Matrix Optics

p
-Geometrical light rays

-Ray matrices and ray vectors

-Matrices for various optical

components
Matrix Optics -The Lens Maker’s Formula

-Imaging and the Lens Law

-Mapping
Mapping angle to position

-Cylindrical lenses

Is geometrical optics the whole story? Geometrical optics (ray optics) is the
simplest version of optics.
No We neglect the phase
No. phase. ~0
0
Also, our ray pictures seem
to imply
p y that,, if we could
just remove all aberrations,
we could focus a beam to a
point and obtain infinitely
good spatial resolution. Ray
Not true. The smallest optics
possible focal spot is the >λ
wavelength, λ. Same for the
best spatial resolution of an
image. This is due to
diffraction, which has not
been included in
geometrical optics.
 Rayy Optics
p The Optic Axis
A mirror deflects the optic axis into a new direction.
This ring laser has an optic axis that scans out a
axis rectangle.

Optic axis A ray propagating

We ll define light rays as directions in space
We'll space, corresponding,
corresponding through this system
roughly, to k-vectors of light waves.
We won
won’tt worry about the phase.
Each optical system will have an axis, and all light rays will
be assumed to propagate at small angles to it. This is called
the Paraxial Approximation. We define all rays
ra s relative
relati e to the rele
relevant
ant optic a
axis.
is

xin, θin
Ray Matrices
The Ray
For many optical components, we can define 2 x 2 ray matrices.
Vector xout, θout An element’s effect on a ray is found by multiplying its ray vector.

A light ray can be defined by two co-ordinates:

its position, x
θ Ray matrices
R ti
its slope, θ can describe
x Optical system ↔ 2 x 2 Ray matrix
simple and com-
plex systems.
Optical axis
⎡ xin ⎤ ⎡A B⎤ ⎡ xout ⎤
⎢θ ⎥ ⎢C D ⎥⎦
⎢θ ⎥
⎣ in ⎦ ⎣ ⎣ out ⎦
These parameters define a ray vector,
⎡x⎤
which will change
g with distance and as ⎢θ ⎥
the ray propagates through optics. ⎣ ⎦ These matrices are often (uncreatively) called ABCD Matrices.
 Ray
y matrices as ∂x ∂x
For cascaded elements, we simply multiply
xout = out xin + out θin ray matrices.
derivatives ∂xin ∂θin
Since the displacements and ∂θout ∂θ
angles are assumed to be small, θout = xin + out θin
we can think in terms of partial ∂xini ∂θin ⎡ xin ⎤ ⎡ xout ⎤
derivatives. ⎢θ ⎥ O1 O2 O3 ⎢θ ⎥
⎣ in ⎦ ⎣ out ⎦
spatial
∂xout ∂xout
∂xin ∂θin ⎧⎪ ⎡ xin ⎤ ⎞ ⎫⎪
magnification
⎡ xout ⎤ ⎛ ⎡ xin ⎤
⎡ xout ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ xin ⎤ We can write ⎢θ ⎥ = O3 ⎨O2 ⎜ O1 ⎢θ ⎥ ⎟ ⎬ = O3 O2 O1 ⎢θ ⎥
⎢θ ⎥ = ⎢C D ⎥ ⎢θ ⎥ these equations ⎣ out ⎦ ⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎣ in ⎦ ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎣ in ⎦
⎣ out ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ in ⎦ in matrix form.
form
∂θout ∂θout angular
Notice that the order looks opposite to what it should
∂xin ∂θin magnification
ifi ti
be, but it makes sense when you think about it.

Rayy matrix for free space

p or a medium Ray Matrix for an Interface
If xin and θin are the position and slope upon entering, let xout and θout At the interface, clearly:
be the position and slope after propagating from z = 0 to z.
θout
xout = xin. θin
xin xout
xout = xin + z θin
xout θout
xin, θin
θ out = θin n1 n2
Now calculate θout.
Rewriting these
expressions in matrix Snell's Law says: n1 sin(θin) = n2 sin(θout)
notation:
z=0 z
⎡xout ⎤ ⎡1 z⎤ ⎡xin ⎤ which becomes for small angles: n1 θin = n2 θout
⎢θ ⎥ = ⎢0 1⎥ ⎢θ ⎥
⎣ out ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ in ⎦
⎡1 z ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
Ospace = ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ θout = [n1 / n2] θin Ointerface = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 n1 / n2 ⎦
 Ray matrix for a curved interface A thin lens is jjust two curved interfaces.
At the interface, again: R1 R2
R We’ll neglect the glass in between
i .
xoutt = xin θs θout (it’s
(it s a really thin lens!)
lens!), and we
we’ll
ll take
θ1 θ2 n1 = 1.
To calculate θout, we θs n≠1
must calculate θ1 and θ2. θin xin θ = x /R ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
Ocurvedd = ⎢ ⎥ n=1 n=1
⎣(n1 / n2 − 1) / R n1 / n2 ⎦
s in
If θs is the surface slope
interface

n1 n2 z
at the height xin, then z=0 z ⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
Othin lens = Ocurved Ocurved =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
θ1 = θin+ θs and θ2 = θout+ θs interface 2 interface 1 ⎣(n − 1) / R2 n ⎦ ⎣ (1/ n − 1) / R1 1/ n ⎦
θ1 = θin+ xin / R and θ2 = θout+ xin / R ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
=⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
Snell's Law: n1 θ1 = n2 θ2 ⇒ n1 (θin + xin / R) = n2 (θ out + xin / R) ⎣(n − 1) / R2 + n(1/ n − 1) / R1 n(1/ n) ⎦ ⎣(n − 1) / R2 + (1 − n) / R1 1 ⎦
⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
⇒ θout = (n1 / n2 )(θin + xin / R) − xin / R =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1/ f 1 ⎥⎦
This can be written:
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎣(n − 1)(1/ R2 − 1/ R1 ) 1 ⎦ ⎣
⇒ θout = (n1 / n2 )θin + (n1 / n2 −1) xin / R O = ⎢ ⎥
interface ⎣(n1 / n2 −1)/ R n1 / n2 ⎦
curved
where: 1/ f = (n − 1)(1/ R1 − 1/ R2 ) The Lens-Maker’s Formula

Ray matrix for a lens ⎡ 1 0⎤ Types of lenses

Olens = ⎢
1/ f = (n − 1)(1/ R1 − 1/ R2 ) ⎣-1/f 1 ⎥⎦ Lens nomenclature

The quantity, f, is the focal length of the lens. It’s the single most
important
p parameter
p of a lens. It can be positive
p or negative.
g
In a homework problem, you’ll extend the Lens Maker’s Formula
to lenses of greater thickness.

R1 > 0 R1 < 0
R2 < 0 f>0 R2 > 0 f<0

If f > 0, the lens If f < 0, the lens deflects Which type of lens to use (and how to orient it) depends on the
deflects rays toward rays away from the axis. aberrations and application.
the axis.
A lens focuses parallel rays to a point one Spectrometers
p To best distinguish different wave-
wave
f
focal
l llength
th away. For all rays lengths, a slit confines the beam to
A lens followed by propagation by one focal the optic axis. A lens collimates the
xout = 0!
length: beam and a diffraction grating
beam,
Camera
disperses the colors. A second
⎡xout ⎤ ⎡1 f ⎤⎡ 1 0⎤⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ 0 f ⎤⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ lens focuses the beam to a
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ = ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢= ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ point
i t th
thatt depends
d d on itits
⎣θout ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦⎣−1/ f 1⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣−1/ f 1⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣−xin / f ⎦ beam input angle (i.e.,
f the wavelength).
f Assume all
f
input rays have
θin = 0 Entrance θ ∝ λ−λ0 There are
slit
At the
th focal
f l plane,
l allll rays many
converge to the z axis (xout = 0) types of
f independent of input position.
f spectrom-
spectrom
Parallel rays at a different angle eters. But
focus at a different xout. Diffraction they’re all
grating based on the
Looking from right to left, rays diverging from a point are made parallel. f same principle.

Lenses and p
phase delay
y Lenses and Λ ( x, y )
d
Ordinarily phase isn’t considered in geometrical optics, but it’s phase delay
worth computing the phase delay vs vs. x and y for a lens
lens.
First consider variation (the
All paths through a lens to its focus have the same phase delay,
x and y dependence) in the
and hence yield constructive interference there.
path through the lens
lens.
Λ ( x, y ) = R12 − x 2 − y 2 − d
Equal phase ∆φlens ( x, y ) = (n − 1)k Λ ( x, y )
delays

∆φlens ( x, y ) = (n − 1))k ⎡ R12 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) − d ⎤

⎣ ⎦
Focus

f x2 + y 2
f But: R12 − x 2 − y 2 = R1 1 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) / R12 ≈ R1 −
2 R1

∆φlens ( x, y ) ≈ −(n − 1)(k / 2 R1 )( x 2 + y 2 )

neglecting constant
phase delays.
 x,y
Lenses and phase delay Rayy Matrix for a Curved Mirror
(x,y) Consider a mirror with radius of curvature, R, with its optic axis
Now compute the phase delay in the
air after the lens: perpendicular to the mirror:
Focus
0
∆φairi ( x, y ) = k x 2 + y 2 + z 2 θ1 = θin − θ s θ s ≈ xin / R
z R
x2 + y 2 θout
θ1 θ out = θ1 − θ s = (θin − θ s ) − θ s
If z >> x, y: x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≈ z +
2z θs θ1 ≈ θin − 2 xin / R
θin xin = xout
∆φair ( x, y ) ≈ (k / 2 z )( x + y )
2 2
neglecting constant phase delays.
z ⎡ 1 0⎤
⇒ Omirror = ⎢ ⎥
∆φlens ( x, y ) + ∆φair ( x, y ) ≈ −(n − 1)(k / 2 R1 )( x 2 + y 2 ) + ( k / 2 z )( x 2 + y 2 ) ⎣ −2 / R 1 ⎦

1 1 Like a lens, a curved mirror will focus a beam. Its focal length is R/2.
= 0 if = (n − 1) that is, iff z = f !
z R1 Note that a flat mirror has R = ∞ and hence an identity ray matrix.

Laser Cavities Mirror curvatures matter in lasers. Unstable Resonators

An unstable cavity (or unstable resonator) can work if you do it
properly!
mirrors the flat-flat
Two flat mirrors, flat flat
In fact, it produces a large beam, useful for high-power lasers, which
laser cavity, is difficult to align
must have large beams.
and maintain aligned.

The mirror curvatures

determine the beam size,
Two concave curved mirrors
mirrors,
which, for a stable resonator,
the usually stable laser cavity,
is small (100 µm to 1 mm).
is generally easy to align and
maintain
i t i aligned.
li d

An unstable resonator can

have a very large beam. But
Two convex mirrors, the
the gain must be high. And
unstable laser cavity, is
the beam has a hole in itit.
impossible to align!
 Consecutive lenses A system images an object when B = 0.

Suppose we have two lenses When B = 0, all rays from a ⎡xout ⎤ ⎡ A 0 ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ Axin ⎤
right next to each other (with point xin arrive at a point xout, ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
no space in between). f1 f2 independent of angle. ⎣θout ⎦ ⎣C D⎦ ⎣θin ⎦ ⎣Cxin + D θin ⎦

xout = A xin When B = 0, A is the magnification.

⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
Otot = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢
⎣ -1/f 2 1 ⎦ ⎣ -1/f1 1 ⎦ ⎣ -1/f1 − 1/ f 2 1 ⎥⎦

1/f tot = 1/f1 + 1/f 2

So two consecutive lenses act as one whose focal length is
computed by the resistive sum.
As a result, we define a measure of inverse lens focal length, the
di t
diopter.
1 diopter = 1 m-1

The Lens Law Imaging

Magnification
From the object to
the image, we have:
If th
the iimaging
i condition,
diti
1) A distance do 1 1 1
2) A lens of focal length f + =
d o di f
3) A distance di
is satisfied, then:
⎡1 1⎤
⎡1 d i ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 d o ⎤ B = d o + di − d o di / f = A = 1 − di / f = 1 − di ⎢ + ⎥
O=⎢ ⎡1 − di / f 0 ⎤
⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ O=⎢ ⎣ d o di ⎦
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1/ f 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ d o di [1/ d o + 1/ di − 1/ f ] = ⎣ −1/ f 1 − d o / f ⎦⎥ ⇒ d
M =− i
⎡1 d i ⎤ ⎡ 1 do ⎤ 0 if do
=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1 1 1 So:
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1/ f 1 − d o / f ⎦ + = ⎡1 1⎤
d o di f ⎡ M 0 ⎤ D = 1 − do / f = 1 − do ⎢ + ⎥
⎡1 − di / f d o + di − d o di / f ⎤ O=⎢ ⎣ d o di ⎦
=⎢ ⎥ ⎣ −1/ f 1/ M ⎥⎦ = −
do
= 1/ M
⎣ −1/ f 1 − do / f ⎦ This is the Lens Law.
di
 Magnification
g Power Virtual A virtual image occurs when the outgoing rays
ffrom a point on the object never actually intersect
Images at a point but can be traced backwards to one.
Often, positive lenses are rated with a
single magnification, such as 4x. Object under observation Negative-f lenses have virtual images, and positive-f lenses do
also if the object is less than one focal length away.
In principle
principle, any positive lens can be used at an infinite
number of possible magnifications. However, when a viewer Virtual Virtual
adjusts the object distance so that the image appears to be image image
essentially at infinity (which is a comfortable viewing distance
for most individuals), the magnification is given by the
relationship:

Magnification = 250 mm / f Object

Object infinitely
f<0
Thus,, a 25-mm focal-length
g positive
p lens would be a 10x
far away f>0
magnifier. Simply looking at a flat mirror yields a virtual image.

F- Depth of Field
number Only one plane is imaged (i.e., is in focus) at a time. But we’d like
The F-number, “f / #”, of a lens is the ratio of its focal length and its
diameter. objects
j near this p
plane to at least be almost in focus. The range
g of
distances in acceptable focus is called the depth of field.
f/# = f/d
It depends
p on how much of the lens is used, that is, the aperture.
p
f f

Object Out of focus

Out-of-focus
Size of blur in
plane
out-of-focus
Image
d1 f d2 f f
plane

Focal
f/# =1 f/# =2 Aperture
plane

Large f-number lenses collect more light but are harder to engineer. The smaller the aperture, the more the depth of field.
 Depth
p of field example
p Bokeh is the rendition of out-of-focus points of light.
A large depth of field
isn’t always desirable.
Bokeh Something deliberately out of focus should not
distract.

Poor Bokeh. Edge is sharply defined.

f/32 (very small aperture;
large depth of field)
Neutral Bokeh. Evenly illuminated blur circle.
Still bad because the edge
g is still well defined.

G d Bokeh.
Good B k h Edge
Ed iis completely
l t l undefined.
d fi d
f/5 (relatively large aperture;
small depth of field)
Bokeh is where art and engineering diverge, since better bokeh is due
to an imperfection (spherical aberration). Perfect (most appealing)
A small depth of field is also bokeh is a Gaussian blur
blur, but lenses are usually designed for neutral
desirable for portraits. bokeh!

If all light rays are directed through The pinhole The Camera Obscura
a pinhole, it forms an image with
an infinite depth of field. camera
The concept of the
Pinhole focal length is
inappropriate for a
pinhole lens. The
magnification is still
–di/do.
Image
The first person to
Object mention
ti thithis idea
id
was Aristotle.
is in the movie, Addicted to Love,
With their low cost, small size
and huge depth of field,
they’re
y useful in securityy
applications.
A dark room with a small
hole in a wall. The term
camera obscura means
“dark
dark room”
room in Latin
Latin.
Renaissance painters used
them to paint realistic
paintings Vermeer painted
paintings.
“The Girl with a Pearl
Earring” (1665-7) using
one.
A nice view of a camera obscura
starring Matthew Broderick (who
plays an astronomer) and Meg
Ryan, who set one up to spy on
their former lovers.
 Lenses can also map
Numerical Aperture
angle
l tto position.
iti
Another measure of a lens size is the numerical aperture. It’s the
From the object
j to
product of the medium refractive index and the marginal ray angle
angle.
the image, we have:

NA = n sin(α) 1) A distance f
Why this 2) A lens of focal length f
definition? 3) A distance f
Because the
α magnification ⎡xout ⎤ ⎡1 f ⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡1 f ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤
xout ∝ θ in
⎢θ ⎥ = ⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎢−1/ f 1⎥ ⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎢θ ⎥
can be shown to So
f be the ratio of ⎣ out ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ in ⎦
the NA on the ⎡1 f ⎤ ⎡ 1 f ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤ And this arrangement
two sides of the =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ maps position to angle:
lens. ⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣−1/ f 1 ⎦ ⎣θin ⎦
⎡ 0 f ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ f θin ⎤ θ out ∝ xin
=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
High-numerical-aperture lenses are bigger. ⎣−1/ f 0 ⎦ ⎣θin ⎦ ⎣−xin / f ⎦

Image Image
Telescopes plane #1 plane #2

Keplerian telescope M1 M2
• Telescope(matrix)
A telescope should image an object, but, because the object will
have a veryy small solid angle,
g , it should also increase its solid angle
g
significantly, so it looks bigger. So we’d like D to be large. And use
two lenses to square the effect.

⎡ M 0 ⎤
Oimaging = ⎢ where M = - di / do
⎣ −1/ f 1/ M ⎥⎦
Note that this is
⎡ M2 0 ⎤ ⎡ M1 0 ⎤ easy for the first
Otelescope =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ lens, as the object
⎣ −1/ f 2 1/ M 2 ⎦ ⎣ −1/ f1 1/ M 1 ⎦ is really far away!

⎡ M 1M 2 0 ⎤ So use di << do
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ − M 1 / f 2 − M 2 / f1 1/ M 1M 2 ⎦ for both lenses.
 Telescopes
p ((cont’d))
Telescope Terminology
The Galilean Telescope

f1 < 0 f2 > 0

The analysis of this telescope is a homework problem!

The Cassegrain
g Telescope
p The Cassegrain
g Telescope
p
Telescopes must collect as much light as possible from the generally
very dim objects many light-years
light years away
away.
It’s easier to create large mirrors than large lenses (only the surface
needs to be very precise).
If a 45º-mirror
reflects the
beam to the side
before the
Object smaller mirror,
it’ss called a
it
Newtonian
telescope.
It may seem like the
image will have a
hole in it,, but onlyy if
it’s out of focus.
 No discussion of Micro
Micro- Objective Image
plane #1
Eye-
piece
Image
plane #2
telescopes would be scopes M1 M2
complete without a
few pretty pictures. Microscopes work on the same principle as telescopes, except that
j
the object is really
y close and we wish to magnify
g y it.
Galaxy Messier 81 When two lenses are used, it’s called a compound microscope.
Standard distances are s = 250 mm for the eyepiece and s = 160 mm
Uranus is surrounded by its four major rings for the objective, where s is the image distance beyond one focal
and by 10 of its 17 known satellites length. In terms of s, the magnification of each lens is given by:
|M| = di / do = (f + s) [1/f – 1/(f+s)] = (f + s) / f – 1 = s / f

Many creative designs exist

Object To eyepiece
for microscope objectives.
Example:
p the Burch reflectingg
NGC 6543-Cat's
6543 C t' Eye
E Nebula-one
N b l off the
th
microscope objective:
most complex planetary nebulae ever seen

If an optical system lacks cylindrical

Microscope
symmetry,t we mustt analyze
l its
it x- andd y-
terminology
directions separately: Cylindrical lenses
A "spherical lens" focuses in both transverse directions.
A "cylindrical
cylindrical lens"
lens focuses in only one transverse direction.

When using
Wh i cylindrical
li d i l llenses, we mustt perform
f ttwo separate
t
ray-matrix analyses, one for each transverse direction.
 Large-angle
g g reflection off a curved mirror Ray Matrix for Off-Axis Reflection from a
also destroys cylindrical symmetry. Curved Mirror
The optic axis makes a large angle with the mirror normal, If the beam is incident at a large angle, θ, on a mirror with radius of
and rays make an angle with respect to it. curvature, R:

tangential tangential
i l ray
Optic axis
ray
before reflection
O ti axis
Optic i
θ ⎡ 1 0⎤
⇔ ⎢ −2 / R 1 ⎥⎦
Optic axis after
reflection R ⎣ e

Rays that deviate from the optic axis in the plane of incidence are
called "tangential.”
where Re = R cosθ for tangential rays
Rays th
R thatt d
deviate
i t ffrom th
the optic i ⊥ to
ti axis t the
th plane
l off incidence
i id are d Re = R / cosθ for
and f sagittal
itt l rays
called "sagittal.“ (We need a 3D display to show one of these.)

Photography
g p y lenses

Photography lenses are complex! Especially zoom lenses

lenses.
• Camera

Double Gauss Petzval

These are older designs

designs.
 Geometrical Optics
Photograp
terms
hy lenses
Modern lenses can
have up
p to 20
elements!

Canon 17-85mm
f/3.5-4.5 zoom

Canon EF 600mm f/4L IS

USM Super Telephoto Lens
17 elements in 13 groups
g p
$12,000

Anatomy of the
Eye
• Optical instrument(eyes)

Incoming
light

Eye slides courtesy of Prasad Krishna, Optics I student 2003.

 Near-sightedness
The cornea,, iris,, and lens
The cornea is a thin membrane that has
(
(myopia)
i )
an index of refraction of around 1.38.
1 38 IIn nearsightedness,
i ht d a person can
It protects the eye and refracts light see nearby objects well, but has
(more than the lens does!) as it enters difficulty seeing distant objects. g
Near-sightedness
the eye
eye. Some light leaks through the Objects focus before the retina.
cornea, especially when it’s blue. This is usually caused by an eye
that is too long
g or a lens system
y
The iris controls the size of the pupil, an opening that allows light that has too much power to focus.
to enter through.
Myopia is corrected with a
negative-focal-length lens. This
The lens is jelly-like lens with an index of refraction of about 1.44.
lens causes the light to diverge
This lens bends so that the vision process can be fine tuned.
slightly before it enters the eye
eye.
When you squint, you are bending this lens and changing its
properties so that your vision is clearer.

The ciliary muscles bend and adjust the lens.

Far-sightedness Astigmatism is a common

(hyperopia) problem in the eye.
Far sightedness (hyperopia)
Far-sightedness Far sightedness
Far-sightedness
occurs when the focal point is
beyond the retina. Such a
person can see distant objects
well, but has difficulty seeing
nearby objects. This is caused
b an eye th
by thatt is
i ttoo short,
h t or a
lens system that has too little
focusing power. Hyperopia is
corrected with a positive-focal-
length lens. The lens slightly
converges the light before it
enters the eye.

As we age,
age our lens hardens
hardens, so we’re
we re less able to adjust and more
likely to experience far-sightedness. Hence “bifocals.”