action in metal cutting. Why is the cutting angle "δ " always positive?
3. Explain the mechanism of chip formation in metal cutting.
4. Explain why built up edge on cutting tool is under desirable ?
5. Classify & explain different types of chips produced in metal cutting.
6. Why are the discontinuous chips preferred over the continuous type ?
7. Differentiate between the orthogonal cutting & oblique cutting process.
8. What is cutting ratio (or chip thickness ratio) and chip compression factor (or chip reduction
coefficient) ?
9. What are the various methods of estimating cutting ratio?
10.What is shear angle ? How it can be measured ?
11. Prove that
tan φ = r cos ν /(1 - r sin ν ) Where, φ = Shear angle.
r = Cutting ratio.
ν = Rake angle.
12. Prove that
Vc = Vsin φ /cos (φ - ν ) and Vs = Vcosν /cos (φ - ν )
Where V, Vc, Vs are cutting, chip & shear velocities respt.
"φ " is shear angle & ν is rake angle.
13. Prove that shear strain "∈" in orthogonal cutting is given by ∈= tan (φ - ν ) + cosφ , where φ is
the shear angle and ν is the rake angle.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
20
14. How is the thickness & width of undeformed chip estimated in turning operation
15. What is metal removal rate ? What is specific metal removal rate ? How can "MRR" be increased ?
16. What is meant by the orthogonal cutting system of first & second kind ? Illustrate with neat sketchs.
17. What are the components of resultant force in an oblique cutting operation ?
18. What are the assumptions of Merchant's theory ?
19 Prove that φ = π /4 + ν /2 - β /2 where φ is shear angle, ν is rake angle & β is friction angle.
20. What is the modified Merchant's theory of metal cutting ?
21. What is meant by power consumed in metal cutting? What are it's various components?
22. What is total specific energy, specific shear energy, and specific friction energy
23. How can the resultant force in orthogonal cutting be estimated by graphical method?
24. What is metal cutting? What are the basic requirements for metal cutting? How are the metal
cutting processes classified?
25. What is the effect of setting up of the cutting edge on rake & clearance angle?
26. In an orthogonal cutting operation the following data is obtained.
1) Cutting force = 180 Kg.
2) Feed force = 100 Kg.
3) Chip thickness ratio = 0.32 Kg.
Find graphically or otherwise shear force on shear plane, normal force on shear plane, Frictional force,
Normal force, and resultant Force.
27. Find the values of F.N, F, FN, R, and µ for an orthogonal cutting process if cutting force is 170 kg.,
thrust force is 90 Kg, shear angle is 300.
28. In an orthogonal cutting operation following data have been observed.
CHAPTER - II
TOOL WEAR: TOOL LIFE: MACHININABILITY & SURFACE FINISH
2.1. Introduction:
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 21
A new tool or newly ground tool has sharp cutting edges & smooth surfaces. When put into
operation it is subjected to three distinct factors, viz,cutting forces that are concentrated on relatively small
contact area on rake face & flank, high temperatures over contact surfaces and sliding action due to tool and
the work piece. Under such adverse condition the cutting tool gives unsatisfactory performance. The
unsatisfactory performance may involve, loss of dimensional accuracy, increased surface roughness, and
increased power requirements etc. When tool wears out it is either replaced or reground resulting in loss of
production due to machine down time. Thus, study of tool wear is important from standpoint of satisfactory
performance & economics. However it is very difficult to find out exact cause and nature of tool wear, the
phenomenon being very complex & dependent on many aspects, viz, tool work pair, environment,
temperature of interfaces etc.
In compression
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
22
In compression
Fatigue wear
When two surfaces slide in contact with each other under pressure, asperities on one surface
interlock with those on other. Due to the frictional stresses compressive stress is produced on one side of
each interlocking asperity and tensile stress on the other side. After given pair of asperities have moved
over or through each other, the above stresses are relieved. New pair of asperities is, however, soon formed
and the stress cycle is repeated. Thus the material of the hard metal near the surface undergoes cyclic
stress. This phenomenon causes surface cracks, which ultimately combine with one another & lead to
crumbing of the hard metal. Further the hard metal may also be subjected to variable thermal stress owing
to temperature changes brought about by cutting fluid, chip breakage & variable dimensions of cut, again
contributing to fatigue wear.
The wear land on flank will not be generally uniform along the entire cutting length of cutting edge.
Depending on machining conditions, the following types of wear lands of combinations of these are
generally observed.
1. Excessive wear at the nose end of the flank (fig. 2.4a) is brought about by plastic deformation,
which reduces relief in the area, thus increasing the rate of wear. This can also be brought about if
the crater on the rake face breaks through the nose area.
2. Irregularities in the wear along the whole cutting edge length due to minute chipping or attrition of
the cutting edge (Fig. 2.4 b).
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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3. Excessive wear at the line of depth of cut (Fig.2.4 c). This can be either due to the work hardened
surface by the previous cut or heat treat scales or by abrasive materials on the work-piece.
Rc
a b Rake face
dc
Tool
b
Rc
a,b
dc,Rc
dc
a
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 25
Time
TH h fh f m a x
f la n k
FLA NK W EAR LAN D
E L E V A T IO N
Dc
RC
C R O S S S E C T IO N O FB A A A B
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
26
Faulty cutting conditions may lead to appearance of fine cracks near the cutting edge shortly after
the tool is put to operation. This can be detected by visual examination. The situation may be remedied by
correcting the cutting conditions such as selection of a tougher tool material, a more rigid machine; a stiffer
tool material, proper tool angles, proper machining parameters such as speed, feed & depth of cut etc.
1) Limiting value of surface roughness: The roughness of a machined piece increases in proportion to the
damage suffered by the cutting edge & unevenness of the flank wear. Monitoring of surface roughness can
help to keep a control on limiting value of wear land. But surface roughness measurement requires costlier
equipments than measurement of width of wear land, which can be measured by a microscope.
2) Limiting value of change in machined dimensions: In this method, the dimensions of each machined
component are measured. When the tool is new, the dimensional accuracy is satisfactory & deteriorates as
the tool progressively wears out. When the dimensional accuracy falls below a prescribed level, the tool is
said to have failed.
3) Limiting value of increase in cutting forces: With increase in wear the tool forces increases (However,
cutting forces tend to decrease some - what with increase in crater wear on account of increase in effective
rake angle). A tool dynamometer or a power meter can therefore be used to monitor changes in cutting
forces or rate of power consumption. When their increase exceeds predetermined amount, the tool life is
said to have been exhausted.
4) Limiting value of Volume of metal removed: If the cutting conditions are kept constant (eg feed,
speed; depth of cut) the progress of tool wear is directly proportional to actual machining time or volume of
metal removed. Thus limiting value of volume of metal removed can be related to limiting value of width
of wear land on flank & can, therefore be used as tool failure criterion.
6) Preliminary failure: A narrow, highly burnished band appears on the machined surface. It indicates
very appreciable rubbing between the machined surface & the tool flank.
Where the constant 'n' is called the tool life exponent and the parameter 'C' is known as Taylor’s constant.
Making T = 1 in the above equation, we find that C = cutting speed for 1 min tool life. The constants n & C
depends upon the tool and work materials, feed and depth of cut, type of coolant and tool geometry etc.
Equation 2.5.1 can be written as
LogV + n Log T = log C or log T = (1/n) log C - (1/n) log V . . . . . (eqn 2.5.2)
Cutting speed - Tool life curves can be graphically expressed as shown in fig.2.7. From the graph it can be
seen that 'n' is the negative inverse slope of the curve and C is the intercept velocity at T = 1. The following
values may be taken for 'n'.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 27
V
larg er 'n ' for
(c) d iffusio n w ea r
(b )
LOG T
LOG T
sm a lle r 'n' fo r
a dh esiv e w e ar
LOG V
LOG V
The equation 2.5.1 can be generalized or modified to include the effects of feed and depth of cut one
such relationship is of the form
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
28
5. Cutting fluid
6. Vibration behavior of machine tool work system
1. Tool Materials:
The life of tool is governed by the various properties of tool materials such as (i) Hot hardness to
resist deformation, adhesion & abrasion at the relatively high cutting temperatures on rake & flank faces of
tool especially at high cutting speed, (ii) Toughness to resist sudden loads in interrupted cutting & large
steady loads when heavy cuts are taken. (iii) Wear Resistance to retain form stability (Shape) & cutting
efficiency apart from this certain other properties such as high thermal conductivity & specific heat
(combined with low coefficient of thermal expansion) recovery hardness, lack of chemical affinity with
work material etc are also of secondary importance.
An ideal tool material is one, which removes maximum volume of material (tool life) at all cutting
speeds. Thus for a given cutting speed cemented carbide will have better tool life than HSS. Hence tool
life is dependant on type of tool material.
2. Work material:
The properties of the work material that tend to increase the tool life are as follows, (a) softness (or
lack of hardness) to reduce cutting forces, cutting temperature & abrasive wear, (b) absence of abrasive
component such as slag inclusions, surface scale & sand, (c) presence of desirable additives like lead to act
as boundary lubricants and sulphur to reduce cutting forces & temperatures by acting as stress raiser, and
(d) lack of work hardening tendency that tend to reduce cutting forces and temperatures and also abrasive
wear and (e) occurrence of favorable microstructure, e.g. presence of spheroidized pearlite instead of
lamellar pearlite in high carbon steel improves tool life. Similarly in cast irons, a structure that contains
large amount of free graphite & ferrite leads to greater tool life than one, which contains free iron carbide.
4. Tool geometry:
Rake angles, cutting edge angles, and relief angles & nose radius affect the tool life by varying
degree.
I) The cutting forces, tool temperatures & tool wear decrease with increase in rake angle (fig.2.8 a)
consequently tool life improves when rake angles are increased. However larger rake angles make the
cutting edge sharper reducing the mechanical strength & making the tool liable to chipping. Therefore
there is an optimum rake angle associated with every tool work pair.
o p tim u m
ra k e
Tool life
N e g a t i v e P o s i t iv e
ra k e ra k e
E ffe c tiv e R a k e A n g le
(a )E ffe c tiv e ra k e a n g le v e rs u s to o l lif e
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 29
ii) Large relief angle increases volume of wear required to reach a particular width of flank wear land
as seen from fig. 2.8 (b) and also reduces the tendency of rubbing between flank & work piece surface,
there by increasing the tool life. However, on the other hand, larger the relief angle smaller is the
mechanical strength of cutting edge & more liable the tool is to chipping fracture. Thus there is maximum
tool life for optimum relief angle as seen for fig.2.8 (c).
f f
hf hf
tool tool
Relief
angle Relief Angle
(C)
α
RELIEF ANGLE
iii) The side cutting edge angle alters the length of engaged cutting edge without affecting the depth of
cut. When end cutting edge angle is increased area of chip tool contact is increased without significantly
changing the cutting forces, thereby assisting to remove the heat at faster rate & keeping the temperature
low. Thus decrease in temperature increases the tool life. The cutting edge angle is beneficial in another
respect also. By moving the point of impact away from the tool tip, it saves it from chipping.
iv) Nose radius - Increase in nose radius increases the ratio of engaged cutting edge length to plan area of
cut thus increasing the tool life.
5. Cutting fluid: -
The cutting fluid cools the tool & work piece, acts as lubricant and reduces friction at chip tool
interface. Therefore the cutting temperatures are decreased & the use of cutting fluid in the tool materials
with low value of hot hardness (e.g.) shows appreciable increase in tool life. However in carbides &
oxides, which have high value of hot hardness, the cutting fluid has negligible effect on tool forces or tool
life.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
30
If the machine is not properly designed, if the work piece is long and thin or if the tool overhang is
excessive, chatter may occur during cutting. It is known that chatter may cause fatigue failure or calas
tropic failure of tool due to mechanical shock.
2.7. Machinability: -
Machinability is the property of material to be machined, which governs the case or the difficulty
with which it can be machined under a given set of conditions. In spite of the efforts made by the number
of investigators, so far, there has been no exact quantitative definition of Machinability. It is due to large
number factors involved & their complexity in metal cutting process viz. forces & power, tool life, surface
finish etc. These are dependent upon number of variable such as work material, cutting conditions, M/C
tool rigidity tool geometry. Due to this, it is impossible to combine these factors so as to give a suitable
definition for Machinability. It is of a considerable economic importance for production engineer to know
in advance the Machinability of work material so that he can its processing in an efficient manner.
4. Other Criteria: -
Several other criteria have been put forward to assess machinability of different work materials.
Prominent among these are (a) Temperature developed at chip tool interface, (b) depth of hole cut out in a
given time by a standard drill that rotates at a standard speed and specified downward thrust (penetration
test), and (c) depth of cut produced by a power hacksaw on a standard bar of given material under standard
sawing conditions of speed and downward pressure (sawing test). Even physical properties like hardness,
tensile strength, shearing strain per unit shear stress in plastic range, and different combination physical,
properties ( eg. hardness, specific weight, ductility etc.) have been correlated with tool life in order to use
them as machinability measures.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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The various factors, which contribute to the quality of surface finish, are as follows:
1) Machining Parameters: a) Cutting speed, b) feed, c) Depth of cut.
2) Tool geometry.
3) Work Material
4) Machine tool (i) Mach. Par.
a) Cutting Speed: Increase in cutting speed in general improves surface finish due to continuous reduction
of BUE. The curve 'A' (Fig.2.10 a) represents the machining of steels except high alloy grade steel.
Increase in cutting speed from 'V1' to 'V2' shows increase in roughness as built up edge increase reaches its
maximum value at 'V2'. Then rise in temperature suppresses or reduces formation of built up edge and at
'V3' it almost disappears. This reduces the height of micro irregularities. Further increase in cutting speed
reduces surface roughness. The absence of built up edge formation in curve 'B' for machining of high alloy
steels, non-famous metals & cast iron shows decrease in surface roughness from beginning (i.e. no rise in
roughness as in curve 'A' is observed)
d ry
r e fin e d k e r o se n e
H 100 e m u lsio n
a c tiv a te d
(MICRONS)
(MICRONS)
A k erosen e
H(RMS)
v 1v 2 v 3 v
m /m in 0
(a )E ffe c t o f c u ttin g s p e e d f
0.075
0.10
0.14
0.2
3) Work material: Different materials have different machinability ratings when surface finish is selected
criteria. Hence surface finish is affected by the type of work materials.
4) Machine Tool: The accuracy of bearings, the quality of machine tool, vibration behavior of machine tool
etc. has direct impact on the quality of surface finish obtained in machining.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 33
hrms = ∑ yi 2
n
c) Roughness Width: It is the distance parallel to the nominal surface between successive peaks or ridges,
which constitute the predominant pattern of the roughness.
d) Roughness width cut off: It is the greatest spacing of the repetitive surface irregularities to be included
in the measurement of average roughness height. It is always greater than the roughness width in order to
obtain the total roughness height rating.
e) Lay: It is the direction of predominant surface pattern produced & reflects the machining method.
Lay: The direction of predominant surface pattern. A typical surface is shown in Fig. 14.9. The
identification of the macrogeometrical of microgeometrical errors is based on (l/h) ratio as shown in
Fig.14.10. When (l1/h1) > 1000, the deviation is macrogeometrical denoting out-of-roundness, taper or
barrerl form. When 500>(l2/h2)≥ 150 the deviations denote waviness. When (l3/h3) ≤ 50, the
microgeometrical deviations are characteristic of surface roughness.
f) Waviness: This refers to the irregularities, which are outside the roughness width cut off values. It may
be result of work deflecting during machining, working & vibrations.
Waviness (secondary texture other definition): - The surface irregularities, which are of greater spacing
than the roughness. On machined surfaces such irregularities may result from machine and work
deflections, vibrations, etc.
h) Flaws: Cracks, scratches & ridges are called flaws. They are not regularly recurring & are imperfections
outside the regular pattern of surface texture.
other definition FLAWS: Irregularities, which occur at one place or at relatively infrequent intervals in the
surface, e.g., a scratch, ridge, hole, crack, etc.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
34
PEAKS
ROUGHNESS SPACING
CENTRE LINE
VALLEYS
CUT-OFF LENGTH
The mean line is selected such that the sum of areas above the line is equal to sum of the areas below the
line. If the sampling length is taken equal to feed, 'f' then
area I + area I 2(areaI )
Ra = = ( Area I =Area II)
f f
d
ECEA
TOOL
(a)
SCEA
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 35
f
h
/2
I II (b
)
A
f in is h t u r n in g
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
1 / hC L A
36
R O U G H N E S S A V E R A G E R a - Mµ I C R O M E T E R M
PR O C ESS 1 2 .5 6 .3 2 . 2 1 .6 0 .8 0 0 .4 0 0 .2 0 0 .1 0 0 . 0 5 0 .0 2 5
25
F L A M E C U T T IN G
S N A G G IN G
S A W IN G
P IC N IN G S H A P IN G
D R IL L IN G
C H E M IC A L M IL L IN G
E L E C T . D IS C H A R G E M A C H IN IN G
M IL L IN G
B R O A C H IN G
R E A M IN G
ELECTRON BEAM
LASER
E L E C T R O C H E M IC A L
B O R IN G , T U R N IN G
E L E C T R O N IC G R IN D IN G
G R IN D IN G
H O N IN G
E L E C T R O P O L IS H
P O L IS H IN G
L A P P IN G
S U P E R F IN IS H IN G
In the figure the inverse of surface roughness (i.e. surface finish) is plotted against machining cost.
The increase in cost with reduction in roughness is gradual in rough turning (up to points). But for finish
turning it increases exponentially. The surface roughness produced by various machining operations is
given in 2.14 (a)
Moreover, apart from heat generation the chips also create problems in metal cutting such as bad
surface finish due to abrasion of chips to the tool or finished work piece. On these aspects the functions of
cutting fluid can be summarized as follows.
1) Lubrication at chip tool interfaces & work tool interface & hence preventing welding between contact
surfaces.
2) Cooling action or heat dissipation to avoid loss of hardness & wear resistance & hence improve tool life.
3) Flushing of chip to protect surface finish & improve tool life. Cutting fluids, besides fulfilling the above
functions should have following properties.
1) It should be stable & non-foaming.
2) It should not have deleterious effect on the operator, by omitting bad odour or causing skin irritation etc.
3) It should be compatible with the other lubricants & elements of the machine tool.
4) It should have low evaporation rate & should not fume.
The effect of cutting fluids in metal cutting is indicated in Fig.2.17.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
38
a) Neat Oil: - is mineral oil, vegetable oil or blends of these oil straight mineral oil i.e. without additives is
not suitable for high loading & speed & hence used only in light machining of non ferrous metals like
Aluminum & magnesium. Compounded oils (i.e. mineral oil blended with fatty acids like lard oil, oleic
acid, sperm oil etc) have high boundary lubrication properties. Suitable for the machining of tough non-
ferrous alloys, especially in automates, as they do not stain the surface. They are not popular due to low
film strength at higher temperature. However addition of extreme pressure additives (E.P.) likes
phosphorus, Chloride & Sulphur eliminates this drawback. In the inactive EP oil, the EP additives are not
easily available for reaction with work piece. On the other hand in active EP oils the EP additives are easily
released to stain or chemically react with work piece. Hence they are not suitable for machining of copper
& its alloys. Active oils are mainly used in most severe operations on the toughest steels. The triple
combination of fatty oil, chloride & sulphur additives impart wet ability, oiliness & anti-weld properties,
enabling the cutting oil to be effective over a wide temperature range & extreme range of pressure.
c) Synthetic Coolants: - They are usually non petroleum products, though sometimes a small percentage of
mineral oil is added, many chemical agents blended in water form synthetic coolants. Basically they are
coolants, though some are also lubricants. They are used in grinding than in other operations & they are
mixed in the ratio 1:50 to 1:250 parts of water. The main problem associated with use of synthetic coolant
is its compatibility with the other lubricants, seals metal parts. Because they are chemically active, they
react easily with paints, other metal parts, etc. Before deciding on the use of these coolants, this aspect
should be thoroughly looked into comparative performance of these three fluids is given in the Table 2.1.
d) Gaseous Fluid: The high cost restricts use of gaseous fluid. Mist is commonly used gaseous fluid.
Mostly compressed air is used to atomize the coolant & carry it to the point of cutting in the form of mist.
Gases like carbon dioxide, Freon, and helium are used for special applications.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
40
6. Drilling-deep-hole 5 5 5 5 9 9
Solution:
As the tool failure criterion is 0.3 mm, the value of cutting time corresponding to this value will be
the tool life at that cutting speed. From the above data we have,
Tool life T1 = 60 min. for V1 = 150 m/min., and
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 41
Example 2: In a mass production lathe the number components produced single pass turning
operation between two consecutive tool changes different spindle speeds (N) and feeds (f mm/rev.) were
recorded under. Estimate the number of components that can be produced at a spindle speed of 350, rpm
and feed of 0.150 mm/rev.
Spindle speed (N) 250 250 300
Feed, (mm/rev) 0.100 0.125 0.125
No. of components (m) 311 249 144
Solution:
Let m = No. of components produced between consecutive tool changes,
V = Cutting speed, (m/min)
T = Tool life (min.)
f = Feed rate, (mm/rev)
L = Length of cut, (mm)
D = Work piece diameter (mm)
Tm = time to produce one work piece = L/f.N.
We express the tool life equation as
VTn fn1 = C . . . . . . . . . . (i)
Where n, n1 & C are constants.
V = π .D.N./1000 . . . . . . . . . (ii)
m = T/Tm = ( T.f.N.)/L
Therefore, T = (m.L)/f.N. . . . . . . . . (iii)
Substituting (ii) & (iii) in (i), we get
( π . D.N./1000) x ( m.L./f.N.)n x fn1 = C
N1-n, mn , fn1-n = (1000 C.L. -n/π . D.)
or N1-n, mn. fn1-n = C1 . . . . . . . . . . (iv)
Substituting values of N,f, & m in (iv) we get.
(250)1-n x (311)n x (0.100)n1-n = Cl . . . . . . . (v)
(250)1-n x (249)n x (0.125)n1-n = Cl . . . . . . . (vi)
and (300)1-n x (144)n x (0.125)n1-n = Cl .. . . . . . (vii)
Dividing (vii) by (vi) we get, (250/300) 1-n x (249/144)n = l
or (1-n) log (250/300) + n log (249/144) = 0
n = 0.25 Similarly by dividing (v) by (vi) we get n1 = 0.500
Substituting values of n & n1 in (v) we get C1 = 148.4
Putting N = 350, f = 0.150, n = 0.25 & n1 = 0.500 in (iv) we get m = 75
Example 3 :In a laboratory test on turning operation, the following data have been recorded,
S.No. V, m/min f mm/rev. d, mm T, min.
1 100 0.10 2.0 120
2. 130 0.10 2.0 50
3. 100 0.12 3.0 70
4. 100 0.12 3.0 65
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
42
A tool life equation is to be deducted by computing the values n, n1, n2 & C in the relationship
V.Tn.fn1.d.n2 = C, Also, computes tool life at a cutting speed of 120 m/min, a feed of 0.20 mm/rev. and d =
2mm.
Example 4: The tool life equation for a turning operation is given as 36.5 = V. T 0.13, f0.60.60 d0.3 .A 60 min.
tool life was obtained using the following cutting conditions; V = 40 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev. d=2.0 mm.
Calculate the effect on tool life if speed, feed, and depth of cut are together increased by 25% and also if
they are increased individually by 25%
Example 5. The tool life for H.S.S. tool is expressed by the relation V.T.0.14 = C1 and for tungsten carbide
is VT0.2 = C2. It at a speed of 24m/min tool life for both the tools is 128 minutes; compare the life of tools
at a speed of 30 m/min.
Solution
For HSS tool, V x T0.14 = C1 . . . . . . . . . . . . (i)
i.e. 24 x (128)0.2 = C2
C1 = 48
For Wc tool, V0T0.20 = C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . (ii)
i.e. 24 x (128) 0.2 = C2
C2 = 62
Let the tool life values for HSS & WC tools be T1, and T2 respectively at V = 30 m/min.
Therefore we have
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 43
Example 6: The cutting speed and tool life relationship for a tool is given by V.T.0.2 = C. During
machining, 18 mm bar on a lathe at a cutting speed of 110 m/min. the tool life is found to be 60 minutes.
Calculate spindle speed to give a tool life of 5 hours. If length of cut per component is 50 mm, what is the
cutting time per piece and how many pieces can be produced between tool changes at a feed of 0.15
mm/rev?
Solution: From tool life relationships.
C = (110) x (60) 0.2 = 249.47
Therefore for T = 60 x 5 minutes, we have
V = 249.47/(300) 0.2 = 79.72 m/min.
Hence spindle speed N = 1000 C/π x D = 1410 rpm.
Cutting time/piece = L/f. N.
= 50 x 60/(0.15 x 1410) = 0.24 min.
Therefore, number of components produced in 5 hours tool life
50 x 60 x 6/0.24 = 1249
QUESTIONS
1.What are the various causes or mechanisms of tool wear? Explain.
2.Explain what is meant by the terms - (Explain with neat sketches)
1.Attrition wears
2.Diffusion Wear
3.Abrasive Wear
4.Fatigue Wear
5.Plastic deformation
6.Electrochemical wear & chemical wear.
3.Differentiate between "flank wear" and 'Crater wear'
4.What is the difference between 'Abrasion wear' & 'Attrition wear’?
5.Why tool wear is important in metal cutting?
6.What is meant by 'tool life’? What is its significance to an engineer who is interested in productivity?
7.What are the various tool life or tool failure criteria?
8.State the general from of Taylor's tool life equation and also give the modified Taylor's tool life equation.
9. Explain the typical cutting speed-tool life curve. If this curve is plotted on log-log graph how can the
value of exponent 'n' and constant 'C' be indicated on this graph?
10.Explain with a typical example how the change in the criteria of tool life changes the value of exponent
of shape of the plot?
11.What are the various factors effecting tool life?
12. Explain the effect of various process variables on tool life?
13. What is the effect of work material and tool material on tool life?
14. How does tool geometry affect tool life?
15. Define the term machinability. Explain how following influences it: -
i) Work material microstructure ii) Type of out, iii) Tool rake angle.
16. What are the various criteria of machinability?
17. Define machinability index.
18. How will you select the machinability criterion for a given set of conditions?
20. What are the sources of best generation in metal cutting? How is the heat distributed in chip, tool &
work piece?
21. What are the basic functions of cutting fluids?
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
44
22. What are the effects of cutting fluid in metal cutting?
23. How are the cutting fluids classified?
24. Compare the performance of neat oil, soluble oil and synthetic coolant.
25. What are the various factors influencing selection of cutting fluids?
26. Which coolants would you suggest for turning of following metals with H.S.S. tool? i) Mild steel, 2)
Aluminum, 3) Copper,
27. Recommend a cutting fluid for broaching or
i) Low Carbon Steel, ii) Stainless steel, iii) Aluminum alloy, iv) Copper.
28. State the factors responsible for surface roughness?
29. Explain the effect of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on surface finish.
30. What is the effect of tool geometry on surface finish?
31. What is surface finish? Describe the elements of surface texture.
32. Explain the following terms.
i) Roughness, ii) Roughness height, iii) Roughness width, iv) Lay, v) Waviness, vi) Flame,
33. What is ideal surface roughness & natural surface roughness?
34. What is hCLA or R-value? Derive an expression for the theoretical roughness of a surface machined with
single point tool.
35. What is the effect of surface roughness on cost of production?
36. In general give a broad range of surface roughness that can be achieved in various machining
operations.
37. How is surface finish represented on drawing?
38. The tool life for HSS tool is expressed by relation V.T.1/7 C1 and for W-C tool is expressed as V.T.= C.
If at a speed of 24 mpm the tool life is 120 minutes, compare the life of tool at a speed of 30 mpm.
39. For a particular machining set up the tool life equation is given as V.T. 0.2 = C. During machining of an
18 mm diameter bar on a lathe at a cutting speed of 110 m/min, the life of tool is found to the 60 minutes.
Calculate spindle speed to give tool life of 5 hours. If a length of 50 mm per component is machined what
is the cutting time per piece and how many pieces can be produced between tool changes? The feed used is
0.15 mm/revolution 40. During the tool life test for HSS tool used to cut special die steel the following
observations were recorded. Use the above values to calculate the constants of tool life equation.
----------------------------------------------------
Vm/. in 52 50 49 46 42
----------------------------------------------------
Tminutes 03 04 4.9 10.5 30
----------------------------------------------------
(Hint: Plot graph on log - log basis)
41. When turning under certain conditions the relationships between the cutting speed and tool life could be
expressed as V.T.n = C. In the tool life test, life of 10 minutes has been obtained at a cutting speed of 200
m/minute. At what speed would the tool have to be operated to get a tool life of 240 minutes? Assume n =
0.2.
CHAPTER-III
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS AND NOMENCLATURE
3.1 Introduction:
Before 1990, machining had been carried out with plain carbon steel tools or air hardening alloy
steel known as Mushet steel. The machining speeds were low due to failure of cutting tool to maintain
hardness at high temperature generated due to high cutting speeds. A big break-through has been achieved
when F.W. Taylor developed a tool material (called high speed steel), which can operate at relatively higher
cutting speeds. The cast cobalt base alloy tools appeared on the scene in 1915. They have higher hot
hardness; wear resistance & fewer tendencies to form BUE. In 1926, Germans introduced a new material
called sintered tungsten carbide tools, manufactured by the powder metallurgical technique. They can
operate at comparatively very high cutting speeds than HSS tools. Addition of carbides of titanium,
tantalum & niobium to basic tungsten carbides enhanced range of application of the carbides. Later on
coating of titanium carbides has been applied on cemented tungsten carbide increasing the permissible
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 45
speed by about 50-80% over the conventional carbides. Ceramic tools (or cemented oxide tools) were
produced & developed in 1960's. The permissible speed with cemented oxides is two three times higher
than those with cemented carbides. However, the brittleness restricts their use to only on rigid or (more of
less vibration free) machine tools. In 1971, Union carbide (USA) developed a new material UCON,
consisting of columbium, tungsten & titanium, permitting increase in cutting speed compared to carbides.
In 1972, a new tool material called cubic boron nitride, (Borozon) with hardness next to diamond has been
developed. Consequently, permissible machining speed with these tools is five to eight times that of
carbides & can he used to cut hardest materials. Polycrystalline diamond bonded to carbide base has been
used as a tool material.
a) Wear Resistance: It is also called as abrasive wear resistance (or AWR). Wear resistance, is necessary
to enable the cutting tool to retain its shape & cutting efficiency. Wear may be caused due to various
mechanisms such as attritition or adhesion, diffusion, abrasion etc. Wear resistance refers to the ability of
tool material to retain its sharpness & shape for sufficiently long time while machining a given material at a
relatively low cutting speed. Wear resistance & toughness are two independent properties. The gain of one
results in loss of other.
b) Hot hardness: It is also called as high temperature stability (or HTS). It is a measure of ability of tool
material to retain its hardness at elevated temperatures developed at chip-tool interface. Higher the value of
hot hardness higher will he the permissible cutting speed & hence higher will be the productivity. The
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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elements that enhance hot hardness or red hardness are cobalt, chromium, Molybdenum, tungsten &
vanadium, all of which forms stable carbides. The red hardness of diamond is highest of any tool material.
The effect of temperature on hardness of cutting tool materials is shown in fig.3.2 (a). Related to the term
hot hardness is recovery hardness, (or hardness at room temperature after a given material has been exposed
to an elevated temperature). A tool should fully recover its hardness after a machining pass.
c) Toughness: It is also called as Resistance to Brittle fracture (or RBF). It is the ability of material to
absorb deformation energy before fracture. Thus toughness enables the tool to withstand the forces, to
absorb shocks associated with interrupted cuts & to prevent chipping of the fine cutting edge.
d) Other desirable properties.
The following other properties are also desired by tool materials.
i) High Thermal conductivity for quick removal of heat from chip tool interface.
ii) Low coefficient of friction for reduction of heat generated due to friction at contact surface.
iii) Low coefficient of thermal expansion for reduction of effect of thermal stresses & thermal shocks on
material.
iv) Resistance to distortion after heat treatment.
v) Hardenability to achieve hardness at slower cooling rates during hardening.
vi) Weldability for ease of wedding of tool with shank
vii) Grindability for ease of grinding after tool failure.
viii) Dimensional stability etc.
The basic desirable properties namely RBF, HTS & AWR do not always have concurrent high
attributes in any given tool material. Generally, if a material is made more refractory to gain "HTS", it
becomes more brittle with low "RBF". If it becomes more abrasion resistant, it also becomes brittle
fig.3.31 (a) shows relative "HTS", "AWR", & "RBF" for two arbitrary materials in a ternary plot. Such a
plot may be used to show the comparison between various tool materials fig.3.3. (b) Shows usefulness of
this ternary plot to evaluate the merits of "HSS", "WC", "TC" tool materials. However, the exact location
& the boundary lines for each material will depend on many other parameters which include (a) relative
hardness of tool & work material, (b) Chemical compatibility of tool work pair, (c) interface temperature,
(d) type of operation etc.
TiC
AWR
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 47
TERNARY PLOT
3.3. Carbon Tool Steels:
These are plain carbon tool steels to which no appreciable amounts of alloying elements are added.
The carbon percentage varies from 0.6 to 1.5% in these steels. Increase in carbon percentage increase
toughness and shock resistance whereas decrease in carbon content increases hardness & abrasion
resistance. Very small quantities of Silicon, manganese, chromium or vanadium are added for increasing
the hardness and grain refinement.
Carbon tool steel is broadly classified into two categories water hardening steel (W type) & oil
hardening steel (0 types), depending on the quenching media employed during heat treatment. The W-type
should be quenched in water or brine for obtaining full hardness. The O-type does not require such a
drastic quenching to reach full hardness due to addition of manganese & other alloying elements.
The carbon tool steel has good toughness but relatively very rapidly drops after 2000C & their
recovery hardness is also poor. These tools are cheaper compared to other tool materials. They have better
machinability & Grindability.
They are used for manufacturing various tools such as milling cutters, twist drills, turning tools,
reamers etc, for use on easy to machine materials like wood, magnesium, brass & aluminum due to their
less wear resistance & high toughness. In these cases the chip tool interface temperatures are low (below
2000C) & hence better tool life can be obtained even with carbon tool steels. Form tools of special shapes
for small number of work piece are often made of carbon tools steel for reasons of economy. High carbon
tool steel are also used for manufacturing tool operating at low cutting, speeds & at lighter cuts viz. hand
taps, threading dies, razor blades engraving tools, files, reamers, hand & hack saws. Carbon tool steel with
relatively low percentage of carbon are used in hand chisels, hammers, swages etc., where a combination of
hardness & shock resistance is required.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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iii) Chromium (Cr): It improves hardenability & forms various carbides of Chromium, which are very
hard. Grain refinement due to addition of chromium improves both toughness & hardness as in case of
"MO" or "W". The alloys of “Cr” improve abrasive wear resistance.
iv) Vanadium (V): It is strong carbide former & hence used in small amounts. It increases the hot
hardness & abrasive wear resistance.
v) Cobalt (Co): It is usually added to increase hot hardness to permit use of higher cutting speeds.
Applications: -
1) Conventional HSS of grades M1, M2, M3, M4, M7, M10, T1 & T2 (i.e. without cobalt) are used in
almost 85% of all produced tools. Grade M2 represents most widely used type of HSS with properties
applicable to general-purpose tools.
Grades M2 & M7 are used for milling cutters & end mills, for milling & sawing of ferrous metals
up to 350 BHN.
- Grades M1, M2, M7, of M10 are used for drills & reamer, for steel up to 325 BHN.
- Grades M1 is used for Tape.
- Grades M2 or M7 is used for gear cutting tools such as hob, gear shaper, shaver etc.
- Grade M2 or T2 are used for form tools.
2) Conventional HSS of grades M33, M36, T4, T5, T6, with cobalt are used for heavy duty. They have
better hardness & wear resistance but are less tough compared to M2.
- Grades T4, T5, T6, are used as tool bits for planning & heavy-duty turning.
- Grades M33 & M36 is used for interrupted cuts in tough & scaly forging, for drilling & milling hard alloy
steels, titanium, stainless steels & heat resistant materials.
3) High vanadium high speed selects (represented by grades M3, M4, T15). They have higher hot hardness
but are less tough than M2 grade & are more difficult to grind. They are used for single point lathe tools,
screw machine tools, flat & circular form tools broaches drills etc. for machining of conventional alloys
super alloys & refractory metals.
4) High hardness Cobalt steel (represented by grades M41 to M46) have exceptional secondary hardening
properties and have very good hot hardness their hardness is much higher than conventional HSS. They are
used for machining heat-treated steels, titanium alloys, and high hardness aerospace materials like cobalt &
nickel base alloys.
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thus affected by the temperature of cutting. The carbides which are manufactured by powder metallurgy
techniques shows very high hot hardness (upto 10000 C) & wear resistance & hence can be operated at very
high cutting speeds compared to HSS tools.
The carbides contain (i) Hard principles (85 to 95%) viz Tungsten carbide (WC), Titanium carbide
(Tic), Tantalum carbide (Tac), Niobium Carbide (Nbc) etc., (ii) Binder metal (5 to 15%) cobalt (for WC).
Nickel (for TiC.) etc. Earlier grades of carbides were made from WC with Co as binder & well suitable for
short chipping materials like cast iron. Later on additions of carbides of titanium; tantalum, niobium etc.
extended their range of applications.
3.6 Manufacture:
The basic manufacturing process of cemented carbides is shown in fig.3.4 and consists of following.
i. Refining the ore & reducing in the hydrogen to get powder of W, Ti, Ta, Nb, etc. & Cobalt.
ii) 'K' group identified with red colour for machining short chipping materials like cast irons & non-ferrous
metals, available in K01, K05, K10, K15, K30, K40,
iii) 'M' group identified with Yellow colour for general purpose applications, available in grades M05,
M10, M15, M29, M30, M40 Hardness & wear resistance increases from K40-K30. . . . .
.MK40. . . . . . M05. . . . . .to P50. . . . P01. . . . . i.e. from K to P whereas toughness increases for P to K.
'K' - grade carbides are essentially straight tungsten carbide with cobalt as binder. 'P' grade carbides are
combined carbides, tool materials (Wc, Tic, Tac, Nbc) with Cobalt as binder.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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carbides) restricting their applications in interrupted cuts only. But through better raw materials,
composition modifications & closer control over process variables can be used in interrupted cuts of light to
medium severity on cast iron & steel work pieces. Ceramics have poor weldability & hence permit their
use on high abrasive & reactive materials at higher cutting speeds. But due to poor weldability brazing of
tip with steel shank is not possible. This problem can be solved by epoxy resin cementing of ceramic tools
to steel shanks. Low thermal conductivity produces some problem of thermal shock due to rise of thermal
gradient but is not of that severity.
Cermets are acid resistant, non-magnetic, non-conducting & non-corrosive. They have more
flexibility of machining i.e. wide range of materials can be machined at various speeds ranging from 200
rpm to 800 rpm. There are two main types of ceramic tools, the pure alumina tools and the alloyed cermets.
The cermets are alumina (A12O3) based materials containing various amounts of titanium carbides or other
alloying ingredients. The cold pressed alumna tools are normally applied for light duty cuts such as
uninterrupted turning and boring. Cermets tools are not pressed & are much tougher than alumina inserts &
therefore applicable for roughing & face milling of materials having hardness in the range 60-68 Rc.
3.7.1 Manufacture:
The ceramics are produced by usually power metallurgical technique. Initially bauxite is
processed into a dense crystalline form known as K – alumina. The pure alumina tools are produced by
cold compacting followed by sintering. Where as the cermets (alloyed alumina) are produced by hot
compacting where pressing & heating (to a temperature just below fusion point) is done simultaneously.
The finish grinding of blanks can be carried out with diamond-impregnated wheels. To get strong hard &
highly wear resistant tools, it is necessary to control grain size, density & percentage of impurities.
high polish. Though diamond has high hot hardness above 8000C oxidation of diamond starts above 8000C
resulting is cracking. Therefore, abundant supply of cutting fluids should be used without any interruption
& light feeds should be employed. Brittleness of diamonds demands rigidity of M/C tool & holder.
Diamonds are not recommended for use on ferrous metals. Cutting speeds when using diamond tools
should be as high as possible, but feed rates should be low of the order of 0.02 to 0.1 mm/rev & depth of cut
should also be limited to 0.5 mm. The cutting speed for single point diamond tools for machining of
carbides is 15-25 m/min, for ceramic is 30-100 r/min for pure aluminum it is 500-600 m/min.
3.8.1 Applications:
i) The diamonds of various forms are used in industrial application such as in grinding wheels, dressing
tools, dressing dies, hones, lapping compounds, core drills etc.
ii) As a cutting tools single crystal diamonds is used for machining non ferrous metals like aluminum, brass,
copper & bronze etc. especially where high silicon content is involved.
iii) It is also used for non-metallic materials like plastics, epoxy resins, hard rubbers, glass & also precious
metals like gold silver & platinum.
iv) Polycrystalline diamond is widely used for machining glass, reinforced plastics, eutectic & hyper –
eutectic alloys etc.
3.9 UCON
It is a nitride metal alloy developed by union carbide, USA & has a composition of 50%
columbium, 30% titanium & 20% tungsten and contains no carbide. The alloy is cast into ingots by
conventional methods, rolled into sheets & then slit to strips from which blanks are formed. The blanks are
then cam ground to the indexible insert geometry & then tumbled to produce 0.05-0.075 mm. radius. The
untreated alloy inserts having hardness of 200 BHN, are nitrided in nitrogen atmosphere at a very high
temperature. The surface hardness of these inserts is greater than that of ceramics & towards the center it is
softer than steel of 60 Rc. Due to this non-homogeneity, its applications are limited to throwaway inserts.
UNCON cuts very cool. It has excellent thermal shock resistance, high hardness toughness.
It also exhibits excellent resistance to diffusion & adhesion wear. It is aimed to give 3-5 times more edge
life than conventional carbides. It can operate at a cutting speed of 250-500 m/min on steels up to 200
BHN.
3.9.1 Applications:
1) It is recommended for roughing semi finishing & finishing cuts in turning, facing & boring.
2) It is not generally applied to milling, parting off, or for operations, using form tools,
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3) It Is basically steel machining grade & not recommended for machining of Iron, stainless steel &
super alloys having nickel, cobalt & titanium base.
3.10. Application:
(1) CBN is successfully used as a grinding wheel, on HSS tool providing good surface finish,
precision high output also on titanium, nitronic, stainless steel stellities.
2. It is used in grinding of hardened steel in the form of lead screws bores, splines, thereales, ball & roller
bearing part .CBN cut cool & grinding affects such as burrs of thermal shocks are net produced.
3. They are also used for grinding the sideways of cast iron beds of housing type components.
TOOL MATERIALS
Q.1 Give a brief account of history of development various tool materials.
Q.2. What are the three basic requirements of cutting tool materials ?
Q.3. What is hot hardness and recovery hardness and compare them for various
tool materials.
Q.4. Define AWR, RBF & HTS. Compare them for Tic, Wc and HSS
Q.5. What are the various properties requirement by tool materials ?
Q.6. List of various tool materials used in metal cutting. Enlist their advantages and disadvantages.
Q.7. Give the composition properties and applications of following tool materials.
1. Carbon tool steels.
2. High speed steels.
3. Cast cobalt alloys.
4. Ceramics
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 55
5. Diamond.
6. UCON
7. CBN
Q.8. What are the merits of HSS tools manufactured by PMT ?
Q.9. Compare the ceramic and carbides as a cutting tool material.
Q.10. How are the cemented carbide tools produced.
Q.11. What are the coated and laminated carbide tools ?
Q.12. What are the various grades of carbides ?
What are the application of various grades of carbides.
CHAPTER 4
ECONOMICS OF MACHINING
4.1. Introduction:
Cost consciousness with respect to
metal cutting process is an essential
element of in efficient manufacturing
system? Large no of industries are
involved in production by chip forming or
metal cutting processes. Because of the
large expenditure involved, it is
essential to analyze metal cutting
processes or operations in order to
operate them at optimum economic
conditions. The money in put to
produce one component is made up of
the following items: money spent for
machine operation and overhead and for
time spent for loading, for rapid
advance, for feed, for rapid return & for
unloading.
The speed of operation (metal cutting) plays vital role in deciding the unit production cost ( or
cost/piece ). At very slow cutting speeds. The time required for production of one component will be high
thereby increasing machining, labor & overhead costs. But at very high cutting speeds, the wear of tool
will be faster, frequent tool changing, regrinding & setting, leading to higher cost. The effect of cutting
speed in unit production cost can be seen from Fig.4.1. The unit cost is obtained by summing up the
individual costs.
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4.3. Components of Unit Production: Cost.
The model used for finding out optimum values assumes the unit production cost to be made up of
four components.
a) Machining cost; b) The tool cost; c) The tool changing cost; d) the handling cost. Each of these
components varies as a function of cutting speed or feed as shown in fig.4.1
a) Machining Cost: This is the cost of labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time required for
cutting per piece.
b) Handling (Idle) Cost: This is the cost of labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time lost in
loading and unloading of job.
c) Tool Changing cost: This is the cost direct labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time lost in
changing of tool. In order to estimate this cost on per piece basis this cost is multiplied by the factor tool
failure per piece.
d) Tool Cost: This is the product of cost of tool lost per job turned with tool failure per piece. The cost of
tool per grinding (in case of HSS tools) or cost of tool/per edge (in case of indexible carbide tips) can be
estimated as under:
Ce = Tool cost No. Of regrinds + 1). For HSS
And
Ce = (Cost of Tool bit/No of cutting edge) + tool holder depreciation per cutting edge.
The total unit production cost can be estimated for a simple turning operation by summing the above
individual cost components for a simple turning process as under. Let
L = Length of machining, mm, D = Diameter of Machined part, mm.
V= Cutting speed, mm/min, f = Feed, mm/revolution.
T = Tool life, mm, T = Machining time, min/piece.
Th= Handling time, min/piece, T = Tool changing time; min.
Ti = Idle time, min/piece, C = cost per cutting edge, Rs/edge.
Cu = Direct labour rate + overhead rate, Rs/min.
Now,
Machining time, Tm = L/f.N., min
= π DL/1000.f. V, min.
= K/V, min.
Where K = π . D.L./1000f
Tool life, T = (C/V) 1/n, min
Therefore,
Tool failure per piece, = Tm/T = K.V.1/n-1/C1/n
Thus,
Cp = Machining cost + Handling cost + tool changing cost + Tool cost.
We have,
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 57
′ = (1 / n −1).Tc
Topt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6
The cutting speed for maximum production rate can also be found by differentiation of rate of
production w.r.t. Cutting speed & equating to zero as under from eqn.4.2 we have
dR p
=0
dv
Vo′pt = C/ [(1/n-1)Tc]n and corresponding tool life Topt
′ = (1 / n −1).Tc
un it cost
V op t V 'o p t
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The high efficiency range may be wide or narrow depending on job conditions. If tool cost is
relatively low for a given job the Vopt may be 5% to 10% higher. Where tool cost is high end points of this
range can have 30% to 40% differential. It is always preferable to operate at a cutting speed greater than
Vopt instead of a slightly, smaller value because at least with slightly higher production cost than C p
corresponding V ′ , we get higher production rate. The increase in production rate and hence increase in
revenue may offset the increased unit costs. To investigate this effect, an alternative model based on
maximum profit criterion has been developed.
When a manufacturing process consists of removing metal with a single point tool, the type of tool used or
cutting speed chosen can have an effect upon the total cost of the product. It is worth considering this
because the removal of metal in this manner is still a major process in the engineering industry. In a
roughing operation the object is to remove a certain volume of material at minimum cost or minimum time,
or maximum profit, and the type of tool and cutting speed should be chosen accordingly. In a finishing
operation the object is to improve a certain area of material until it is of the desired quality of finish. In the
following discussion the chosen criterion is the removal of certain volume of material at minimum cost.
Again it should be emphasized that the analysis used to obtain the optimum conditions is worthless unless
the cost information used is relatively accurate.
F. W. Taylor introduced the well-known relationship between the cutting speed used in a metal removing
operation and the life of the tool, viz.,
VT" = C ...(1)
where V = cutting speed
T= tool life
(Although in basic SI units meters and seconds should be used, meters and minutes are the practical units)
n = an index closely related to the cutting tool material, and the following values may be used :
0.1 to 0.15 for high speed steel tools
0.2 to 0.4 for tungsten carbide tools
0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tools
C = a constant
This is an empirical relationship and for any given set of cutting conditions over a practical, range of
speeds, it can be considered valid. If the cutting conditions are changed however, (i.e., feed, depth of cut,
rake angle, tool shape, work piece material etc.) then the relationship will cease to be true. It can be seen
then that for a particular machining operation all the variables, other than V and T, must be kept constant
otherwise the law is not valid. It can be shown on a graph as illustrated in Fig. 38.2.
The curve is exponential. Cutting tests must be used to obtain values of n and C. These values are
difficult to obtain accurately, because in turn it is difficult to assess when the effective cutting life of the
tool has ceased during the test. As a tool is tested with varying cutting speeds, a sensible criterion must be
adopted to determine tool life. Then the values obtained for V and T from the test with controlled cutting
conditions can be plotted on a graph. Fig. 38.3, using a log-log scale.
The slope of the straight line will give the value of n, and hence a value for C can be obtained.
—It can be seen that if cutting speed V is increased, then tool life T will decrease. Hence, metal is removed
faster and therefore more cheaply. But tool life is shorter and therefore tools replacement and servicing are
more costly. This cost situation is shown in Fig. 38.4.
VT = Optimum cutting speed where the total cost of machining a batch of components y is at a minimum.
In order to find an expression for V T the tooling cost and metal removal cost (or machining cost) must be
added to give the total cost. Then by calculus the turning point of the curve and hence VE can be found.
Let H = machining cost/minute i.e., labour cost/minute + over- heads/minute.
Let J = tooling cost i.e., cost of changing tool + cost of regrinding + tool depreciation.
Let y1 = cost of machining metal/unit volume of metal cut.
Let y2 = cost of servicing tools/unit volume of metal cut.
Let y = total cost/unit volume of metal cut = y1+y2.
1
= Where d = depth of cut
dfV
f = feed in length/rev
V = cutting speed
Therefore y1 = cost of machining metal/unit volume of metal cut.
= (time to machine a unit volume of metal in minutes)
x (machining cost per minute)
1
or y1 = ×H
dfV
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60
1 K
Since d and f are constants therefore = where K is a constant.
dfV V
HK
y1 =
V
K K
The number of tool changes in minutes = where T is tool life in minutes at cutting speed V.
V TV
1/ n
JK C
∴ y2 = But T =
TV V
1−n
JK JK ( V) n
y2 = =
∴ C
1/ n
C1 / n
×V
V
1- n
HK JK(V) n
∴ y = y1 + y 2 = + …..(2)
V C1/n
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 61
1−2 n
dy − HK 1 − n JK
Differentiating = + (V ) n
dV V2 n C1 / n
dy
For a minimum, =0
dV
1−2 n
H 1− n J
∴ = (V) n ( K canceling out )
V2 n C1 / n
1/ n
1− n J 1− n V
∴ H = 1 / n (V)
1/ 2
= J
n C n C
tooling costs J
Now if R= the ratio machining costs
then R= …..(3)
H
1/ n
1 1 − n V
∴ = .
R n C
1/ n n
V n n
∴ = ∴ V = C …(4)
C R (1 − n ) R (1 − n )
=VT at the minimum
This expression will enable VT to be calculated so that the optimum cutting speed can be found to give
minimum cost YT for the batch. It should be noticed that n from Taylor's equation is important in this
equation, hence the need to obtain its value accurately. In this analysis we have not included the costs of
handling the tool.
1/ n
V 1
From eq. (1) =
C T
1/ n
V n
and from eq.(4) =
C
R (1 − n)
1 n
Hence =
T R (1 −n )
R (1 − n )
Or T=
n
T (1 − n )
=
R n
J
Since R= (eqn .3)
H
T T.H 1 − n
∴ = . …..(5)
R J n
38.5 MINIMUM COST/COMPONENT
- The following costs are involved in metal cutting:
(i) Machining costs
(ii) Tool costs
(iii) Tool changing costs
(iv) Handling costs.
Finding the theoretical optimum point at which there is a balance of above-mentioned four
individual costs is the essence of metal cutting economics. The relationships of these four costs are shown
in Fig. 38.5.
It can he seen that machining cost decreases with increasing culling speed. Both the tool costs and
the tool changing costs are observed to increase, since tools are wearing out faster at the higher cutting
speeds. The handling costs are independent of cutting speed.
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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Tool Life Factor. Tool life is taken from Taylor's equation, VTn = C. The average tool life (T ) in minutes
per cutting edge is :
1/ n
C
T = …(8)
V
38.6 DETERMINATION OF CUTTING SPEED FOR MINIMUM COST (Vmin)
The total cost for an operation is made up of the four individual costs: machining cost, tool costs;
tool changing costs, and the handling costs. The interaction of these factors was shown in Fig. 38.5.
The cutting speed for minimum cost of a given operation is derived by equating the total cost to the
sum of the four individual costs, differentiating the costs with respect to the cutting speed, and setting the
result equal to zero.
C
n
Vmin = 1 C 0 t c + C t …(9)
− 1
n C0
t
t p = t m + t c m + t h …(13)
T
Where fm is the machining time
tc is the tool changing time
th is handling time (idle time)
T is tool life.
The minimum unit time will result in maximum production rate as
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1
Q = Production rate = t
…(14)
p
The maximum production rate will correspond to the minimum production time per piece as obtained by
differentiating Eq. (38.13) w.r.t. Cutting speed after substituting time-cutting speed relationship (refer
back).
∴ Cutting speed for maximum production rate is given by Eq. (38.11) and Tool life for maximum
production rate is given by Eq. (38.12)
These optimum values are dependent on index, n, and tool changing time, tc .
1
Now Q= t (refer eqs. 38.13 and 38.14)
p
1
= t
t h + t m + t c m
T
The total cost (CT) per piece is
t t
C T = K 1 t h + K 1 t m + K 1 t c m + K 2 m …(15)
T T
Where K1 is direct labour cost (Rs)
K2 is tool-grinding cost (Rs)
th is handling (idle) time per piece (minutes)
tm is machining time per piece (min)
tc is tool changing time (min)
Taking income per piece as I
PR
PR = =1− CT
Q
1−CT
∴ PR = P R .Q = (1 − C T ).Q =
tp
Substituting the value of CT from eq. (15) above
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 65
t t
1 − K 1 t h + K 1 t m + K 1 t c m + K 2 m
T T
PR =
t
t m + t c m + t h
T
t t
1 − K 1 t h + t m + t c m − K 2 m
T T
=
t
t m + t c m + t h
T
t
1 − K2 m
T −K
PR = 1
t
tm + tc m + th
T
πDL λ
Nothing tm = = 0
1000 .f .V V
πDL
Where λ0 =
1000 .f
VTn = C0 (Taylor’s equation)
Where D is diameter of machined part, mm
L is length of machining, mm
f is feed, mm/revolution
V is cutting speed, m/minute
C0 is a constant
The equation for profit (16) reduces to
K 2λ 0
I− .V (1 / n ) −1
C10/ n
PR = − K1 …(17)
−1 t cλ 0 (1 / n ) −1
t h + λ 0V + V
C10/ n
To maximize the profit rate, let
dPR
=0
dV
from which the following condition is derived
(1 − n )[ K 2 t h + I − t c ].V 1 / n + λ0 K 2 V 1 / n −1 − nC 10/ n .I = 0 …(18)
For a known value of Taylorian exponent, n, the Vopt for maximized profit can be numerically obtained.
SOLVED PROBLEMS:
Problem 1:
Brass components 75 mm long x 50 mm diameter is to be machined on an automat, using a
depth of cut of 1.25 mm. Select speed that minimizes machining cost and calculate the corresponding tool
life. Also estimate the cutting speed for minimum time of production. Assume that
Labour plus overhead rate = Rs. 5/hr.
Reconditioning cost of tool edge = Rs.0.25/edge
Loading and unloading time of work piece = 15 sec.
Tool change Time = 5 min.
Feed = 0.2 mm/rev
Tool life relationship is = V.T.0.25 = 300
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Solution: From the above data we have,
Cu = 5/60 = 0.083, Rs/min., Ce = 0.25, Rs./edge, D =50 mm.
L = 75 mm, Tc = 5 min., f = 0.25 mm/rev.,
Putting these values in the formula for the optimum cutting speed for minimum cost of production
c 300
Vopt = =
[(1 / n −1) (Te + C e / C u )] n
[(1 / 0.25 −1) (5 + 0.25 / 0.8)] 0.25
= 135 .6m / min And
Topt = (G / Vopt )1 / n = 24.0 min. Similarly,
′
Vopt = Vopt at C e = 0 = 152 .4m / min and Topt′ = 50 min .
Problem 2:
Mild steel work piece 150 mm long x 100-mm. diameters are to be turned on the lathe using a feed
of 0.15 mm/rev. And depth of cut of 2.5 mm., using brazed carbide tipped tool. Find out production cost
per piece, cutting speed & tool life for minimum cost of production and maximum production rate,
minimum cost of production and minimum production time. The following relevant data is available.
1) Purchase cost of tool = Rs 110/-
2) No. Of regrinds = 10
3) Labour + Machine + 0.1 rate = Rs.30 per hour.
4) Tool grinding cost = Rs. 2.50/edge.
5) Tool changing time = 5 min.
6) Idle time = 3 min.
7) Tool life equation is V. T.0.25 = 150
Cp = 1.5 + 50Π V-1 + 250 Π V3/1504 + 1000 Π / 1504V3 + 250Π V3/1504 . . . . (i)
DCp/dV = 0 gives
50 Π V-2 = 250 x 3 Π V2/1504 + 3 x 1000 Π V2/1504+3 x 250 Π V2/1504
gives Vopt = 48.7 min. , and Topt = (150/48.7)1/0.25 90 min.
Minimum cost of production can be obtained by substituting value of Vopt in eqn (i)
Cp = 1.5 + 50 x Π (48.7)-1 + Π (48.7)3/1504 x (250 + 1000 + 250,
1.5 + 3.22 + 0.0007163 (1500)
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 67
5.795, Rs/piece.
Cutting speed for maximum production rate is given by
′ = C / 1 / n −1, Tc , n = 150 /( 3 x 5) .25 = 76 .21 m / mm .
Vopt
′ = (1 / n −1) Tc = 1.5 min .
Topt
Minimum production time = Idle time + Cutting time + tool changing time,
= 3 + 100.Π /76.21 + 5 x (100 Π V 76.21)3/1504
= 3 + 4.12 + 1.373
= 8.49 min.
Problem 3 : In machining mild steel workpieces stated in earlier problem if the indexible inserts are used
the following data is available. Compare the unit cost of machining attainable from the two types of tool
and the minimum production time.
Tool tip cost = Rs.15/-
Number of cutting edges =6
Tool holder cost = Rs.350/-
Number of edges/holder = 700/-
QUESTIONS
1. What are the various components of cost associated with machining ?
What are the various criteria of optimization ?
2. How is the tool changing cost per piece calculated ?
3. What is high efficiency zone ? What is its significance ?
4. Derive the relation for cutting speed for minimum cost of production and from that find out tool
life for minimum cost of production ?
5. Derive the relation for cutting speed for maximum production rate & from that find out tool life
for maximum production rate,
6. A 600 mm long cut is to be made on a 150 mm diameter AISI – 4140 steel bar in a lathe with a
depth of cut of 1.5 mm and feed of 0.25 mm/revolution. The Taylors tool life equation is given
by VT0.22 = 475
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For above machining operation, two types of tools may be used : (1) brazed tool and (ii) threaway
carbide inserts. The following cost data have been collected.
a) Machine cost :
Machining cost = Rs. 1.00/hour.
Machine overhead = 100% of labour.
Grinding cost (labour) = Rs. 1.50/hour.
Grinding machine overhead = 200 % of labour
Idle time = 5 min.
b) Tool cost :
For brazed tool For throwaway inserts.
Initial tool cost . . . Rs. 8.00 Original cost Rs.3.00
Grinding time . . . . . 5 minutes/edge Tool changing time = 1.5 min.
Tool changing time . . . 2 minutes Total Cutting edges = 8
No. of possible regrinds . . . . . 9
i) Plot the cost per piece as a function of cutting speed and hence find the cutting speed for
minimum cost for each case.
ii) Computes and compare the tool life for minimum cost per piece and for maximum production
rate for both type of tools.
7) In machining a component on Automat following data is available estimate the minimum cost of
production and the high efficiency range of cutting speed.
CHAPTER 5
DESIGN OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS
Introduction
Till the end of nineteenth century metal cutting was treated as more of art than science. Each
machinist has his own method machining the metal & grinding the tools. But at the start of twentieth
century F.W. Taylor & other researchers looked at this aspect scientifically & carried some fundamental
work on machine parameters viz V, f, d. Due to this people on shop floor and production engineers
realized importance of doing the Job on rational basis rather than by intuition. The first thing that received
their immediate attention was cutting tools. As a result better cutting tool materials were developed &
importance of the role of tool angles & signatures was realized.
In this chapter various aspects such as classification, tool nomenclature, selection of tool angles &
cutting variables etc, have been described.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 69
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The British system had the advantage that the specified angles could be set on a grinding vise and
the face ground to the specified angle. The difficulty with this system was that the angles specified were
quite independent of the position of the cutting edge, and, therefore, complicated expressions or a set of
curves had to be used to estimate the direction of chip flow. It has been suggested that the system developed
from the idea that the chip flows in the direction of maximum slope of the tool face. Since this idea is not
even approximately true, the system had no physical significance in relation lo the cutting process.
(Face & flank orientations for different nomenclature systems (comparison)
Item Tool Tool Machine British
Reference Reference Reference System
system: System System
Orthogonal Normal American
1) Location of cutting edges. φ, φe φ, φe φs , φe φ, φe
2) Orientation of face. γo , λ γn , λ γx , γy γmax , φγ
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3) Orientation of principal Flank. α0 αn α x, α y α x, α y
4) Orientation of Auxiliary Flank. α '0 α 'n - -
5) Nose radius. r R r R
1. American system
γ y - γ x - α y -α x - φ e- φ s – r (ASA)
2. Orthogonal rake system
λ - γ 0 - α 0 -α '0 - φ e - φ – r (ORS)
3. Normal rake system
λ - γ n - α n -α 'n - φ e - φ – r (NRS)
4. Maximum rake system
φ γ - γ max - α y - α x - φ e - φ – r (MRS)
Relationship between tool angles in ORS & ASA for calculating rake angles in ORS from ASA
Equation 2.32 and 2.33 can be rewritten in the form
tan λ sin φ − cos φ tan γ y
tan γ = cos φ sin φ tan γ
0 y
As the rotational matrix has unity determinant
tan γ y sin φ cos φ tan λ
tan γ = − cos φ sin φ tan γ
x 0
However these relationships embodied in eqn 2.32 through eqn.2.35 relating γ 0 and λ with γ x and γ x are
dependent on the signs of the angles γ and λ .
Significance of Various Tool Angles :
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(deg.) (deg.) (deg.) (deg.) SCEA(deg.
)
Free machining HSS 8 -10 8 -12 5 5 15
steels Brazed carbides 5-0 6 5 5 15
Throway carbides 5- 0 -5 5 5 15
Cast iron HSS 5 -10 5 5 5 15
Chard Brazed Carbides -5 - 0 -5 5 5 15
Throway carbides -5 -5 5 5 15
Aluminum HSS 15-20 15 12 10 5
alloys 0-5 15 5 5 15
0 5 5 5 15
Copper Alloys HSS 5-10 10 8 8 5
Brazed Carbides 0- 5 8 5 5 15
Throway carbide 0 5 5 5 15
For cemented oxide tools the recommended tool geometry is BR (100 to 250), SR (100 to 250), ERA
(50 to 100), SRA (50 – 150) ECEA (50 – 150) & SCEA (200 – 600). Usual values of these angles are 20, 15,
15, 5, 10, 45) for BR, SR, ERA, SRA, ECEA & SCEA respectively.
3) Assigning cutting variables to the tool i.e., depth of cut, feed & speed.
i) Depth of cut: The value of depth of cut is determined primarily from the magnitude of the machining
allowance. If for example a shaft is to be turned to a diameter of 100 mm from a bar of 104 mm diameter,
the machining allowance will be (104-100)/2 i.e., 2 mm. The nearer the blank is to the finished part in
shape & size i.e., smaller the machining allowance the lesser the amount of metal required to be removed
the shorter the time required for machining, the higher the productivity in manufacturing the given part.
It is advantageous to remove the whole machining allowance in a single pass, or cut, as is
commonly done in rough machining (i.e. depth of cut equal to machining allowance). If the machining
allowance is large then it is divided into more than one cut.
In semi-finish turning a depth of cut of 0.5 to 2.0 mm. is assigned for finish turning the depth of cut
is in the range from 0.1 to 0.4 mm. If the allowance is larger than these values, then these depths of cut
refer to the second (final) pass.
2) Feed: In order to reduce the machining time i.e. to increase the productivity, it preferable to apply
maximum possible rate of feed, taking into account all the factors, which may influence this rate such as
surface, finish, cutting forces available strength & rigidity of work piece & mechanism.
In practice feed is usually selected from tables of cutting conditions contained in various handbooks.
Thus according to commonly applied tables for machining of free cutting, steels for roughing cuts (heavy
cuts), a feed of 1.25 mm/rev. is recommended & for finish machining ( the maximum rate is restricted by
the quality of surface finish) or semi finish machining the feed of 0.25 mm/rev. may be selected.
After the feed is selected it is corrected for the kinematics data of the machine tool in which the
machining operation is to be done.
3) Cutting Speed: After deciding depth of cut & rate of feed & for assumed tool life the cutting speed can
be found from the Taylors tool life equation for a presented tool life,
V = C/(Tn.fn1, dn2), m/min.
After finding the value of V the rotational speed “N” can be found by formula.
N = 1000.V/Π . D, rpm.
This value is corrected according to available range of speeds on the machine tool (the nearest lower
speed or maximum 5% higher speed. This will be actual rotational speed (N) at which the machining
operation is to be carried out. It is used to calculate actual cutting speed (Va).
The values of the recommended cutting speeds for particular selected tool material, depth of cut &
feed can also be selected from standard data available in handbooks or catalogues viz. for rough machining
of free machining steels with HSS at a depth of cut of 2.5 mm & feed of 0.4 mm/rev. as can be seen from
the table 5.2) & for the same parameters the value of cutting speed for carbide tools is 140 to 170 m/min
(table 5.3). These values however will be required to be modified according to available speed (rpm) on the
machine tool.
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6 Fz l
BB 2 =
σb
6 Fz l
B =3 mm …(33.6)
σb
The section modulus for a round cross section is
π d3
Z= mm 3
32
hence from (33.2) and (33.3)
π d3
Fz l = σb
32
from which
32 Fz l
d =3 mm …(33.7)
π σb
The calculations given above for the plane bending of tool shanks are simple but not entirely exact. Only
the force Fz is taken into consideration and only the bending deformation it causes. But three forces – F z or
Ft or Fc – the cutting force, Ff cutting force, Ff - the feed force and Fr - the radial force (Fig. 30.10a and b) -
act on the tool in cutting and their action leads to additional stresses so that the shank is subject to combined
stresses.
Combined stresses are higher (in comparison to stresses in plane bending due to force F z) by about
100 per cent, and they are influenced by the plan approach angle and the construction of the tool point.
Table 33.1 lists permissible stresses when calculations are based on plane bending, but the values take
combined stresses into account.
- Sometimes it is necessary to carry out checking calculations in respect to the rigidity of the tool shank.
The maximum load permitted by the rigidity of the tool can be determined by the formula
TABLE 33.1 Permissible stress values σ b for tool shanks of structural carbon steel subject to plane
bending (with combined stresses taken into account.)
Shanks Permissible stress σ b kgf/mm2, in plane bending, depending upon the plan approach
angle, deg. and the shape of the tool point.
300 450 600 760 900 450 (Bent shank)
Unhardened 12 10 8 6.5 5.5 13
Hardened 24 20 16 13 11 26
3 fEI
Fz r = ….(33.8)
l3
Where f = permissible deflection of the tool, mm (f ≈ 0.1 mm for rough turning and 0.05 mm for
finishing)
E = Young's modulus of the tool shank material, kgf/mm2 (for carbon structural steel, E= 20,000 to
22,000 kgf/mm2)
I = moment of inertia of the shank cross section (for a rectangular cross section
BH 3
I= and for a round cross section I=0.05 d4, where d is the diameter of the shank, mm).
12
In designing a single-point tool for a definite machine tool, the calculated shank size (height) should
be checked against the distance from the supporting surface for the tool to the line of center of the given
machine.
The above calculations are based on the assumption that the critical section is one at a distance from
the tool nose equal to l, the tool overhang [usually l ≅ (1 to1.5) H]. In most cases, however, the weakest
place is at the tool point in which a seat is cut for the tip (section I-I in Fig. 33.1. Design and checking
calculations should concern the section, which is actually the weakest in the given construction.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 79
Along with the cross section (B x H), the overall dimensions also include the tool length L that is
established by standards and depends upon the cross section (L = 100 to 500 mm). The length L should be
assigned on the basis of the size of the tool point, tool overhang from the holder, dimensions of the tool
holder (tool post or square turret), the number of clamping screws (a tool should be clamped by at least two
screws) and the distance between these screws. In choosing the tool length, it is desirable to take into
account further utilization of the shank after complete wear of the carbide tip in performing the given
machining operation.
Problem 1:
In a parting off operation in mild steel with HSS tool the cutting force “FZ” is given by FZ = 264.d.f.,
where “d” is depth of cut in mm & ‘f’ is feed in mm/rev. If feed is 0.8 mm/rev. & depth of cut is not more
than 5 mm, design a suitable cross section of the parting tool, assuming the permissible shear stress of tool
material as 40 kg/mm2 & = 4, Young’s modulus for tool material = 2 x 104 kg/mm2.
If maximum deflection of tool point is limited to 0.05 mm, find the extent by which the tool can be
projected out of the tool post. The work piece and the tool post are assumed to have sufficient rigidity.
Solution:
Cutting force, “FZ3” = 264 x 5 x 0.8 = 1056 kg.
shear stress
Permissible shear stress = = 40 / 4 = 10 kg / mm 2
F .o.s.
If height of tool is denoted by “H” the critical portion (weakest section, at Neck) will have area 5 x H
Permissible force Fpr = c.s. Area x permissible stress = 5 x H x 10 = 50H
Equating cutting force “F2” with permissible force “Fpr” we have
Fpr = Fz
i.e. 50.H = 1056. Or H = 21.1 ≅ 22 mm.
Assuming the worst condition i.e. the cross sectional area of the transverse cross section of tool is uniform
over the entire length of the overhang. The deflection of tool “δ t” can be obtained from the formula.
σ t = F2.13/(3.E.I.) Where, I = 5 x 223/12 = 4436 mm4
and δ t permissible = 0.05 mm.
Therefore 0.05 = 1056 x 13/ ( 3 x 2 x 104 x 4436 )
1 = 24 mm ≅ 25 mm.
Thus, maximum permissible length of overhang is 25 mm.
Problem: 2
0
A 10 back rake tool is used for machining on a lathe at a speed of 60 m/min. The diameter of work
piece is 100 mm. Find the cross section of rectangular tool shank if maximum permissible deflection at tool
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point is 0.012 mm & maximum allowable stress in the tool shank is 7.5 kg/mm 2. Assume a rectangular
shank with height to width ratio 1.6 & tool overhang as 1.3 times the height. The recorded value of cutting
force under these processing conditions is 250 kg. Assurance the suitable value of young’s modulus.
Solution:
We know that F2.1 = B.H.2σ /6/t Substituting the values,
7.5 x B.(1.6 B)2/6 = 250 x ( 1.3 x 1.6B)
or B = 12.7 mm & H = 20.32 mm. The dimensions may be rounded to next higher preferred size i.e. B = 16
mm & H = 25 mm. These values must be checked for maximum permissible deflection.
Assuming E = 20 x 103 kg/mm2, we have
δ t = F2 .13d/(3..E.I.) Putting the values we get
δ t = 0, 066 mm i.e. < 0.12 mm
As the actual deflection is less than permissible deflection the design is safe.
Cutting frequency = N = 1000 x V/(Π x D x 60) = 3.18 cycle/sec.
Natural frequency of cutting tool having deflection δ t is given by
Natural frequency = 0.625/(δ t)1/2, cycles/sec.
= 7.69 cycles/sec.
The natural frequency of cutting tool is much more than the cutting frequency hence the designed
cross section with required overhang is safe.
Problem 3 :
The cutting force component on a tool point while machining mild steel with 100 back rake angle,
HSS tool is given by empirical formula is 103 kg. for feed = 0.6 mm/rev. depth of cut ≅ 2.2, mm, design a
suitable cross section of the tool assuming the shear strength of tool material to be 20 kg/mm2 & Eos of 2.5.
The young’s modulus of tool material is 20 x 103 kg/mm2. If the maximum permissible deflection of tool
point is 0.04 mm., find ‘δ t overhang. Give a neat sketch of designed tool.
Solution :
Assuming rectangular shank with H = 1.6 B, we have
B. (1.6 B)3 = 6 x 103 x 1/(20/2.5) or 1 = B3/(30.2) . . . . . . (I)
The permissible deflection of tool is 0.04 mm. Hence we have
0.04 = 4.FZ.13/(E.B.H.3)
Putting the values we get B4 = 0.126 13 . . . . . .(II)
Putting values of “1” from equation (I) in equation (II) we have
B = 11.69 = 12.0 mm
H = 1.6 x B = 18.10 x 20 mm and
1 = B3/30.2 = 57.2 = 57 mm.
The recommended tool signature is 8-10-5-5-15 = 1.5
Chip breakers:
During high speed machining of ductile materials, long chips are continuously produced which must
be broken into small piece for easy disposal and to protect the finished surface from coiling chips. Further
the long chips, which may get entangled, can cause machine stoppage besides being unsafe for the operator.
The chip breaker may be added to a cutting tool for this purpose.
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From the chip breaking point of view the chips can be classified as small chips (Acceptable chips)
with value of Rs between 3 to 10 & long continuous chips (Unacceptable chips) with value of R greater
than 10. Where R is volume ratio given by
R = (Volume of chips)/(Volume of same material in bulk)
As the chip leaves the plastic zone, it becomes elastic again then the chip breaker imposes an
additional straining action, which damages the radius of chip. This additional shin causes fracture or
breaking of the chip. The chip breaking can be achieved in the various ways as shown in Fig.5.11.
According to cross-section
Fig.20.1 shows flat tool applications while Fig. 20.2 shows a circular form tool and Fig. 20.3 shows
an end-form tool. Fig.20.4 shows the case of angular setting of tool axis of a circular form tool with respect
to work axis. When the surface to be formed is accessible only with orientated axis, angular setting is used.
Usually such settings are avoided.
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Fig.20.7 shows a flat form tool with rake angle. The wedge angle, β , is given by (900 – y – a ).
Using the geometry of Fig.20.7, the depth X to be ground or machined can be determined can be
determined in the following manner:
h = r sin y , l1 = r cos y, l = (R 2 − h 2 )
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 85
Therefore,
l 2 = ( R 2 − h 2 ) - r cos y = ( R 2 − r 2 sin 2 y - y cos y … Eqn. 20.2
Now, X = l 2 cos( a + y )
Hence,
X = { (R2 − r 2 s 2i yn) - r c o ys } c o+ ys () a … Eqn. 20.3
Introduction of rake angle to facilitate cutting action modifies the profile on the tool. Consider, as
an example, the case of a single point V-notch tool shown in Fig.20.8 where ξ is the included angle to the
produced. Let ξ1 be the included angle ground on the form tool. From the geometry of Fig.20.8,
ξ1 S ξ S
tan = and tan =
2 2X 2 2m
ξ1 m ξ
Hence, tan = tan
2 X 2
ξ
( R − r ) tan
2 … Eqn.20.4
=
{ (R − r sin y ) − r cos y cos( a + y )
2 2 2
}
Hence, the work piece profile angle, ξ , should be modified into ξ 1 to be machined or ground in
the form tool so that correct profile is reproduced on the work piece.
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(f)A Radially fed form tool shown in
Fig.33.19f is fed in the direction of feed
during
cutting operation, till the final shape
is imparted on the work piece.
(g)A Tangentially fed form tool
(Fig.33.19g) travels at right angle to the
axis of the
rotating work piece.
- Fig.33.19h shows clamping of a
circular form tool in the holder.
The tool is turned in relation to the
holder by means of lever ‘I’ having
radial serrations on one side which
match those on the tool and by
adjusting screw ‘2’.
The relief angle (α ) depends upon the type of form tool. On circular form tools it is 100 to 120 and on
flat form tools it varies from 120 to 150. On form tools intended for relieving form-milling cutters, the
relief angle may reach 250 or 300.
The graphical method is straight and simple, however analytical method is more accurate in determining
the dimensions.
The design procedure of flat form tool using graphical method has been discussed below:
(1) The profile of the work piece is drawn in two views, that is, the front view and the top view.
(2)The basic points of the work piece profile with dimensions l1 and l2 are projected on the axis I-I
drawn perpendicular to the work piece axis. The projected points are 1′, 2′and 3′ . From point 01 as
the center draw circles corresponding to work piece radii r1, r2 and r3
(3) Apex of the cutting tool ‘1’ should lie on the work piece axis.
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Design of Circular Form Tool
-Refer above Fig. which shows the graphical method of determining the profile of a circular form tool.
(1) The profile of the work piece is, first, drawn.
(2) Next, the basic points of the profile on axis 1-1 are projected, drawing them perpendicular to the
work piece axis.
The projected points are 1′, 2′and 3′
(3) From point O2 as the center, circles corresponding to 1′, 2′ and 3′ i.e .radii r1 , r2 and r3 are described.
(4) After assigning definite angles γ and α (refer Table 33.21) and the outside diameter of the tool,
determine the location of the centre O2 of the circular form tool. It is on line II-II which is drawn a
distance, Ht = R1 x sin α above the center of the work piece.
Centre O2 is found by setting a compass to the outside radius R1 of the form tool and drawing an are from
point 1 which is the intersection of horizontal axis I-I with the circle of radius r1.
Point O2, the intersection of line II-II with the arc drawn from point 1, is the center of the circular form
tool.
(5) Next, draw line aM along the tool face. For this purpose, draw a line from point 1 at an angle γ to line
I-I.
By connecting points 1, 2 and 3 (points of intersection of the line representing the tool face with the
corresponding circles of radii r1, r2 and r3) with center O2 of the form tool, obtain the corresponding radii
R1, R2 and R3 of the form tool.
(6) Next, to construct the tool profile in a radial cross-section, it is necessary to draw radial line N/N and to
lay off dimensions l1 and l 2 to the right on a line perpendicular to line NN (in the case when the axis of
the work piece and circular tool are parallel to each other).
The dimensions l1 and l are equal to the corresponding axial dimensions of the work piece.
(7) From the end point 1′ of the axial dimensions, lay off dimensions P2 and P3 in a direction parallel to
line NN.
Dimensions P2 and P3 are equal to the differences between the corresponding radii of the form tool
( R1- R2 and R1 – R3, respectively).
On the intersections of the lines corresponding to dimensions P2 and P3 with the lines
determining dimensions 1l and l 2 , obtain points 2” and 3”.
By connection points 1” , 2” and 3” by straight lines, one obtains the profile of the form tool in a radial
cross-section.
The circular form tool is circular in shape having depth ‘x’ or projection of distance ‘x’ produced all around
the diameter in the form of annular groves. The outside diameter of circular form tool is determined in
accordance with the height of profile to be turned. A graphical method is recommended for this purpose.
(Fig.5.17)
1) Draw two concentric circles corresponding to maximum & minimum radius of contour to be turned.
2) Through point A ( on minimum diameter circle ) draw one line inclined at an angle γ , (which
represents trace of plane ground to produce the tool face) below the line. “OA”
Through same point draw another line above ‘OA’ inclined at an angle ∝ (relief angle). The value of ∝ is
100 to 120 for circular form tool.
At a distance K ( = 3 to 12 mm) depending upon chip thickness & amount of chips to be cut, draw a line
perpendicular to OA to permit minimum amount of space for chip disposal.
From the point of intersection ‘C’ ( of vertical line with the tool face line) draw a line bisecting angle. The
point of intersection of this line with line drawn at angle of ∝ is the point being sought as centre of circular
form tool 02.
From O2 draw circle representing outer diameter of tool with radius O2 A = R
To determine diameter of the mounting hole, the wall thickness ‘m’ is taken in the range form 6 to 10 mm.
On circular form tool for internal (boring) operations, the tool diameter is taken from 0.6 to 0.85 of the hole
diameter. If tool is too small to make a mounting hole for the holder, it is made integral with the holder or
welded to the shank.
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(Fig.5.20) The tool is turned in relation to holder by means of lever ‘1’ having radial serrations on one side
which match those on the tools, by adjusting screw ‘2’. The tool holder has tension shaped projection (4) to
locate in the matching T-slot on the tool post. The holder is then fixed on the tool post by means of T-bolt
(3). After the cutting edge is set to desired height the central bolt is tightened to restrict the rotation of the
circular form tool.
The flat form tool have dovetail form on the back side. The holder for flat form tool thus must posses a
similar matching dovetail form with the help of screws the position of cutting edge can be adjusted to the
desired height after re-sharpening.
Problems
1) How are the single point tools classified?
2) With a neat sketch explain geometry of single point tool in ASA system?
3) What are the various systems of tool nomenclature?
4) What is tool signature?
5) Explain how will you proceed for designing single point cutting tool ?
6) What is the significance (a) Rake angle (b) Clearance angle?
(c) and cutting edge angle ?
7) What is chip breaker? What is the significance of volume ratio of chips in metal
cutting ?
8) Explain the various methods of chip breaking with neat sketch.
9) What are form tools? How are they classified?
10) How in the distance “X” to be machined perpendicular the flank of the tool calculated for a zero rake
flat form tool?
11) What is the effect of rake and clearance angle on the distance “X” to be machined (Perpendicular to
flank) on a form tool? Derive the relation for the same.
12) A 300 clearance angle is to be produced on a work piece by end turning tool with 100 clearance angle
and 00 rake angle end form tool? Will the value of angle to be produced on the flank be same? If not
explain why?
13) Explain a mounting arrangement for circular form tool with heat sketch?
14) Design a circular form tool for the work piece shown in the following figure, from a bar stock of 50 mm
diameter from a free cutting steel (σ t = 60 kgf/mm2). The work piece is to be turned with a subsequent
view of parting.
15) For the above work piece how will you design the flat form tool? Explain.
16) Design a single point cutting tool from the following data
a) Young’s modulus of HSS tool material is 20,000 kg/mm2
b) Maximum permissible deflection of tool point 0.035 mm.
c) Shear strength of tool material = 20 kg/mm
d) Cutting force, “FZ” for machining mild steel work piece = 115 kg.
e) Depth of cut = 2.5 mm, and feed = 0.5 mm/rev.
17) Design a suitable cross section for a straight type of parting tool from the following data.
a) Cutting force FZ = 1105 kg.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 91
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CHAPTER 6
DESIGN OF BROACH
6.1. Introduction:
Broaching is used for machining through holes of any cross sectional shapes, straight and helical
slots, external surfaces of various shape, external and internal toothed gears. A Broach is a multiple point
tool used in broaching, usually secured to the main slide of the broaching and travels with the slide. Since
the teeth gradually increase in size from front to rear end of the broach, each successive tooth removes a
layer of material, thereby increasing size of the hole in internal broaching (or removing entire depth of
material equal to machining allowance). If the force is applied from the front end the broach shank is in
tension and the broach is called pull broach. If the force is applied to the rear end of the broach, the shank
is in compression and the broach is called push broach.
Broaching is rapid and efficient because both roughing and finishing can be done in a single pass.
Close tolerances, smooth surface finish and higher accuracies are added advantages of broaching process.
Although the cutting speeds are relatively low ( 2 to 15 mpm) the production capacity is very high. Since
the total length of cutting edges that are simultaneously in operation is very high. Broaches cannot be used
in production of tapered holes. Further the length of the stroke and the heavy tonnage required makes this
process unsuitable for heavy stock removal. Broaches are expensive tools, however, and their use is
justified, in the main, only large lot and mass production.
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The cutting forded in broaching is –
F = KS ( total cross sectional area of uncut chip)
(Blunt broach factor)
F = KS ( Π .D.SZ x Zmax).K . . . for round broach
The different modes of cutting in the internal broaches are shown in Fig.6.4. In this figure the layers
of metal removed by different broaches is also shown. The following are the common modes of cutting.
i) Full form cutting : where each tooth removes a thin layer of metal (chip) on the full width of machined
surface, for example along full width of spine or keyway, along the whole length of circumference. Such
broaches are often called as plain broaches.(Fig.6.4.a)
ii) Generation Cutting : Where each tooth removes a thin layer of metal on the part of the full width of
machined surface except the last finished teeth which removes the metal over the entire width of contour of
the surface (Fig.6.4.b) Such broaches are comparatively easier for manufacturing the complex forms.
iii) Group Cut Broaching : Where the teeth are divided into two or more groups of teeth having same
diameter but increasing the width within each group. Though such broaches have on an average double life
than the form relieved broaching, greater difficulty is encountered in manufacturing of such broaches. Such
procedure is often called as progressive broaching.
Types of Broaches:
Broaches are broadly classified, based on their purpose into internal broaches (for machining holes) and
external or surface broaches (for machining ruled surface of open contour). The internal broaches can
further be classified as under
i) Solid broach : In which the desired profile of breach is produced from a solid piece (Fig.6.5 a)
ii) Sectional broach : in which the desired profile of broach is produced from a solid piece (Fig.6.5 a)
iii) Helical cut broach : in which the teeth are positioned along the same helix as in work piece. If the
helix angle is less than 15 degrees the axial pull or thrust will be sufficient to rotate the broach provided
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 95
broach’s pull or push head are made free to revolve on antifriction bearings. If the helix is greater than 15
degrees, the broach head is to be rotated positively with the help of lead screw and gear box (Fig.6.5.c)
iv) Burnishing broach : in which non cutting teeth carry out compression, cold work or burnishing a thin
layer of metal. These broaches can enlarge the hole by small amount (Fig.6.3.d)
v) Spleen broaches : such as straight spleen broaches (Fig.6.5.e) helical spleen broach (Fig.6.5 g), serration
spleen broach (Fig.6.5.h),
vi) Keyway broach : which is used for producing keyway in a hole. This broach is of rectangular shape and
is guided through a bushing (called horn) with a rectangular slot to guide and support the keyway broach to
avoid wear of (Fig.6.5.k, bushing called horn) with a rectangular slot to guide & support the keyway
broach. To avoid wear a hardened wear strip may be provided.
vii) Combination broaches, for example combination round and spleen broach, (Fig.6.5.i). Where front
portion produce round hole of desired dimension and rear portion produces the spleen portion. Similarly
the keyway & round hole operations can be combined together to make a combination round and keyway
broach. The length of these broaches is usually high due to combination of two activities simultaneously.
viii) Square broach for producing a square hole from round are (Fig.6.5.J)
The external surface broaches may be of either solid or built up construction. In the case of internal
broaches the designer is restricted by the diameter of the hole and cannot make the broach stronger than this
factor allows. In the external surface broaching on the contrary, the broach can be designed with any
feasible overall size providing a sturdy built-up construction.
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Large external broaches are designed as separate sections, or inserts damped in a special holder,
several methods of clamping the inserts in the holder are illustrated in Fig. 6.6. Some broaches are made up
with separate inserted blades. All the fastening elements of built up broaches with either inserts or inserted
blades should be checked by calculating their strength.
There is no way of expending internal broaches and one or more finishing teeth are converted into
cutting teeth in each sharpening. The size of external broach on the contrary can be adjusted by means of
gibs or spacers. Such spacers are shown in Fig.6.6.
The broaches are sharpened mainly by grinding the tooth faces. Less frequently, the backoff
clearance is ground. The grinding of the tooth face in sharpening a round broach is illustrated in fig. 6.7.
To avoid wheel edge interference in which the tooth face is ground square with the broach axis, entirely,
eliminating the face angle, the radius of the wheel in section N-N should be less than the radius of curvature
of tooth in this section. The backoff clearance of a round broach can be ground in a cylindrical grinder.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 97
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Very small parts are broached in stacks of several pieces and the pitch of the broach is determined for the
total length of stack.
The pitch of sizing teeth ‘t’ (semi-finishing teeth) is taken as ts = 0.6 to 0.8 for round broaches and for other
type of broaches ts = t.
The pitch of cutting teeth is made variable from t + (0.2 to 1mm) to t – (0.2 to 1 mm). The other parameters
of the tooth profile can also be estimated by empirical formulae given below.
h = 0.4 t, r = 0.5 h,
b = 0.3 t, r = 0.7 t,
The value of pitch is required to be reduced if the maximum number of teeth in contact with work piece (i.e.
2 max) at a time is less than three.
i.e. Z max = L/t + 1 , should be minimum three.
6. Selection of geometry of cutting and sizing teeth :
The back off or clearance angle ( ) can be selected in accordance with the kind of broach and
teeth from table 6.4. The sizing or finishing teeth have narrow straight (cylindrical) wear land of a width ‘f’
= 0.05 + 0.02 mm ( fig.6.3 c)
The backoff (or the hook or rake or face ) angle are made as small as possible so as to minimize the
loss of size in a cross section of the broach when broach is resharpened after grinding the tooth faces. The
values of backoff angle for finishing teeth is small for the same reason. The face angle is selected to suit
the work material (Table 6.5)
7. Selection of number of chipbreakers and their dimensions :
The chipbreaker grooves or nicks divide a wide chip into a several narrower ones. This reduces load
on broach and improves the condition for carrying the chip in chip space without crowding. The number
and the dimensions of the chip breakers can be selected from Table 6.6.
8. Determination of number of cutting & sizing teeth :
The number of cutting teeth Zc = A/(2 SZ) + (2 or 3)
The number of sizing teeth depends upon the type of broach
The number of sizing teeth ZS for various types of broaches are given in the bracket.
Round holes (5 to 8), spine, serration & involute (5), keyway & rectangular (4) & For roughing broaches of
all types (2-4)
9. Determination of dimensions of cutting teeth (or roughing teeth) and semifinishing
teeth.
The diameter of the first tooth is taken equal to the front pilot diameter Dt = D – A. The diameter of
each subsequent tooth is incremented by 2 SZ. The cut per tooth for last three finishing teeth preceeding,
the sizing or finishing teeth is gradually decreased as suggested in step (2)
10. The dimensions & tolerance of the sizing teeth (or finishing teeth)
The diameter of the sizing teeth DS = DmaxJB , where Dmax is the maximum diameter of the
broached hols, δ is the change in the hole diameter after broaching (when the diameter is oversized, take
sign as ‘-‘and’ +’ when the diameter is undersized.
The tolerance on cutting tooth = ± 1/5 SZ but maximum 0.02 mm, the tolerance on finishing tooth
= - 1/3 hole tolerance but maximum IT 7
11. Selection of pull end and rear pilot for round breaches :
The pull end of the broach serves to engage the broach to the machine through a puller head. The
three types of pull ends are given in fig.67.8. The details of each pull end can be obtained from standard IS
7773. These values can be selected from tables 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9.
The force required for broaching & hole of desired dimension in a work piece is calculated from the
specific cutting force for the work piece material (Table 6.10)
For round broach, F = KS Π D.S.Z Zmax K
The broach strength for pull end breaches is checked for tensile failure is the permissible pulling force ‘F’
given by product of area of critical cross section and safe tensils strength of broaching material should be at
least equal to the broaching force F. or F. The area of critical cross section is the area of gullet cross section
for first teeth.
Critical cross section area = Π ( Dt – 2 h )2/4
Where ‘Dt’ is the diameter of pilot or first tooth and “h” is the depth of gullet. The values of permissible
stresses for material of pull and push broaches can be obtained from table 6.9.
The push broach strength is checked for failure in buckling as follows :
If L/D ratio < 25, the design is safe for buckling (as it is treated as a short column) and for L/D >
25, the Euler’s formula gives permissible force for avoiding buckling (F) which should be at least equal to
broaching force F.
Permissible pushing force F = Π . E.I. / (FOS.L), where
FOS = factor of safety & is selected as 3 or more
I = moment of Inertia of broach
D = Root diameter at half length of broach (centre of broach)
L = Length from push end to first tooth.
14. The working drawing preparation :
The working drawing of broach is prepared with indication of basic specifications (Fig.6.9)
Solved Example
Example 1 : Design a circular broach for machining a cylindrical hole, diameter D = 25H7 (+ 0.021) and
length 10 = 562 ± 0.95 in a toothed wheel blank of free cutting steel (σ t = 70 kgf/mm2)
Solution :
1) The broach material selected for this job is HSS (m2)
2) Broaching allowance ‘A’ and diameter of premachined hole ‘DO
A = 0.005 D + 0.12 L = 0.9735 say 1.0 mm
D0 = D – A = 25 – 1.0 = 24 mm.
3) Cut per tooth SZ
From standard table (62) S2 is selected as 0.03 mm for steel. Assuming the number of semi
finishing teeth as B the SZ is distributed as ½ SZ – 0.15 mm, 1/3 SZ = 0.01/mm, and 1/6 S = 0.04 mm.
4. Selection of broach tooth & chip space dimensions :
Longitudinal cross sectional area of chip = L.SZ = 50 x 0.03 = 1.5 mm2
Ag = cross sectional area of gullet = K x 3.15 = 4.5 mm2
From table (6.3) for re-utilize profile nearest value of Ag is 5.8 mm and of pitch is 7 mm. and h = 2.3, b =
3.0 r = 1.25, OR
These dimensions can also be estimated by the empirical formulae as under.
T = 1.25 L = 8.8 9.0 mm
H = 0.4 t = 3.6 mm
R = 0.5 h = 1.8 mm
B = 0.3 t = 2.7 mm
Let us assume the values selected from standard table i.e. t =7.0, h = 2.3 mm, b = 3.0, r = 1.25 mm.
The pitch for finishing or sizing teeth = ts = 0.8 t = 5.6 mm. Now checking for Zmax i.e. maximum
number of teeth in contact Zmax = maximum number of teeth in contact = L/t + 1 = > 3 hence the
condition that Zmax should be ≥ 3 is satisfied and the selected of pitch is safe.
5.Selection of geometry :
From table 604 & 6.5 we get
∝ roughing = 3 + 30’ , , roughing = 150
∝ Semifinishing 20 + 1 Semifinishing = 150
∝ Sizing = 10 + 151 √ sizing = 50
6. Selection of number of chip breakers -
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From table 6.6 for D = 25 mm number of chip breakers is equal to 12 and width m = 1.0 mm r = 0.3 mm
7. Determination of number of cutting and sizing teeth
Number of cutting teeth Zc = A/2.SZ + (2 or 3)
= 1.0/2.0.03 + 2
= 16.66 + 3 = 20
Out of total cutting teeth 17 teeth are used for roughing and 3 are used for semifinishing where the value of
SZ = is reduced gradually No. of sizing teeth ZS = 6
8. Determination of dimensions of cutting teeth
diameter of 1st tooth = Diameter of pilot i.e. 24.0 mm. The value of the various teeth diameter are entered
in the working drawing of broach as shown in fig.6.9
The dimensions of tooth 2 to 17 are obtained by adding 2 SZ i.e. .0.06 to previous diameter. The 2 SZ is
distributed as 2.1/2 Sz , 2.1/3 Sz & 2.1/6 Sz for tooth number 18, 19 and 20 as stated earlier (.03, .02, .
006) for the six finishing or sizing teeth the dimension is kept constant i.e. 25.016 mm.
9. Dimensions and tolerance of sizing teeth -
DS = Dmax ± = 25.021 – 0.005 = 25.016 mm
Assuming the diameter will be oversized by 0.005, δ is ‘-‘
Tolerance on cutting teeth = ± 1/5 SZ = ± 0.006
Tolerance on finishing teeth = -1/3 rd tolerance on hole = - .0007
10. Selection of pull end & rear pilot dimensions –
From table 6.7 d1 = 22 mm, d2 = 17 mm. d4 = 22 mm, C = 0.5 mm
L1 = 140 mm, L2 = 25 mm, L3 = 25 mm, L4 = 16 mm, r1 = 0.3 and r2 = 1.0 mm
∝ = 300 for pull end Dt = 24.0 -.04
-.073
From table 6.8
Drp = minimum diameter of broached hole = 25 –0.021
1rp = 25 -0.041
t = 1.5
11. Length of broach – (L1)
Length of portion = Tc Zc + ts .Zs
= 7.20 + 5.6 x 6
= 173.6
Length of front pilot = L1 + 65 (for tapered portion)
= 75 (for cylindrical front pilot)
= 140 + 65 + 75 = 280 mm
Length of rear pilot = 25
L = 173.6 + 280 + 25 = 478.6 mm
12. Force & strength calculations -
F = Ks Π D SZ Zmax K.
Ks = 425 Kgf/mm2, D = 25 mm, SZ = 0.03 mm, Zmax = 8,
K=1.25
F = 10008.75 Kgf.
Cross sectional Area of critical section = Π (Dt-2h)2/4 = 295 mm2.
Permissible putting stress for HSS = 35 kgf/mm2
Permissible pulling force F’ = 35 x 295.44 = 1034 kg/mm2
F1 > F hence the design is safe.
PROBLEMS
1. What is broaching ? What are its advantages and disadvantages over boring ?
2. What are the geometric elements of broach teeth ?
3. Explain the constructional features of broach teeth with a neat sketch.
4. What are the various types of internal broaches ?
5. What is the external broach ?
6. What are the various modes of cutting in broaching ?
7. How is the broaching allowance a round broach calculated ?
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 101
8. Draw a neat sketches of an two types of pull ends used in round broaches.
9. How is the number of cutting and sizing teeth calculated in broaching ?
10.How is the force required for broaching calculated ?
11. What is cut per tooth ‘Sz’ ? How is SZ distributed in semi-finishing teeth ?
12. How is the pitch decided in broaching ?
13. How are the broaches resharpened ?
14. How is the length of broach decided ?
15. Design a broach for producing a cylindrical hole, of diameter ‘D’ and length ‘L’.
For variants of the problem see following table.
CHAPTER 7
DRILLS AND REAMERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION :
Drilling is one of the most widely used methods of making holes. The cutting tool in this case is a
drill with which a hole can be made from the solid or the diameter of a previously drilled hole can be
increased. The primary cutting motion in drilling is rotary, straight line feed motion is used. The drill is
clamped in the spindle which rotates it and feeds it downwards into the work piece clamped stationary on
the table.
7.2 ELEMENTS OF (TWIST) DRILL:
The peripheral elements of the drill point are lip, chisel edge, helix angle, point angle, chisel edge
angle, rake angle, clearance angle etc. (7.1)
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1) Lips: These are main cutting edges of the drill and are formed by the intersection of the flank and flute
surfaces. For efficient cutting, the lips should be straight, equal in length and symmetrical with the axis of
the drill.
2) Chisel edge: This is the point end of the web and it is formed by the intersection of flank surfaces.
3) Helix angle: Helix angle practically determines the rake angle at the cutting edge of the drill. As the H.
A. decreases, the rake angle also decreases and makes the cutting edge stronger. With the lower H. A. the
chip election through the flutes is not efficient. However, low helix drills are recommended for hard
materials like marble, slate, carbon and hard rubber. With increase in helix angle, the rake angle increases
and the cutting edge becomes weaker. High helix drills, which are also known as fast helix drills, are
recommended for soft material like copper. All alloys, Zinc alloys, molded plastics, etc.
4) Point angle (2ϕ ) : The most commonly used point angle is 1180. Reducing the point angle leads to an
increase in the width of cut, and it is generally adopted for brittle materials. By increasing the point angle,
the width of out is reduced and thicker chips are produced for the same feed rate. They are generally
adopted for hard and tough materials. It is suggested that guide bushings be used for drills of increased
point angles since they have a tendency to skid or walk on the surface of the work when starting a hole.
Sometimes double angle points are used for hard cast iron and
other brittle materials.
5) Chisel edge angle (ψ ): The angle between the chisel edge and the
cutting lip, as viewed from the end of the drill, is the chisel edge
angle (ψ ). This angle is an indication of the clearance on the
cutting lip. This angle generally varies from 130 to 145 deg.
Since bigger relief angles are recommended for small diameter
drills, larger values of chisel edge angle are preferred.
6) Clearance angle: Clearance angle (alpha) at any point on the lip
is the angle between the tangent to the flanks and the tangent to the
surface of revolution at that point. The actual value of the relief
angle during drilling also depends on the feed. A higher feed
results in reduced working clearance. This is explained by the fact
that the drill not only rotates but also travels axially during cutting.
(Fig.7.2.a)
periphery of the drill, where in a plane parallel to the drill axis (plane A-A), it is equal to the helix angle w
of the helical flutes. (Fig. 7.2.b) The minimum value of the rake angle is at the apex of the point. The rake
angle at the chisel edge is negative so that the cutting angle exceeds90 degree and the cutting conditions are
unfavorable. A larger rake angle, however, reduces the lip angle, leading to more rapid heating of this part
of the drill and consequently, to maximum wear.
In deep-hole drilling with a large diameter drill, a wide chip is formed that is difficult to dispose of
through the flutes. Such a chip also increases friction and impedes cutting fluid delivery to the drill lips.
The width of the chip can be reduced by providing special chip-breaker grooves or notches either on the
face (Fig.8.3.b) or on the lip relief surface (Fig.8.3.a). The depth of the grooves should be approximately
0.05 D and their width approximately 0.07D, where D is the drill diameter. Such grooves divide a wide
chip into several narrow
S.Y.B.TECH,VJTI,MUMBAI
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nDn
v=
1000 m per min
where D = drill diameter, mm
n = drill speed , rpm.
A drill is more complex than a single point tool. The cutting process in drilling also proceeds under
more complex conditions due to the reasons explained below.
Chip disposal from and cutting fluid delivery to the drill lips present difficulties, there is considerable
friction between the chips and the flute surfaces and between drill and machined surface, a sharp drop in
cutting speed (from Υ max to zero) occurs along the drill lips so that at various points of the lips the layer
being out is deformed and out at different speeds. Non-uniform deformation is also due to the variable
angle along the lip of the twist drill, i.e. the chip deformation (contraction) decreases as the point on the lip
approaches the drill periphery (owing to increase in V and γ ).
These factors create more severe conditions for chip formation in drilling than in turning.
7.5 : Force acting on a drill :
The resultant forces of resistance of cutting can be resolved into three components at each point of
the lip viz., (Fig.7.5)
1) Force ‘F’ : acting upward impede penetration of drill in work.
k
2) Force Fh : acting horizontally ( and are supposed to be counter balanced ).
3) Force ‘Fz’ : acting horizontally & responsible for setting up moment of resistance (Mrc = Fz .x)
4) Force F1 : acting vertically on the chisel edge.
5) Force Ff : due to the flow of chip (Friction force)
Thus total axial thrust force “F” can be written as
F= ∑ v
(2 F + F + F )
1 f
Out of total resistance, Fm is 40%, F1 is 57% & Ff is 3%. The value of ‘F’ applied to drill must be less
than or equal to maximum force permitted by the feed mechanism. The total moment of forces of
resistance to cutting (M) is made up of the moment of forces ‘Fz’( = 80% M), moment of the forces due to
scraping and friction of the chisel edge, Mce , ( = 12% of M), moment of the friction forces on the margin
Mm , and the moment of the forces of friction of the chip on the drill and the machined surface, Mc, (Mm +
Mc ) = 8%M)
M = Mrc + Mce + Mm + Mc
1) Drill diameter and feed : The larger the drill diameter and the rate of feed per revolution, the larger the
cross-sectional area of the under formed chip will be the greater the chip formation and, consequently, the
greater the axial thrust and torque.
2) Drill geometry :
a) Helix angle N : It is related with rake angle & hence increase in its value reduces axial force and torque.
b) The point angle 2ϕ : It affects the ratio of the forces Fh & Fv’ as well as under formed chip thickness.
Thus, upon increasing angle 2ϕ axial thrust is increased (due to increase in Fz) and torque is reduced.
c) Cutting fluid efficiency : Efficient application of cutting, fluid reduces axial thrust & torque.
d) Drilling depth : Increase in depth deterio-rate cutting conditions & hence adversely affect the thrust &
torque.
e) Cutting speed: Axial thrust & torque first decreases with an increase in cutting speed.
7.6 REAMING:
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Drills are not a precision hole-producing tool. When size must be held to close limits or the surface
finish is important, a reaming operation usually follows a drilling operation.
Reaming is a finishing operation and is not intended to remove a large amount of material.
However, enough stock should be removed to allow the cutting edge to get under the chip or the reamer will
burnish the work rather than cut it, especially when reamer starts to dull.
The speed for reaming is generally considered to be two thirds of the speed used for drilling the
same material. Reamers speeds should always be reduced when chatter occurs.
Reaming feeds are much higher than drilling feeds because there are more teeth in the reamer.
Reamer feeds that are too low may cause burnishing, glazing or chatter. High feeds tend to reduce the
accuracy of the hole and the quality of the finish. Reaming is one of the important operation used in the
manufacturing of interchangeable parts of mass production and provides the most economical means of
achieving precision fits and interchangeability.
The maximum diameter of reamer must be equal to the maximum diameter of the hole minus (0.15
x Hole tolerance). The minimum diameter of reamer must be equal to the maximum diameter of the hole
minus (0.35 x Hole tolerance).
The reamers usually have even number of teeth to facilitate diameter measurement . Use is made of
non-uniform angular pitch “W” which helps is improving surface finish. The value of “W” for a particular
number of teeth can be selected from standard table.
The reamers may be straight flutes or helical fluted (with helix grooves directed against direction of
rotation.
QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 8
MILLING
INTRODUCTION:
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Milling is the machining process in which metal is removed by advancing a work piece against a rotating
multipoint cutting tool called milling cutter. As the cutter rotates, each tooth removes a small amount of
material from the advancing work for each spindle revolution. What distinguishes milling from other
machining processes is interrupted cutting, relatively small size of chips and variation of chip thickness
within a chip itself.
The milling process is generally divided into two basic forms, referred to as peripheral milling and face
milling. In peripheral milling, the finished surface is parallel to the axis of the milling cutter and is
generated by teeth located on the periphery of the cutter.
Types of milling cutters :
The milling cutters are used for machining of external surface slots and contoured surface. The milling
cutters may be of various types plain milling cutter, face milling cutter, side milling cutter, end milling
cutters, metal slitting saw, angle milling cutter, form milling cutter (concave or convex) etc. These cutters
are shown in figure 8.1
The geometry of plain milling cutter is shown in Fig.8.2.a. The rake angle when measured in plain normal
to cutting edge (section c.c.) is called normal rake angle. And when rake angle is specified in a plane
perpendicular to cutter axis.(Section D.D.). The following formula can be used to find the normal rake
angle “γ ” when the radial rake angle “γ ” when the radial rake angle “γ ” is given.
Tan Υ = tan Y’. Sin. ϕ + tan w. cos ϕ
Where ϕ is the entrance angle in case of face milling cutter and is defined as the angle made by main
cutting edge with the peripheral cutting edge. For a plain milling cutter with helical flutes, this angle
coincides with helix angle ‘w’.
The radial relief angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to cutter axis (Section D-D). It is the
angle between the tangent to the tooth flank at the point being considered on the main cutting edge and
tangent to the circle described by this point. The value of normal relief angle can be obtained as
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Elements of cutting
process in straight flute
plain milling cutter
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 111
Now,
SZ = S/Z = Sm/(N.Z.)
Tooth contact angle can be estimated from fig. 8.4
Cos δ = (D/2-t)/(D/2) = 1 – 2t/D.
In case of straight flute plain milling cutter the uncut chip thickness is constant alone the length of the tooth
and can be determined from triangle KNP (if NP is assumed to be straight line)
A = KN = KP cos (90 - ψ ) = KP sin ψ = s.sin.ψ
Where ϕ is instantaneous tooth contact angle, or the angle corresponding to the given position of tooth.
Thus, maximum thickness of chip i.e. at exit = amax ‘S2’
, amax = Sz ‘sin; δ
The cross sectional area of uncut chip removed by one tooth of a straight flute cutter is (denoted by
f)
F = a.b = B.Sψ . sin
To find total cross sectional area of all uncut chips it is necessary to know the number of teeth that
are simultaneously in operation and instantaneous tooth constant angle for each tooth.
The number of teeth that are simultaneously in operation on a straight flute cutter is
m = δ .Z/(Angle between adjacent teeth) = δ .Z/360.
or
m=Z. Sin-1( 2 t / D − t / D ) / 360
2
If 1 < m < 2, then maximum two teeth are simultaneously in operation, if 2 < m < 3, then maximum three
teeth are in operation simultaneously.
Since,
Sin δ = 1 – cos2δ = 2 t / D − t / D
2 2
Thus, the value of number of teeth simultaneously in operation depends upon (1) ratio t/D, (ii) D, (iii) Z.
The larger t & Z, and the smaller D is, the greater ‘m’ will be for any cutter (Specified with D and Z), m
will depend only on the depth of cut.
The number of teeth in operation for a helical flute cutter can be determined by graphical method or
by the formula given below.
m = δ .Z/360 + B.Z/(Π .D.cot w)
The larger t, z, B and w are, and the smaller ‘D’ is, the greater the number of teeth in operation,
simultaneously.
The machining time in peripheral milling is
Tm = ( 1 + y + ∆ )/ Sz . Z.N.) min.
Where, ‘1’ is length of milled surface, ‘y’ is cutter approach and ‘∆ ’ is over travel.
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The tangential (peripheral) force ‘F’ sets up the moment of resistance of cutting (M) and tends to bend the
arbor.
M = Fz.D/2 , Kgf-mm.
1) This moment of resistance should be overcome by the torque developed by the electric motor of the
milling machine. Thus main drive mechanism is designed and power required in milling is calculated on
basis of force Fz.
2) The radial force Fy exerts pressure on the basis of force Fz and also tends to bend the cutter arbor.
Thus cutter arbor is subjected to bending due to resultant of two forces Fz & Fy (i.e. R) and tortional force
due to moment of resistance to cutting.
3) The horizontal or feed force “Fh” is used in designing the feed mechanism of milling machine, in
calculating the required damping force for the work piece and designing various components of milling
future.
4) The vertical force Fy in climb milling tends to keep the cutter pressed against the work piece, while
in conventional milling tends of lift the work piece from table.
The value of aggregate tangential force “R”, can be calculated from the equation.
R = Ks . m. as . B Kgf
Where, Ks = Specific cutting force corresponding to given material
as = Average value of thickness of chip.
m = number of teeth simultaneously in contact
B = Width of chip.
In helical flute plain milling cutter, the acting forces Fz, Fy Fh and Fv will be supplemented by the
axial force Fa acting in a direction depending upon the hand of the helix which has a helix angle w.
From figure.
Fa = Fz . tan w
But, friction force T also acts along the tooth in a direction in which it reduces force Fa.
Therefore, Fa can be calculated from the formula.
Fa = 0.28 – Fz,. tan w.
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Depending upon the hand of the flute spiral, force ‘Fa’ either tends to slide the cutter off the arbor or
holds it against the shoulder on the spindle nose, the axial force can be compensated by using interlocking
cutters with helical flutes of different hands.
The power required for milling can be calculated from the tangential force Fz
E = Fz .V, Kgm/min.
The following relationships can be used to determine the forces Fh and Fv.
Fh = ( 1 to 1.2 ), Fz and Fv = (0.2 to 0.3) Fz for conventional milling
And Fh = (0.8 to 0.9) Fz & Fv = (0.75 to 0.8 ) Fz for climb milling.
QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 9
GEAR CUTTING AND THREAD CUTTING.
Broaching is done with a special cutting tool and is seldom employed as a gear cutting method.
Shaving is a gear-finishing process using a cutting tool in the form of a gear ( or rack in some
cases ) with teeth on the flanks of which narrow grooves separated by narrow lands are provided. These
narrow grooves are called serrations.
Grinding is employed as a gear-finishing process. Fine-module gear are sometimes ground from the
solid.
Gear teeth are cut by two general processes called : (1) Form cutting in which the shape of the
cutting edge of the tool is identical with the shape of the tooth space of the gear (disk and end-mill type gear
milling cutters and gear shaping cutter – heads operate on this principle ), and (2) generating, in which the
tooth flanks are obtained as a result of machining with a tool whose cutting edges reproduce the profile of
the conjugate rack or the profile of a tooth of a conjugate gear. During the machining process, the tool and
gear blank form a conjugate (properly meshing) toothed pair, or gearing.
Various gear cutting tools, hobs, shaping cutters, rack, type cutters shaving cutters, etc. operate by
the generating principle.
Disk type gear milling cutters (Fig.9.1.a) are form milling cutters usually of the form-relieved type,
in which the tooth profile is formed. For this reason, tool designers try to use profile sharpened teeth on
gear cutting tools wherever feasible.
The rake angles of gear cutting tool, especially of those intended for finishing operations, are also very
small or equal to zero (to simplify profiling of the tool).
In addition to the reciprocating and rotary motions, the shaping cutter is also in fed to the depth of
the teeth of the gear being cut. This process has following advantages over the hobbing process.
1) Gears with adjacent shoulders can easily be produced.
2) The gears produced by the method are of very high accuracy.
3) Both internal and external gears can be cut by this process.
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4) Cluster gears can be manufactured.
However with this process worm & worm wheels cannot be produced.
Hobbling is process of generating a gear by means of a rotating cutter called hob. It is a continuous
indexing process. Gear hobbling is faster than milling, because several teeth are cut at a time and because
of the continuous meshing process. In gear hobbling, the cutting tool and work piece rotate in a constant
relationship while the hob is being fed into work. A hob resembles a worm, with gashes made parallel to its
axis to provide cutting edges. For in volute gears the hob has essentially straight sides at a given pressure
angle. The hob, is fed into the gear blank to the proper depth and the two are rotated together as if they are
in mesh. Each hob tooth cut its own profile, but the accumulation of these straight cuts produces a curved
form of the gear teeth, thus the name generating process. The gear cutting with a hob involves three basic
motions all of them occurring at a time. The hob and a blank have a rotating motion and the third one is
radial advancement for the hob, thus causing the cutting and indexing simultaneously.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 117
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There is usually no relief on the sizing section and at the flanks of the thread. Only taps with ground
thread are relieved in a thread grinder; the relief, value is very small (0.2 to 0.3 mm) along the width of the
land ) but this is sufficient to reduce friction drastically and facilities tap operation.
Another measure for reducing friction in tapping is to provide & back taper on the tap. This makes
the major and minor diameter of the thread smaller near the shank than those at the chamber by the
following amount; 0.05 to 0.10 mm per 100 mm for ground taps and taps in which threads are formed by
rolling; 0.08 to 0.12 mm per 100 mm for underground taps. Fig.9.10
If a tap is used to cut thread in a hole with longitudinal slots or recesses (the tapping of a threading
die with a die tap can serve as an example) the number of flutes should not be a multiple of the number of
clearance holes in the threading die for vice verse), since otherwise the tap lands may drop into the
clearance holes.
To ensure productive operation, the tap flutes should be of a shape that provides sufficient chip
space (without appreciably weakening the tap) and enables the tap to be necked out of the hole without
damaging the thread with the heel of the lands.
Three of the more widely used shapes of flutes are shown in Fig.9.10.c. In Type a (Fig. 9.10.c the
flute is milled with a convex half-circle cutter profiled to a single radius. In backing out the tap the heel of
the lands may cut a chip and spoil the thread. This shape of flute is used only in exceptional cases and then
only for hand master taps. The external angle at the heel should be nearly 900. Most of the short coming of
the Type a flute are into found in Type b (Fig.9.10.e.). This can be recommended for nut taps which do not
have to be backed out of the threaded hole.
A more efficient flute is Type c (Fig.9.10.c) which is used in tool plants for tap manufacture. This
shape of flute provides a straight cutting face and the rake angle is sufficiently constant on the chamber and
sizing sections of the tap.
In the Type c shape, the total flute angle is 460 or 470. The width of the lands and the core diameter
are taken as follows (after data of the Frezer Plant,; b = 0.34d for four-flute taps (where d0 is the major
diameter). This flute shape can be recommended for both hand and nut taps.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 119
Most taps have straight flutes. Certain special taps have helical flutes.
The direction of chip flow can be changed by changing the hand of the helical flutes on the tap.
Taps with helical flutes of different hands are illustrated in Fig. Flutes of the type shown in Fig. Drive
the chips forward, ahead of the tap, and can be used for tapping through holes. Chip flow is forward the
shank for a tap with flutes of the opposite hand (Fig.9.11.b.). This is applicable for tapping blind holes.
A straight-
flute tap will also
direct the chips
forward, ahead of the
tap, if a spiral point is
ground on the cutting
face of each land at
the chambered end.
It is formed at an
angle λ (Fig.9.11.c)
with the tap axis.
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Elements which provide for mounting the die in a machine tool or die stock are : outside diameter
D1 rim thickness e and e1, adjusting slot, spot holes for clamping screws and spot holes for adjusting
screws.
Round thread-cutting dies are used to
cut threads and to size previously cut
threads.
Thread cutting is accompanied by the
removal of a considerable amount of chips,
and the clearance holes must be large
enough to avoid being clogged by the chips.
Only a very thin layer of metal is
removed in sizing screw threads and
therefore dies for this purpose do not
require large clearance holes. Such dies
may also be of lower strength.
PROBLEMS
1. What are various types of gear cutting processes?
2. What are the various gear cutting tools operating by form cutting principle?
Give geometric details of an/one.
3. What are the various types of gear cutting tools operation by the Generating principle ? Explain the
geometric element any one.
Prof. D.V. Shirbhate 121
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