Trade of Metal Fabrication

Module 4: Structural Steel

Fabrication
Unit 11: Introduction to CNC
Phase 2
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Table of Contents
List of Figures.....................................................................................................................6
List of Tables......................................................................................................................7
ocu!ent "elease #istor$................................................................................................%
Module 4 &tructural &teel Fabrication.........................................................................'
Unit 11 Introduction to CNC........................................................................................
!earnin" #utco$e:......................................................................................................
%e& !earnin" Points:...................................................................................................
Trainin" 'esources:.....................................................................................................
%e& !earnin" Points Code:..........................................................................................
C(C Machine Tools.........................................................................................................1)
NC and CNC ()*lained................................................................................................1+
Nu$erical Control,....................................................................................................1+
Co$*uter Nu$erical Control,...................................................................................1+
Constructional Features of CNC Machines...................................................................11
Machine Structure......................................................................................................11
Slide-a&s...................................................................................................................12
!eadscre-s.................................................................................................................1.
Machine /uardin" and S-arf Control.......................................................................14
S-arf Control.............................................................................................................10
Machine 1)es................................................................................................................12
'i"ht34and 'ule 56ertical Millin" Machine7............................................................18
Control of Slide Mo9e$ent on CNC Machines............................................................1:
1d9anta"es of CNC Machines......................................................................................2+
Part Progra!!ing...........................................................................................................21
Part Pro"ra$$in"..........................................................................................................21
Cartesian Coordinates................................................................................................21
;< = > ? 1)es...........................................................................................................22
Polar Coordinates.......................................................................................................2.
Selection of ?ero Point..................................................................................................24
@uadrantal use for Millin".........................................................................................22
@uadrantal use for Turnin"........................................................................................28
Aefinition of Points on a Surface...............................................................................2
Aocu$entation................................................................................................................1
Pro"ra$ Sheets...........................................................................................................1
Coordinate Sheets.......................................................................................................1
#*eration Sheet...........................................................................................................1
Part3Pro"ra$ For$at.......................................................................................................
Fi)ed SeBuential For$at..............................................................................................
Unit 11 *
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Tab SeBuential For$at.................................................................................................
Cord 1ddress..............................................................................................................4
!eadin" ?ero Su**ression..........................................................................................4
Trailin" ?ero Su**ression...........................................................................................0
Part Pro"ra$ Code !istin"s........................................................................................0
M: Miscellaneous Functions.......................................................................................0
/: Pre*arator& Function 1ddresses............................................................................2
Control of Slide Mo9e$ent........................................................................................2
!inear Inter*olation....................................................................................................8
/eo$etr& and Tri"ono$etr&.........................................................................................4+
I$*ortant /eo$etrical Theore$s..............................................................................4+
Intersectin" Strai"ht !ines.........................................................................................42
Trian"les........................................................................................................................4.
P&tha"oras Theore$..................................................................................................40
Tri"ono$etr&.............................................................................................................42
Tri"ono$etrical 'atios..............................................................................................42
Solution of 'i"ht31n"led Trian"les...........................................................................48
Sine 'ule....................................................................................................................48
The Cosine 'ule.........................................................................................................4
ata +n,ut-&torage and Progra! Pro.ing..................................................................../)
Aata In*utDStora"e and Pro"ra$ Pro9in"......................................................................0+
Ma"netic Ta*es and Aiscs.........................................................................................01
Ma"netic Aiscs..........................................................................................................01
4ost Co$*uter...........................................................................................................01
Manual Aata In*ut 5MAI7..........................................................................................01
Pro"ra$ Pro9in"........................................................................................................02
Ar& 'un......................................................................................................................02
Plotter.........................................................................................................................02
Sin"le Ste* or Ste**in"..............................................................................................02
Co$*uter /ra*hics....................................................................................................02
C(C &etting 0 1,eration.............................................................................................../*
CorE*iece and Tool Settin"...........................................................................................0.
Settin" 1)is Aatu$s..................................................................................................04
CorEholdin" Ae9ices....................................................................................................00
Cate"or& 1..................................................................................................................00
Cate"or& 2..................................................................................................................08
Machine #*eratin" Considerations...............................................................................2+
($er"enc& Shutdo-ns...............................................................................................2+
Feed #9erride Control...............................................................................................2+
&elf 2ssess!ent.................................................................................................................61
2ns3ers to 4uestions 15/. Module 4. Unit 11................................................................6*
Unit 11 4
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
+nde6..................................................................................................................................6'
Unit 11 /
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
List of Figures
Fi"ure 1 3 1nti3Friction Slide-a&s....................................................................................11
Fi"ure 2 3 4&drostatic Slide-a&........................................................................................12
Fi"ure . 3 'e3circulatin" Fall !eadscre-..........................................................................1.
Fi"ure 4 3 Machine /uardin"............................................................................................1.
Fi"ure 0 3 S-arf 'e$o9al Con9e&ors...............................................................................14
Fi"ure 2 3 ;< =< ? 1)es......................................................................................................10
Fi"ure 8 3 'i"ht34and 'ule...............................................................................................12
Fi"ure : 3 #*en !oo* Control...........................................................................................18
Fi"ure 3 FlocE Aia"ra$ Closed !oo* Control S&ste$..................................................1:
Fi"ure 1+ 3 T-o3Ai$ensional 'ectan"ular Coordinates...................................................2+
Fi"ure 11 3 ;< = and ? 1)es..............................................................................................21
Fi"ure 12 3 1bsolute and Incre$ental Ai$ensionin"........................................................21
Fi"ure 1. 3 Ai$ensionin" in Polar Coordinates................................................................22
Fi"ure 14 3 Pitch Circle Aia$eter......................................................................................22
Fi"ure 10 3 ()a$*le of ?ero Point #*tions on CorE*iece...............................................2.
Fi"ure 12 3 ()a$*les of Co$*onent -ith ?ero Point in CorE*iece Centre.....................2.
Fi"ure 18 3 ;+ ?+ Positions for Turnin" #*erations.........................................................24
Fi"ure 1: 3 1bsolute Si"ns for Four @uadrants.................................................................20
Fi"ure 1 3 'ear Tools Post !athe.....................................................................................22
Fi"ure 2+ 3 Front Tool Post !athe......................................................................................28
Fi"ure 21 3 Aefinition of Points on a Surface 1.................................................................2:
Fi"ure 22 3 Aefinition of Points on a Surface 2.................................................................2:
Fi"ure 2. 3 Aefinition of Points on a Surface ..................................................................2
Fi"ure 24 3 Pro"ra$$in" Sheet..........................................................................................1
Fi"ure 20 3 !inear Inter*olation.........................................................................................2
Fi"ure 22 3 ()a$*le of /+. Co$$and in use...................................................................8
Fi"ure 28 3 ()a$*le of /+2 Co$$and in use...................................................................:
Fi"ure 2: 3 I$*ortant /eo$etric Theore$s.......................................................................
Fi"ure 2 3 Intersectin" Strai"ht !ines..............................................................................41
Fi"ure .+ 3 Trian"les..........................................................................................................42
Fi"ure .1 3 Section of Punched Ta*e.................................................................................4
Fi"ure .2 3 Machine Aatu$ and CorE*iece Aatu$..........................................................02
Fi"ure .. 3 Collet Aetails..................................................................................................00
Unit 11 6
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Fi"ure .4 3 Cla$*in" Set #*eration..................................................................................08
List of Tables
Table 1 3 Fi)ed SeBuential For$at......................................................................................2
Table 2 3 Tab SeBuential For$at.........................................................................................2
Table . 3 Cord 1ddress........................................................................................................
Unit 11 7
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
ocu!ent "elease #istor$
ate 7ersion Co!!ents
2D+1D+2 First draft
1.D12D1. S#!1S transfer
Unit 11 %
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Module 4 &tructural &teel Fabrication
Unit 11 +ntroduction to C(C
uration 4 #ours
Learning 1utco!e8
F& the end of this unit each a**rentice -ill be able to:
!ist the technolo"ical de9elo*$ents -hich ha9e led to the de9elo*$ent of
$odern CNC $achines
!ist the constructional details -hich distin"uish a CNC $achine tool fro$ a
con9entional $achine tool
State the ad9anta"es of CNC $achines co$*ared -ith con9entional $achines
9e$ Learning Points8
Rk
- Requirement for complex components
microprocessors computer technology.
- Differences between NC and CNC machines.
- Machine structure and frame location of
servo motors, stepping motors, machine
guarding arrangements.
Rk
- Repeatability.
- Set-up of times, flexibility in changes of
component design. Reduction of operation
error.
P
- Communication, information gathering,
adaptability, quality awareness.
Training "esources8
Ae$onstration $achine or 9isit to -orE*lace to 9ie- CNC $Dc in o*eration
Ara-in"s and illustrations of CNC $achines
Sa$*le co$*onents or dra-in"s of co$*le) *arts *roduced on CNC
$achines
Manufacturers s*ecifications for 9arious $achines
Course notesDhandoutsD9ideos
9e$ Learning Points Code8
M G Maths AG Ara-in" '% G 'elated %no-led"e Sc G Science
P G Personal SEills SE G SEill 4 G 4aHards
Unit 11 '
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
C(C Machine Tools
(C and C(C :6,lained
(u!erical Control;
Nu$erical Control 5NC7 is the techniBue of "i9in" instructions to a $achine in the for$
of a code -hich consists of nu$bers< letters of the al*habet< *unctuation $arEs and
certain other s&$bols. The $achine res*onds to this coded infor$ation in a *recise and
ordered $anner to carr& out 9arious $achinin" functions.
Instructions are su**lied to the $achine as a series of blocEs of infor$ation. 1 blocE of
infor$ation is a "rou* of co$$ands sufficient to enable the $achine to carr& out one
indi9idual $achinin" o*eration e.". $o9e cutter fro$ *osition 1 to *osition 2 at a
s*ecified feed rate.
(ach blocE is "i9en a seBuence nu$ber for identification. The blocEs are then e)ecuted in
strict nu$erical order. 1n e)a$*le of a blocE is as follo-s:
NI /++ ;1+ ) =2+
The $eanin" of this infor$ation is as follo-s: NI is blocE nu$ber 1I /++ directs the
$achine or cutter to $o9e at the ra*id tra9erse rate. ;1+ and =2+ are the coordinate
9alues of the tar"et *oints of the $o9e$ent.
Chen the instructions are or"anised in a lo"ical $anner the& direct the $achine tool to
carr& out a s*ecific tasE 3 usuall& the co$*lete $achinin" of a -orE*iece or J*artJ. It is
thus ter$ed a *art *ro"ra$.
Co!,uter (u!erical Control;
Co$*uter Nu$erical Control 5CNC7 is based on the conce*ts of NC but utilises a
dedicated co$*uter -ithin the $achine control unit to store the *ro"ra$. CNC is lar"el&
the result of technolo"ical *ro"ress in $icroelectronics 5the $iniaturisation of electronic
co$*onents and circuitr&7< rather than an& radical de*arture in the conce*t of NC.
CNC control units< liEe the co$*uters on -hich the& are based< o*erate accordin" to a
stored *ro"ra$ held in co$*uter $e$or&. This $eans that *art *ro"ra$s are no- able to
beco$e totall& resident -ithin the $e$or& of the control unit< *rior to their e)ecution.
No lon"er do the $achines ha9e to o*erate on the Jread3blocEDe)ecute blocEKK *rinci*le as
in an NC $achine. CNC $achines ha9e no- co$*letel& su*erseded the older NC
$achines fro$ -hich the& are deri9ed.
Unit 11 1)
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Constructional Features of C(C Machines
1 con9entional $achine tool has an intelli"ent source for error co$*ensation 5the
o*erator7. Aurin" $achinin" a sEilled o*erator can 9ar& the cuttin" conditions to
co$*ensate for deflection< 9ibration< etc. to "enerate the desired sha*e< siHe and finish.
The CNC $achine can onl& co$*ensate for an error that is detected and co$$unicated
to the control. Aeflection< 9ibration etc. cannot< as &et< be easil& $onitored. For this
reason NC $achines are $ade stron"er and stiffer to *erfor$ to a $ore accurate standard
than their con9entional counter*arts.
The ca*acit& for 9ar&in" the conditions -hile $achinin" is therefore li$ited. 1s far as
*ossible the conditions ha9e to be established as the *ro"ra$ is *roduced.
In addition to this< CNC $achines are s*endin" $ore ti$e *er shift cuttin" than
con9entional $achines did in the *ast. This hi"her *ercenta"e of cuttin" ti$e results in
faster -ear rates on the slides and trans$ission s&ste$s.
Con9entional $achine tools are also desi"ned -ith the 9ie- to ha9in" the sEilled
o*erator standin" directl& in front controllin" the $achine. This is no lon"er reBuired for
CNC since the $achine is o*eratin" under *ro"ra$ control.
#*ti$u$ cuttin" s*eeds and feeds< continuous *ath $achinin"< ra*id slide $o9e$ent to
brin" the tool close to the -orE and then sudden sto**in"< all subLect the $achine to
forces -hich are not encountered on con9entional $achines.
Machine &tructure
Since ri"idit& *la&s a $aLor *art in the accurac& of a $achine tool< $odern CNC
$achines tend to ha9e o9er3*ro*ortionated slide -a&s< "uides and s*indles. ThicEer cast
sections than con9entional $achines are also used. The use of s&$$etrical castin"s
assists in reduction of ther$al stresses -ithin the $achine. These structural desi"n
features are e$*lo&ed to co*e -ith the torsional forces and hea9& dut& cuttin" i$*osed
on these $achines.
Unit 11 11
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
&lide3a$s
Con9entional $achine tool slide-a&s o*eratin" under conditions of slidin" friction do
not e)hibit a constant coefficient of friction. Friction coefficient is hi"hest at lo- 9elocit&.
This condition "i9es rise to KsticE3sli*K -hich *roduces LerE& slide action -hen $o9e$ent
taEes *lace at lo- 9elocities. Nu$erical control also reBuires a ra*id res*onse of the
slides to co$$and si"nals fro$ the $achine control.
To eli$inate these *roble$s rollin" friction can be used instead of slidin" friction. Fi"ure
1 sho-s a nu$ber of -a&s of achie9in" this.
Figure 1 5 2nti5Friction &lide3a$s
(ach of these $ethods considerabl& reduces frictional resistance "i9in" ra*id slide
res*onse and eli$inates KsticE3sli*K. This t&*e of slide-a& is *articularl& suitable for
$achines -hich are not reBuired to $achine -hile the slide is $o9in" e.". drillin" etc.
Chen the slide reaches the *oint -here drillin" taEes *lace it is cla$*ed in *osition. The
$ain disad9anta"e of this desi"n is the load bearin" and cla$*in" ca*abilities are not as
"ood as a con9entional slide-a&. Machines -hich are reBuired to $achine -hile the
slide-a& is $o9in" such as $illin" often utilise a h&drostatic s&ste$. See Fi"ure 2 -here
fluid is *u$*ed in bet-een the slide surfaces at hi"h *ressure u* to .+<+++ %nD$M.
Frictional -ear and sticE3sli* are entirel& eli$inated. 1n alternati9e desi"n is to coat the
sides -ith Pol&tetrafluoroeth&lene 5P.T.F.(.7. This $aterial has a 9er& lo- coefficient of
friction.
Unit 11 12
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure 2 5 #$drostatic &lide3a$
Leadscre3s
The lead scre-s used on con9entional $achine tools are usuall& of the 1c$e thread for$.
These threads are 9er& inefficient because of the hi"h frictional resistance bet-een the
flanEs of the scre- and the nut. The& also e)hibit hi"h bacElash< because there $ust be
clearance bet-een the flanEs of the nut and the scre-. This -ould not be acce*table on
CNC $achines.
The alternati9e $ost co$$onl& used is the re3circulatin" ball leadscre-. This t&*e of
leadscre- re*laces slidin" friction -ith rollin" friction. Foth the lead scre- and nut ha9e
a *recision "round for$ into -hich an endless strea$ of re3circulatin" balls -hich
co$*letel& fill the tracE is inserted. This t&*e of leadscre- has an efficienc& of u* to
+N.
The ad9anta"es of recirculatin" ball scre-s o9er 1c$e scre-s are:
517 lon"er life
527 less frictional resistance
5.7 lo-er torBue reBuired
547 $ore *recise *ositionin" of slides because bacElash is al$ost co$*letel&
eli$inated
Unit 11 1*
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure * 5 "e5circulating <all Leadscre3
Machine =uarding and &3arf Control
Man& CNC $achines *articularl& turnin" centres are al$ost totall& enclosed b& an
en9elo*e of elaborate "uardin". This is considered necessar& for the follo-in" reasons:
lar"e a$ounts of s-arf and cuttin" fluid are *resent in the cuttin" Hone.
the hi"h s*indle s*eeds and feed rates create hi"h forces -hich could cause serious
inLur& in the e9ent of a collision or tool breaEa"e.
these "uards are usuall& interlocEed -ith the control s&ste$ throu"h li$it s-itches
i.e. the s*indle -ill onl& o*erate -hen the "uards are full& closedI see Fi"ure 4.
Figure 4 5 Machine =uarding
Unit 11 14
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
&3arf Control
In con9entional $achiner& s-arf re$o9al is "i9en little consideration< it is usuall&
re$o9ed b& hand b& the $achinist. Cith the hi"h rates of $etal re$o9al< heat build u*
and the trend to-ards un$anned o*eration the *roble$ of s-arf re$o9al reBuires
consideration for CNC $achinin".
Man& $anufacturers build in s-arf re$o9al eBui*$ent as *art of the $achine such as
rotar& scre- or linear con9e&ors 5see Fi"ure 07 F.C. 4o-e9er< to a lar"e e)tent< the basic
desi"n of the $achine can assist "reatl& in s-arf control e.". slant3bed lathes 5Fi"ure 0a7
allo- the s-arf to fall a-a& fro$ the cuttin" Hone naturall&. S-arf re$o9al b& "ra9it&
alone is not al-a&s sufficient in itself. This can be assisted b& $ulti*le coolant Lets
around the cuttin" Hone -hich Eee* the tool free fro$ accu$ulated s-arf. 1t the end of a
$achine c&cle and before a ne- co$*onent is loaded the area can often be cleaned of
s-arf b& co$*ressed air Lets.
Figure / 5 &3arf "e!o.al Con.e$ors
Unit 11 1/
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Machine 26es
The *ri$ar& a)es of a $achine are desi"nated as ;< =< ? and can ha9e *ositi9e or
ne"ati9e 9alues.
The ?3a)is is al-a&s *arallel to the $ain s*indle of the $achine 5see Fi"ure 27. It does
not $atter -hether the s*indle carries the -orE*iece or the toolin"< therefore the ?3a)is
can be either 9ertical or horiHontal. #n $illin"< borin" and drillin" $achines the s*indle
is the tool rotatin" $eans -hile on c&lindrical "rinders and lathes the s*indle is the -orE
rotatin" $eans. Positi9e ?3$o9e$ent al-a&s increases the distance bet-een the -orE
and the tool.
The ;3a)is of $otion is horiHontal and *arallel to the -orE3holdin" surface. If ? is
horiHontal< *ositi9e ; is to the ri"ht looEin" fro$ the s*indle to-ards the -orE*iece. If ?
is 9ertical< -hen looEin" fro$ the s*indle to-ards its su**ortin" colu$n< *ositi9e ; is to
the ri"ht.
The =3a)is of $otion is *er*endicular to both the ; and ? a)es. Positi9e = is in the
direction -hich -ould $aEe a ri"ht3handed set of coordinates.
CNC lathes onl& ha9e t-o $aLor a)es ; and ?. There is no =3a)is.
Figure 6 5 >? @? A 26es
So$e CNC $achines ha9e additional a)es runnin" in *arallel -ith the $ain a)es.
Chere there is $ore than one $o9in" ele$ent in the sa$e a)is one is called the *ri$ar&
a)is and is desi"nated as ; = or ?. Secondar& $o9e$ents in the sa$e a)is are desi"ned
b& U 6 C in u**er case letters.
Unit 11 16
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
"ight5#and "ule B7ertical Milling MachineC
The directions of the $achine a)es are eas& to re$e$ber b& the ri"ht3hand rule:
Face the $achine and hold &our ri"ht hand as sho-n belo-< -ith the $iddle fin"er in the
direction of the tool a)is 5?7: the thu$b -ill *oint in the direction of the ; a)is and the
forefin"er in the direction of the = a)is.
Figure 7 5 "ight5#and "ule
Unit 11 17
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Control of &lide Mo.e!ent on C(C Machines
The control of slide *osition and 9elocit& of $o9e$ent can be either acco$*lished b&
o*en loo* 5non3ser9o7 or closed loo* 5ser9o7 $eans. In an o*en loo* s&ste$ the *osition
and 9elocit& of the slides are not $easured.
1 blocE dia"ra$ of an o*en loo* control is sho-n in Fi"ure :.
Figure % 5 1,en Loo, Control
#*en loo* s&ste$s ha9e no $eans of co$*arin" the final slide *osition -ith the *osition
in -hich it -as co$$anded to "o. 1 s*ecial t&*e of electric $otor Eno-n as a ste**er
$otor is usuall& used in o*en loo* s&ste$s to *ro9ide accurate *ositionin" and 9elocit&
control of slide $o9e$ent.
The *rinci*le of the ste**er $otor is that< u*on recei*t of a di"ital si"nal 5a *ulse7I the
s*indle -ill rotate throu"h a s*ecified an"le 5the ste*7. The ste* siHe is deter$ined b& the
desi"n of the $otor but -ill t&*icall& be bet-een 1.: and 8.0 de"rees. Thus< if t-o di"ital
*ulses are a**lied< then the s*indle rotor -ill rotate b& 2 ste*s< or b& bet-een ..2 and 10
de"rees de*endin" on the $otor desi"n. Thus< b& countin" 5electronicall&7 the nu$ber of
*ulses sent to the ste**er $otor< and b& Eno-in" the lead of the a)is leadscre-< the
distance tra9ersed can be accuratel& *redicted. There is no need for *ositional feedbacE.
6elocit& of the a)is $o9e$ent is deter$ined b& ho- BuicEl& the *ulses are sent to the
ste**er $otor 5the *ulse freBuenc&7. If the *ulses are sent 9er& ra*idl&< then the feed3rate
-ill be hi"hI if the *ulses are sent 9er& slo-l& then the feed3rate -ill be lo-. The s*eed at
-hich the *ulses are trans$itted can be accuratel& "o9erned b& the CNC control s&ste$.
Therefore there is no need for 9elocit& feedbacE.
In s*ite of these ad9anta"es of no feedbacE bein" necessar& there are so$e serious
disad9anta"es in usin" ste**er $otors on CNC $achine tools< i.e.:
If the $achine a)is is stalled throu"h o9erload the *ulses -ill continue to count and a
loss of *osition -ill occur
The $a)i$u$ *o-er out*ut fro$ ste**er $otors is relati9el& lo-
Fecause *ulse rate 5freBuenc&7 is li$ited the $a)i$u$ a)is feed rate is also restricted
therefore the ra*id tra9erse s*eeds achie9able are lo-
Unit 11 1%
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Fecause of these li$itations the ste**er $otor is onl& found on s$all lo- *o-ered
$achines and on retro3fitted $achines. 'etro3fitted $achines are con9entional $achine
tools -hich ha9e been fitted -ith CNC controllers.
Ser9o control reBuires both *ositional and 9elocit& feedbacE< i.e. the actual 9elocit& and
*osition of the slide-a& $ust be co$*ared to the co$$anded 9alues. 1 ser9o s&ste$
al-a&s for$s a closed loo* 5see Fi"ure 7. The de9ices -hich are used to *ro9ide the
feedbacE in the closed loo* are called transducers. 1 transducer is a de9ice -hich
con9erts one for$ of ener"& into another for$< e.". $echanical dis*lace$ent into an
electrical si"nal.
T-o t&*es of transducers are used on CNC $achines:
6elocit& transducer: The $ost co$$on 9elocit& transducer is the tacho3"enerator.
This is a de9ice si$ilar to a bic&cle d&na$o. It *ro9ides a 9olta"e *ro*ortional to its
s*eed. Tacho3"enerators usuall& co$e as an inte"ral *art of a ser9o $otor. The
9olta"e is used to *ro9ide feedbacE fro$ $otor s*eed and hence slide 9elocit&.
Position transducers: Slide-a& *osition is $easured b& transducers -hich can be
either linear or rotar&. !inear transducers o*erate b& $easurin" slide $o9e$ent.
'otar& transducers o*erate indirectl& b& $easurin" leadscre- rotation or $otor shaft
rotation and relatin" this to linear slide $o9e$ent.
The t&*es of $otor used for electrical ser9o s&ste$s can be either 1C or AC ser9o
$otors. 4&draulic ser9o s&ste$s are also used on so$e CNC $achines.
Figure ' 5 <locD iagra! Closed Loo, Control &$ste!
Unit 11 1'
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
2d.antages of C(C Machines
Aes*ite the e)tra costs in9ol9ed CNC $achines ha9e $an& ad9anta"es. These can be
su$$arised as follo-s:
"educed lead ti!e
!ead ti$e is the ti$e bet-een the recei*t of a desi"n s*ecification and the ti$e in
-hich $anufacture is read& to co$$ence. In $an& cases standard toolin" is all that is
reBuired. The need for s*ecial Li"s and fi)tures is al$ost co$*letel& eli$inated.
Si$*le -orE cla$*in" arran"e$ents are usuall& sufficient.
:li!ination of o,erator errors
'es*onsibilit& is transferred fro$ the o*erator to the *art *ro"ra$. Pro9ided the
*ro"ra$ is correct< this is al-a&s *ro9ed in ad9ance of *roduction and the $achine is
set u* *ro*erl& no errors -ill occur in the -orE. #*erator fati"ue< boredo$ or
inattention -ill not affect the Bualit& or the duration of $achinin".
Fle6ibilit$ in changes of co!,onent design
The $odification of a co$*onent desi"n can be 9er& easil& acco$$odated b&
alterin" the *art *ro"ra$. There $a& be no chan"es reBuired to Li"s and fi)tures
-hich -ould t&*icall& be the case for con9entional $achinin".
"educed scra, and ins,ection
()tre$e accurac& and re*eatabilit& of co$*onents *roduced are features of CNC
$achinin". It is usuall& onl& necessar& to ins*ect the first co$*onent. #nce the
*ro"ra$ has been *ro9ed the re*etiti9e accurac& of the $achine $aintains a
consistent *roduct.
The cost associated -ith ins*ection< re3-orE and scra* are al$ost eli$inated.
Co!,le6 one5offs and s!all batch Euantities
CNC finds its "reatest ad9anta"es in s$all batch Buantities and co$*le) one3offs.
Machinin" a s$all batch Buantit& is found to be econo$ical -ith CNC $achines
because of the fast chan"e3o9er ti$es. 1 *art *ro"ra$ can be *re*ared a-a& fro$ the
$achine -hile the $achine is still in *roduction. Stora"e of *ro"ra$s is not a
*roble$ and chan"e o9er fro$ one batch to another is achie9ed b& loadin" the correct
*art *ro"ra$. For co$*le) sha*ed one3off co$*onents and *roto3t&*es the CNC
$achine finds $an& a**lications because of the difficult& often encountered in
*roducin" these sha*es on con9entional $achines.
Lo3er Labour Cost
CNC $achines do not necessaril& o*erate at faster cuttin" s*eeds than con9entional
$achines< but $ore ti$e is nor$all& s*ent in actuall& cuttin" $etal because the set u*
ti$es are less. It is also *ossible for one o*erator to attend to $ore than one CNC
$achine at a ti$e.
2ccurate Costing and &cheduling
The ti$e taEen in $achinin" is *redictable and consistent -hich results in "reater
accurac& in esti$atin" and costin".
Unit 11 2)
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Part Progra!!ing
Part Progra!!ing
Cartesian Coordinates
The $ain difference bet-een CNC and con9entional is that CNC dra-in"s are usuall&
di$ensioned in Cartesian coordinates because this $aEes *ro"ra$$in" easier. The
Cartesian 'ectan"ular Coordinate S&ste$ for$s the basis of NC $easure$ent.
Usin" rectan"ular coordinates< an& s*ecific *oint in *h&sical s*ace can be described in
$athe$atical ter$s alon" t-o a)es 5; and =7. Cith this s&ste$< the location of an& *oint
on a flat surface or *lane can be defined $athe$aticall& -ith reference to t-o lines
5a)es7 in the sa$e *lane and *er*endicular to each other.
This coordinate s&ste$ can be e)tended to *er$it definin" the location of an& *oint in
three3di$ensional s*ace relati9e to three $utuall& *er*endicular *lanes. The *oint -ould
be defined b& three i$a"inar& *er*endicular *lanes -ith each a)is bein" the line of
intersection of t-o *lanes.
The intersection *oint of t-o a)es $arEs the ori"in *oint. The ori"in is surrounded b&
four Buadrants. (ach Buadrant consists of *ortions of the nu$ber lines for$in" each a)is.
The location of a coordinate *oint is s*ecified in relation to the *oint of ori"in -here the
a)es intersect. 1 t-o3di$ensional a**lication of this s&ste$ of coordinates is illustrated
in Fi"ure 1+.
Figure 1) 5 T3o5i!ensional "ectangular Coordinates
Unit 11 21
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
>? @ 0 A 26es
NC $illin" is carried out -ithin t-o *lanes defined b& three3a)es 5;< = and ?7. The ;
and = a)es consist of indi9idual nu$ber lines that are *er*endicular to each other and la&
-ithin the sa$e *lane. The ? a)is is created b& e)tendin" *lanes into s*ace abo9e< belo-
and *er*endicular to the ; and = a)es 5see Fi"ure 117.
Figure 11 5 >? @ and A 26es
In the Cartesian or ri"ht an"le coordinate s&ste$ all *oints can be described as either
incre$ental or absolute. In absolute $easure$ent each *oint is al-a&s taEen fro$ the
sa$e Hero. This *re9ents build u* of tolerances bet-een each di$ension.
In incre$ental di$ensionin" also Eno-n as chain di$ensionin" each *oint is taEen fro$
the *recedin" *osition. Fi"ure 12 sho-s the sa$e co$*onent di$ensioned in absolute
and in incre$ental.
Figure 12 5 2bsolute and +ncre!ental i!ensioning
Unit 11 22
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Incre$ental di$ensionin" is often discoura"ed because of the *ossibilit& of build u* in
tolerances bet-een indi9idual features. 4o-e9er on CNC $achines this *roble$ is
reduced because of the inherent accurac& and re*eatabilit& of the $achines.
In so$e cases incre$ental di$ensionin" is ad9anta"eous such as -here a *attern of holes
is re*eated at different locations on a -orE*iece. Most $achines can be *ro"ra$$ed
either in incre$ental or absolute $ode or s-itched fro$ one $ode to another durin"
*ro"ra$$in".
In absolute *ro"ra$$in" all a)is $o9e$ents are s*ecified in relation to a fi)ed datu$
*oint.
In incre$ental *ro"ra$$in" each a)is $o9e$ent is $easured fro$ the last *osition.
(ach *oint 9isited -hen $achinin" ser9es as the datu$ *oint for the ne)t *oint or
*ositional $o9e.
Polar Coordinates
This is -here features on a dra-in" are described b& a len"th and an an"le $easured
fro$ a s*ecific *oint. Fi"ure 1. sho-s an e)a$*le of Polar coordinate di$ensionin".
Figure 1* 5 i!ensioning in Polar Coordinates
Man& of the $ore $ode$ $achines allo- the use of *olar coordinates -hile
*ro"ra$$in". This can sa9e a considerable a$ount of ti$e in *ro"ra$$in" e.". if a
nu$ber of holes around a Pitch Circle Aia$eter 5PCA7 are to be drilled 3 see Fi"ure 14.
Figure 14 5 Pitch Circle ia!eter
If &ou -ere usin" Cartesian coordinates for this *ro"ra$ &ou -ould ha9e to -orE out the
coordinates for each of the hole centres usin" sine and cosine.
Unit 11 2*
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
&election of Aero Point
In order to define certain *oints on a -orE*iece in this $anner< &ou -ill first ha9e to
decide -here to *ut the coordinate s&ste$ on the -orE*iece< es*eciall& -here to *lace
the Hero *oint.
For $illin"< the Hero *oint 5or reference *oint7 of all di$ensions $a& be *laced an&-here
on the -orE*iece. !etKs call this Hero *oint K-orE*iece HeroK 5C?7 or -orE*iece datu$.
To sa9e trouble of unnecessar& calculations it is ad9isable to *lace -orE*iece Hero at that
*oint on a *art dra-in" on -hich $ost of the di$ensions are based. See e)a$*les Fi"ure
10 and Fi"ure 12.
1 -orE*iece datu$ $a&be defined as a *oint< line or surface fro$ -hich di$ensions are
referenced. It $a&or $a& not be -ithin the -orE*iece area.
The s&$bol used to denote -orE*iece Hero is:
Figure 1/ 5 :6a!,le of Aero Point 1,tions on ForD,iece
Figure 16 5 :6a!,les of Co!,onent 3ith Aero Point in ForD,iece Centre
Unit 11 24
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
For turnin" o*erations the ; a)is Hero is nor$all& *ositioned on the centreline of the
s*indle a)is. The ? a)is Hero can be *ositioned on the front face of the -orE*iece or on
the face of the -orE*iece or on the face of the chucE. See Fi"ure 18.
Figure 17 5 >) A) Positions for Turning 1,erations
Unit 11 2/
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
4uadrantal use for Milling
In *ro"ra$$in" it is easier to i$a"ine the tool is $o9in" around the -orE*iece rather
than the slide-a&s $o9in". Fi"ure 1: belo- sho-s ho- the O and 3 si"ns chan"e for ;
and = as &ou $o9e around the four Buadrants. ; 9alues to the ri"ht of the datu$ are
*ositi9e 5O7 and those to the left are ne"ati9e 537. = 9alues abo9e the datu$ are *ositi9e
5O7 and those belo- are ne"ati9e 537. ? 9alues abo9e the datu$ are *ositi9e and -hen the
tool $o9es belo- the datu$ it is ne"ati9e.
Figure 1% 5 2bsolute &igns for Four 4uadrants
In incre$ental *ro"ra$$in" ; O tells the tool to $o9e to the ri"ht fro$ -here it is no-
and ; 3 to the left. = O tells the tool to $o9e u* fro$ its *resent *osition and = 3 tells it to
$o9e do-n.
? O tells the tool to $o9e a-a& fro$ the -orE*iece and ? 3 tells the tool to $o9e to-ards
on into the -orE*iece.
Unit 11 26
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
4uadrantal use for Turning
The Buadrant in use durin" *ro"ra$$in" de*ends on -hether the $achine has a front or
rear $ounted tool *ost and -hether the *ro"ra$ Hero is on the chucE face or the
-orE*iece front face.
Figure 1' 5 "ear Tools Post Lathe
1bsolute di$ensions: If ;+ is on the chucE centreline and ?+ is on the chucE face then:
? $o9e$ents to-ards the chucE are ne"ati9e.
? $o9e$ents a-a& fro$ the chucE are *ositi9eI
; $o9e$ents on the other side a-a& fro$ the o*erator are *ositi9eI
; $o9e$ents to-ards the o*erator are ne"ati9e.
Incre$ental ; $o9e$ents to-ards the centreline are ne"ati9e. Incre$ental ; $o9e$ents
a-a& fro$ the centreline are *ositi9e.
Unit 11 27
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure 2) 5 Front Tool Post Lathe
Front $ounted tool *ost lathe ref. Fi"ure 2+.
1bsolute di$ensions:
? $o9e$ents to-ards the chucE are ne"ati9eI
? $o9e$ents a-a& fro$ the chucE are *ositi9eI
; $o9e$ents to-ards the o*erator on the side of the centreline nearest the o*erator
are *ositi9eI
; $o9e$ents a-a& fro$ the o*erator are ne"ati9e.
Incre$ental ; $o9e$ents to-ards the centreline are ne"ati9e. Incre$ental ; $o9e$ents
a-a& fro$ the centreline are *ositi9e.
Unit 11 2%
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
efinition of Points on a &urface
The sa$e identification letters 5;< =< ?7 can be used for definin" an& *oint on a
-orE*iece b& *lacin" the three a)es on the *art dra-in" as sho-n belo-:
Figure 21 5 efinition of Points on a &urface 1
1ll *oints on the -orE*iece surface are defined b& ; and = 9alues< -hile ? 9alues denote
the de*th of tool infeed.
Figure 22 5 efinition of Points on a &urface 2
!etPs start b& definin" *oints on the -orE*iece surface and for"et about the cuttin" de*th
5infeed7 for the $o$ent.
Unit 11 2'
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Chat -e need is a t-o3di$ensional coordinate s&ste$ constituted b& the ; a)is and the
= a)is.
Figure 2* 5 efinition of Points on a &urface *
1s alread& stated the *oint of intersection of these t-o a)es is called Hero. The arro-s
indicate the direction of *ositi9e $otions 5;O and =O7.
If a "raduated scale is *laced alon" each a)is< -e can define an& *oint on a surface b&
$eans of its ; and = 9alues.
1ll nu$erical 9alues in the directions of the arro-s carr& a *ositi9e si"nI all 9alues in the
o**osite directions a ne"ati9e si"n.
:6a!,le:
The *oints ha9e the follo-in" coordinates:
P1: ;1 =00
P2: ;40 =10
P.: ;8+ =0+
Unit 11 *)
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
ocu!entation
Progra! &heets
Part *ro"ra$$in" is nor$all& carried out b& usin" *re3*rinted *art *ro"ra$ sheets. These
sheets *ro9ide a neat and orderl& -a& of settin" out the *ro"ra$. The& also *ro9ide
*er$anent docu$entation of the Lob to be $achined. 1n e)a$*le of a *art *ro"ra$ sheet
is sho-n in Fi"ure 24. The sheets are laid out in such a -a& that the infor$ation can be
-ritten in b& hand and then the sheet can be *laced in a telet&*e and the *ro"ra$ can be
co*& t&*ed onto the second line and a *unched ta*e is *roduced at the sa$e ti$e. See
Fi"ure 24.
Coordinate &heets
Coordinate sheets are used as a su**le$ent to the *ro"ra$ sheet. 1ll rele9ant coordinates
are laid out on this sheet. 1 se*arate coordinate *oint -ill be s*ecified for each *oint
-here the cutter needs to chan"e direction. The sheet is useful as an aid in *ro"ra$
*ro9in" and for locatin" and editin" errors -hen the& occur.
1,eration &heet
This sheet is intended as an aid to the o*erator. It ite$ises each o*eration in seBuence and
identifies the tools reBuired for each o*eration and the tool settin"s.
Unit 11 *1
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure 24 5 Progra!!ing &heet
Unit 11 *2
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Part5Progra! For!at
The $achine control unit 5MCU7 controls the $achine in res*onse to coded co$$ands
-hich $aEe u* the *art *ro"ra$. These co$$ands are identified b& a ca*ital letter -hich
is referred to as an address. The co$$ands also contain nu$bers -hich follo- the letters.
The co$bination of the letter address and the nu$erical infor$ation is Eno-n as a -ord.
(ach line of a *ro"ra$ is called a blocE. 1 blocE $a& contain a nu$ber of -ords.
The for$at in -hich the -ords are arran"ed -ithin a blocE is Eno-n as the *art *ro"ra$
for$at. The order in -hich the -ords a**ear in a blocE $a& be fi)ed or 9ariable.
Fi6ed &eEuential For!at
The instructions in a blocE are al-a&s "i9en in the sa$e seBuence. 1ll instructions $ust
be "i9en in each blocE includin" instructions that do not chan"e fro$ blocE to blocE e.".
Table 1 5 Fi6ed &eEuential For!at
Tab &eEuential For!at
The instructions in a blocE are al-a&s "i9en in the sa$e seBuence as in the fi)ed
seBuential for$at. 4o-e9er if instructions re$ain unchan"ed in succeedin" blocEs the
instructions need not be re*eated but the tab character $ust be *unched to ensure that the
sa$e nu$ber of tab characters a**ear in each blocE e.".
Table 2 5 Tab &eEuential For!at
Unit 11 **
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Ford 2ddress
(ach -ord is *receded b& its letter address. This s&ste$ enables instructions -hich
re$ain unchan"ed fro$ the *recedin" blocE to be o$itted fro$ successi9e blocEs. This
for$at is ado*ted b& $ost CNC $achine control units e.".
Table * 5 Ford 2ddress
The address for$at refers to the for$ in -hich the -ords $ust taEe for e)a$*le:
N4: 4 di"its after N
/2: *re*arator& function K/K follo-ed b& 2 di"its
;4.: ;3di$ension follo-ed b& 4 di"its before the deci$al *oint and three di"its
follo-in" the deci$al *oint.
There is usuall& a $a)i$u$ of 8 di"its that can be -ritten for ;< = and ? a)es. 4o-e9er
not e9er& CNC control -ill allo- a deci$al *oint to be used and there are t-o other
$ethods of re*resentin" di$ensions as follo-s.
Leading Aero &u,,ression
This is the re$o9al or su**ression of an& Heros on the left of the nu$ber -hen -ritten
out in the se9en di"it for$at< e.". the di$ension 1.+.80 $$ -ritten in leadin" Hero
su**ression for$at 58 di"it entr&7.
8 di"it entr& 4 before< . after G +1.+ . 80+
deci$al *oint *osition of i$a"inar& deci$al *oint
-ith !eadin" Hero su**ression G 1.+80+
:. For a $achine control of this t&*e an ; di$ension of 1.+.80 -ould be -ritten as
>1*)7/)
Unit 11 *4
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Trailing Aero &u,,ression
Cith this s&ste$ an& Heros to the ri"ht of the deci$al *oint are re$o9ed or su**ressed.
So an ; di$ension of 1.+.80 -ould beco$e ;+1.+80 for a control -hich acce*ts
trailin" Hero su**ression.
The $aLorit& of $ode$ CNC $achines allo- the use of deci$al *oint *ro"ra$$in" i.e.
&ou Lust -rite the di$ension u* to a $a)i$u$ of 8 di"its.
Part Progra! Code Listings
N: FlocE seBuence nu$ber address. FlocEs are often inserted in ste*s of 0 to
allo- for blocEs to be inserted if accidentall& o$itted.
;< =< ?: These addresses si"nif& the ;< 6< ? a)es $o9e$ents.
I< Q< %: These addresses are used for *ro"ra$$in" circular $o9es
T: Tool nu$bers address. The *ro"ra$$er $ust assi"n a nu$ber e.". T+1 to
each tool used in the *ro"ra$.
S: S*indle s*eed address. The letter is follo-ed b& nu$bers -hich indicate
the s*indle s*eed.
F: Feed rate address 3 follo-ed b& nu$bers as in s*indle s*eed.
M8 Miscellaneous Functions
These are $achine $ana"e$ent functions such as startin" and sto**in". The M letter is
follo-ed b& 2 di"its. The co$$on standardised M functions are as follo-s:
M++: *ro"ra$ sto*
M+2: end of *ro"ra$
M.+: end of *ro"ra$ -ith re-ind to *ro"ra$ start
M+:: flood coolant on
M+: coolant off
M+2: tool chan"e
M+.: s*indle on clocE-ise
M+4: s*indle on anti3clocE-ise
M+0: s*indle off
M+8: $ist coolant on
Unit 11 */
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
=8 Pre,arator$ Function 2ddresses
/ functions are *re*arator& functions used to chan"e the $ode of $o9e$ent of the
$achine< such as ra*id slide $o9e$ent< circular $o9e$ent< controlled feed rate< absolute
or incre$ental $o9e$ent etc. The code consists of the letter / follo-ed t-o di"its. So$e
co$$on standardised / functions are as follo-s:
/++: ra*id slide $o9e$ent
/+1: linear inter*olation
/+2: circular inter*olation clocE-ise
/+.: circular inter*olation anti3clocE-ise
/+4: d-ell
/4+: cancel cutter radius co$*ensation
/41: cutter co$*ensation left
/42: cutter co$*ensation ri"ht
/8+: inch units
/81: $etric units
/+: absolute coordinates
/1: incre$ental coordinates
N Pro"ra$ start character. Used at the be"innin" of a *ro"ra$ to indicate the start.
So$e co$$and functions are $odal -hich $eans that the co$$and re$ains in effect
until cancelled or su*erseded b& a co$$and of the sa$e t&*e.
Control of &lide Mo.e!ent
There are t-o basic t&*es of slide $o9e$ent -hich are usuall& a**lied on CNC $achines
as follo-s:
*oint3to3*oint control
continuous *ath
Point3to3Point Control is used -here the $achine slide is reBuired to reach a *articular
*oint in the shortest *ossible ti$e. N# $achinin" taEes *lace -hile the slide is $o9in".
Point3to3Point Control -ould be suitable for $achines -hich are onl& used for drillin" or
borin" i.e. no $achinin" is taEin" *lace as the slide is $o9in" fro$ the centre line of one
hole to the coordinate *osition of the ne)t. The *ath the tool or slide taEes in "ettin" fro$
one *oint to the ne)t is uni$*ortant. Chen the $achine is o*eratin" in *oint3to3*oint
$ode the /++ *re*arator& function is o*erational.
Continuous Path Control can taEe the for$ of !inear or Circular Inter*olation.
Inter*olation is the *rocess of Loinin" u* *ro"ra$$ed *oints to "enerate a s$ooth *ath.
Unit 11 *6
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
If the se"$ents Loinin" the *oints are strai"ht lines the *rocess is called !inear
Inter*olation. If the se"$ents Loinin" the *oints are arcs of circles the *rocess is called
Circular Inter*olation. 1n& $achinin" o*eration -here the tool is cuttin" as the slides are
$o9in" in a controlled $anner reBuires continuous *ath control.
Linear +nter,olation
!inear inter*olation $eans $achinin" in a strai"ht line. This can be either horiHontal<
9ertical or at an an"le in an& direction. The /+1 code is entered into the control -ith a
feed rate 9alue e.". N2< /+1< ;2++< =14+< F4++.
Figure 2/ 5 Linear +nter,olation
In blocE No.2 the tool tra9els alon" a strai"ht line fro$ current *osition 5S7 to P2 at a
feed rate of 4++ $$D$in. 5see Fi"ure 207.
Circular inter*olation refers to the *ro"ra$$in" of circular arcs u* to a co$*lete circle.
In order to *ro"ra$ an arc -ith in*ut in Cartesian coordinates the data in*ut is "uided b&
the control u*on in*uttin" the co$$and /+2 or /+.. The control -ill reBuest:
;: 1st coordinate of tar"et *oint
=: 2nd coordinate of tar"et *oint
I: 1st coordinate of circle centre
Q: 2nd coordinate of circle centre
I is used to s*ecif& the centre of the arc in the ; direction
Q is used to s*ecif& the centre of the arc in the = direction
% is used to s*ecif& the centre of the arc in the ? direction
Note: So$e $achine control units reBuire the I< Q and % 9alues to be "i9en incre$entall&.
Unit 11 *7
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure 26 5 :6a!,le of =)* Co!!and in use
Unit 11 *%
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure 27 5 :6a!,le of =)2 Co!!and in use
Unit 11 *'
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
=eo!etr$ and Trigono!etr$
+!,ortant =eo!etrical Theore!s
Chords and Circles: If t-o chords of a circle intersect< either -ithin or -ithout the circle<
the *roduct of the t-o se"$ents or one chord is eBual to the *roduct of the t-o se"$ents
of the other chord.
Fi"ure 2: sho-s at 5a7 the chords intersectin" inside the circle< at 5b7 the chords
intersectin" outside the circle< and at 5c7 the s*ecial case of one chord Lust touchin" a
circle so that the chord is a tan"ent.
Figure 2% 5 +!,ortant =eo!etric Theore!s
In Fi"ure 2:5a7 and 5b7: #1 ) #F G #C ) #A
In Fi"ure 2:5c7: 5#17M G #C ) #A
1n i$*ortant a**lication occurs -hen one chord is the dia$eter of the circle< the other
chord intersectin" the dia$eter at ri"ht an"les -ith the circle< as sho-n in Fi"ure 22.
The chord 1F is bisected and 1# G #F.
!et A G dia$eter of circle<
C G len"th of chord 1F< and h G hei"ht of se"$ent.
Unit 11 4)
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
1# ) #F G #( ) #C
:. CD2 ) CD2 G 5A h7 h
and CMD4 G Ah 3 hM
:. CM G 4 5Ah 3 hM7
and C G 2R 5Ah 3 hM7
If A is reBuired< usin" CMD4 G Ah 3 hM
Ah G CMD4 O hM
A G CMD4h O h
Unit 11 41
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
+ntersecting &traight Lines
If t-o strai"ht lines intersect< 9erticall& o**osite an"les are eBual. In Fi"ure 25a7 an"les
1 are eBual< and an"les F are eBual.
If a strai"ht line intersects t-o *arallel strai"ht lines< corres*ondin" an"les on the sa$e
side of the line are eBual. In Fi"ure 25b7< an"les 1 are eBual< and an"les F are eBual.
Figure 2' 5 +ntersecting &traight Lines
If the abo9e t-o theore$s are co$bined< then in Fi"ure 25c7 all four an"les 1 are eBual
and all four an"les F are eBual.
Unit 11 42
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Triangles
1 trian"le is a *lane area bounded b& three strai"ht lines. Trian"les can be classified into
three t&*es. (Builateral trian"les ha9e sides of eBual len"thI isosceles trian"les ha9e t-o
sides of eBual len"th< -hilst scalene trian"les ha9e sides of different len"ths. 1 trian"le
-hich contains a ri"ht3an"le is ter$ed a ri"ht3an"led trian"le. Such a trian"le -ould be
isosceles if the sides containin" the ri"ht3an"le -ere of eBual len"th.
Fi"ure .+ sho-s a trian"le 1FC< -ith 1C continued to A. and C( dra-n *arallel to 1F.
F& use of the theore$s stated earlier:
SFC( G S1FC
and S(CA G SF1C
Figure *) 5 Triangles
The su$ of the three an"les in the trian"le therefore is the sa$e as
SFC1 O SFC( O S(CA G S1CA
1CA is a strai"ht line of 1:+T 5i.e. t-o ri"ht3an"les7I hence the su$ of the three an"les in
a trian"le is 1:+T.
Si$ilar trian"les are trian"les -hich ha9e the three an"les in one trian"le eBual to the
three an"les of the other< -hereas con"ruent trian"les are eBual in all res*ects.
ConseBuentl&< the areas of con"ruent trian"les are eBual< but the areas of si$ilar trian"les
are not. The corres*ondin" sides of si$ilar trian"les are *ro*ortional to each other.
Unit 11 4*
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
T-o si$ilar trian"les are sho-n belo-< for -hich:
1F G FC G C1
1
1
F
1
F
1
C
1
C
1
1
1
Tri"ono$etr& literall& $eans the $easure$ent of trian"les. In order that *articular an"les
andDor sides $a& be indicated *recisel&< it is con9entional *ractice to letter the an"les
-ith ca*ital letters and the sides -ith s$all letters. Further$ore< side a is o**osite an"le
1< side & o**osite an"le = and so on. This standard con9ention is illustrated in the fi"ure
belo-.
Unit 11 44
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
P$thagoras Theore!
This theore$ can be used to find the len"th of one side of a ri"ht an"led trian"le if the
len"ths of the other t-o sides are Eno-n.
The theore$ states that if -e taEe the len"ths of the t-o s$aller sides of a ri"ht an"led
trian"le< sBuare the$ and then add the$ to"ether the result -ill be eBual to the len"th of
the lon"est side 5the h&*otenuse7 sBuared.
In the trian"le 1FC belo- this can be e)*ressed $athe$aticall& as follo-s:
1FM G 1CM O FCM
:. In order to find the len"th of 1 F -e can sa&:
1F G R1CM O FCM
F& trans*osin" the for$ula -e can find the len"th of an& side if the len"ths of the other
t-o are Eno-n.
The Theore$ of P&tha"oras states that the sBuare on the h&*otenuse of a ri"ht an"le is
eBual to the su$ of the sBuares on the other t-o sides.
()a$*le: In the trian"le 1FC sho-n< the len"th 1C G 10 and CF G 2+. Calculate the
len"th of 1 F 5h&*otenuse7:
1FM G 1CM O CFM
1FM G 220 O 4++
1F G R220
1F G 20
Unit 11 4/
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Trigono!etr$
The ratios of the len"ths of the sides in si$ilar ri"ht3an"led trian"les are al-a&s the sa$e<
*ro9ided the an"les in each case are the sa$e. The& ate called tri"ono$etrical ratios. In
order to be able to differentiate -hich sides and -hich an"les are bein" considered a
s*ecial notation and -ordin" is used as follo-s:
Trigono!etrical "atios
sine of an"le G o**osite
h&*otenuse
cosine of an"le G adLacent
h&*otenuse
tan"ent of an"le G o**osite
adLacent
The use of tri" ratios is li$ited to the solution of ri"ht an"led trian"les onl&.
Unit 11 46
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
&olution of "ight52ngled Triangles
In sol9in" *roble$s in9ol9in" the use of tri"ono$etr& a useful $ethod of a**roach is to
asE t-o Buestions:
5a7 is there a ri"ht3an"led trian"le< if soI
5b7 b& -hat ratio $ust I $ulti*l& the Eno-n side to obtain the unEno-n side i.e. -hat
it unEno-n
ratio G unEno-n
Eno-n side
()a$*le:
In a ri"ht3an"led trian"le< the h&*otenuse is of len"th
12 $$ and one an"le is 8.T. Chat is the len"th of the
shortest side,
#ne an"le is +T< another is 8.T< since the an"les in a trian"le add u* to 1:+T< the other
an"le is: 1:+T 3 5+T O 8.T7 G 1:+T 3 12:T G 18T.
The shortest side -ill be o**osite the s$allest an"leI it -ill be side a in the fi"ure abo9e.
The reBuired $ulti*lier of the Eno-n side is:
ratio G unEno-n G side o**osite 1 G sin 1 G sin 18T
Eno-n side h&*otenuse
The ans-er is:
Eno-n side ) sin 18T G 12 sin 18T G 12 ) +.224 5fro$ Tri". tables7
1ns-er: G ..0+::
&ine "ule
The sine rule can be used to sol9e *roble$s of trian"les that are not ri"ht an"led
trian"les. The sine rule states:
a G b G c
Sin 1 Sin F Sin C
a is the line o**osite an"le 1
b is the line o**osite an"le F
c is the line o**osite an"le C
1n& t-o ter$s can be used to"ether:
i.e. a G c
Sin 1 Sin C etc.
Unit 11 47
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
To find the len"th 1F in the trian"le abo9e *roceed as follo-s:
an"le C G 1:+T 3 51++T O 4+T7 G 4+T
a G c fro$ Sine 'ule
Sin 1 Sin C
FC G 1F sine rule a**lied
Sin 1 Sin C
1F G Sin C ) FC re3arran"ed for 1F
Sin 1
G 4+ ) 2+ substitute Eno-n 9alues
Sin 1++
G +.242: ) 2+ fro$ sine tables
.:4:
G ..12. $$
Unit 11 4%
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
The Cosine "ule
The cosine rule states that in an& trian"le -hether it is ri"ht3an"led or not< the sBuare of a
*articular side is the su$ of the sBuare of the other t-o sides $inus t-ice the *roduct of
the other t-o sides and the cosine of the an"le o**osite the *articular side. Critten as an
eBuation this beco$es:
aM G bM O cM 3 2bc cos 1
or
bM G aM O cM 3 2ac cos F
or
cM G aM O bM 3 2ab cos C
This for$ of the eBuation is used to find the third side of a non ri"ht3an"led trian"le -hen
the other t-o sides and the included an"le is Eno-n.
()a$*le:
cM G aM O bM 3 2bc cos C
G 1+.2M O :.8M 3 251+.27 5:.87 cos 2T
c G RU1+.2M O :.8M 3 251+.27 5:.87 cos 2TV
G 11.+ $$
Unit 11 4'
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
ata +n,ut-&torage and Progra! Pro.ing
ata +n,ut-&torage and Progra! Pro.ing
The $ain $ethods -hich can be used to in*ut data into a CNC control unit are:
Punched ta*e and ta*e reader
Ma"netic ta*e
Ma"netic disc
4ost co$*uter
Manual data in*ut
Punched Ta*e: This is a lo- cost $ethod of data in*ut. The ta*e is a9ailable in rolls or
can be fan folded.
Figure *1 5 &ection of Punched Ta,e
Punched ta*e is a9ailable $ade fro$ *a*er< *ol&ester< *a*erD*ol&ester la$inates< or
*ol&esterDalu$iniu$ foil la$inates.
Punched ta*e has certain ad9anta"es such as: sho* floor suited i.e. insensiti9e to $a"netic
fields or oil conta$ination. It can also be read 9isuall& b& an e)*erienced *erson. Ta*e
da$a"e is also i$$ediatel& noticeable.
Unit 11 /)
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
The disad9anta"es of *unched ta*e are the s*rocEet holes tend to -ear or tear -ith use.
The stora"e densit& is lo- and the ta*e is not erasable and re3usable.
Ta*e readers: The function of the ta*e reader is to detect the *resence and *osition of
holes in the ta*e. There are three different t&*es of ta*e reader:
1. Pneu$atic
2. Mechanical
.. Photo3electric
Magnetic Ta,es and iscs
Ma"netic ta*e is a chea* and con9enient $ethod of storin" lar"e 9olu$es of data in a
s$all s*ace. Ta*e cassettes are eas& to handle and store. It can also be erased and re3
-ritten as reBuired. The ta*e recorder fulfils the tasE of both the ta*e *unch and ta*e
reader since it can record and *la&bacE.
4o-e9er it is i$*ossible for an o*erator to Eno- if a ta*e contains an& infor$ation or not
b& 9isual ins*ection. Ma"netic ta*es can also be erased accidentall& in the *resence of a
$a"netic field.
Magnetic iscs
The data transfer rate is faster for a disc than $a"netic ta*e. The access ti$e< to stored
data is faster because the disc is a rando$ access de9ice. That is an& sin"le *iece of data
recorded on the disc can be accessed as easil& and as BuicEl& as an& other.
#ost Co!,uter
The *rocess of transferrin" *art *ro"ra$s fro$ a host co$*uter into the $e$or& of a
CNC $achine tool is called Airect Nu$erical Control 5ANC7. 1 nu$ber of $achine tools
of different t&*es can be in9ol9ed.
Manual ata +n,ut BM+C
This is a ter$ used to describe the $ethod of enterin" data into the $achine control unit
usin" the console Ee&*ad. The enterin" of co$*lete *ro"ra$s other than relati9el& short
ones is not *ractical as the $achine is idle -hile data is bein" entered on $ost $achines.
The $ost co$$on use of MAI is for editin" *ro"ra$s and for $achine setu*. This has
the ad9anta"e that once edited the ne- *ro"ra$ can be sa9ed or re3*unched
auto$aticall& b& out*uttin" to the ta*e *unch.
Unit 11 /1
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Progra! Pro.ing
Fefore a *ro"ra$ is used it should be K*ro9edK to checE that the desired o*eration -ill
taEe *lace. The conseBuences of not *ro9in" a *art *ro"ra$ ran"e fro$ da$a"e to the
co$*onents and toolin"< catastro*hic da$a"e to the $achine tool or serious inLur& to the
o*erator or other obser9ers. The follo-in" $ethods can be used to *ro9e a *ro"ra$.
r$ "un
This in9ol9es runnin" the *ro"ra$ in auto$atic $ode -ithout the co$*onent installed in
the chucE or on the $achine table. The *ur*ose is to 9erif& the tool *ath.
Plotter
1 relati9el& si$*le -a& of checEin" the *ro"ra$$ed co$*onent *rofile is to substitute a
*en ti* for the cuttin" tool. For a $illin" o*eration a t-o di$ensional trace of the cutter
*ath $a& be *roduced on *a*er b& *lacin" a board on to* of the $achine table.
&ingle &te, or &te,,ing
This in9ol9es the o*eration Jste**in"J throu"h the *ro"ra$ line b& line and actuall&
cuttin" a co$*onent one ste* at a ti$e. 1fter each ste* the ne)t $o9e$ent is carefull&
checEed before e)ecution.
Co!,uter =ra,hics
The *ro"ra$ is fed into a co$*uter usin" the Ee&board< flo**& disc or ta*e. The
co$*uter "ra*hics are then used to si$ulate a test run. The correct siHed blanE a**ears on
the screen and usin" ani$ated tool $o9e$ents it is $achined to final sha*e and siHe
accordin" to the *ro"ra$ data.
Unit 11 /2
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
C(C &etting 0 1,eration
ForD,iece and Tool &etting
The $achine datu$ is the *oint -ithin the $achineKs ran"e of $o9e$ent fro$ -hich the
$achine $aEes its *ro"ra$$ed di$ensional $o9es. It is an e)act *oint on each a)is that
the $achine can find e9en after *o-er loss 3 this is the *oint the $achine slides $o9e to
-hen &ou reference the $achine. It is often called the Hero datu$ or the $achine
reference *oint. Three a)is $achines usuall& ha9e the ? a)is datu$ *osition as the
s*indle full& retracted. Chen a -orE*iece is cla$*ed on the $Dc table the -orE*iece
datu$ and the $achine datu$ -ill not nor$all& coincide. In order to relate the t-o a
floatin" Hero facilit& is *ro9ided. This $eans that the o*erator can arbitraril& desi"nate as
Hero an& *oint on each a)es -ithin the ran"e of slide dis*lace$ent.
Figure *2 5 Machine atu! and ForD,iece atu!
Unit 11 /*
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
&etting 26is atu!s
#n CNC $achines e$*lo&in" full& floatin" datu$ facilities it is co$$on to *osition the
-orE*iece or -orEholdin" de9ice on the $achine table< for con9enience. The tool< or
settin" *robe< is then Lo""ed $anuall& to touch the co$*onent in each a)is in turn. Cith
the tool or settin" *robe in the correct settin" *osition 5co$*onent datu$ *osition7< one
of t-o actions $a& be taEen. The choice -ill de*end on the $achine tool.
The first action in9ol9es settin" the rele9ant a)is re"ister to Hero< b& enterin" at the
console. 1 button $arEed Ka)is HeroK $a& also ha9e to be de*ressed to confir$ the action.
Thereafter< the $achine Hero *osition is assu$ed to be that *oint. 1ll subseBuentl&
*ro"ra$$ed *ositional $o9es -ill be $ade -ith reference to this Hero *oint.
The second action is *erha*s $ore *re9alent on CNC turnin" centres. 1t start3u*< $an&
turnin" centres send their slides to a Eno-n *osition nor$all& at the e)tre$es of their
a)is $o9e$ents. Chen at this *osition< indicated b& li$it s-itches detectin" the li$its of
tra9el< the control unit KEno-sK that the slides are at Eno-n di$ensions fro$ the $achine
datu$ *oint. This $a& be< for e)a$*le< :++ $$ fro$ the bacE face of the chucE in the ?3
a)is< and 0++ $$ fro$ the centre3line of the s*indle in the ;3a)is. The e)act di$ensions
-ill< of course< 9ar& fro$ $achine to $achine. The tool can then be Lo""ed to touch on
the co$*onent as *re9iousl& described. The di$ensions sho-in" on the a)is read3outs
are then subtracted fro$ the Eno-n Kli$its of tra9elK di$ensions. The resultin" 9alues are
then entered into a)is offset re"isters -ithin the CNC control unit. In a roundabout -a&
this creates the datu$ *osition for the tool ti*. The datu$ *ositions are not initialised to
;+ and ?+ ho-e9erI the& are co$*uted 5-ithin the control unit7 fro$ the Eno-n Kli$its
of tra9elK di$ensions< and the 9alues contained in the a)is offset re"isters.
'e"ardless of the actual *rocedure< the *art *ro"ra$$er *ro"ra$s the *art fro$ a datu$
*oint relatin" to the co$*onent. The *ositionin" of the co$*onent at the $achine< and a
si$ilar $anoeu9re to those described abo9e and then reconciles the *osition of the
co$*onent to the datu$ *ositions set at the $achine tool. @uite ob9iousl&< the correct
*rocedure for each indi9idual $achine $ust be follo-ed. To this end< the
o*eratin"Dsettin" $anual for the indi9idual $achine $ust be thorou"hl& studied.
Unit 11 /4
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
ForDholding e.ices
CorEholdin" de9ices can be broadl& di9ided into t-o cate"ories:
1. those -hich hold rotatin" -orE*ieces andI
2. those -hich hold fi)ed -orE*ieces on $achines -hich use rotatin" cuttin" tables.
Categor$ 1
ChucDs
ChucEs $a& be $anuall& o*erated or *o-er assisted. It is $ore co$$on for *o-er3
assisted chucEs to be used for CNC -orE -here the e$*hasis is on s*eed of loadin" and
unloadin". Po-er assistance $a& be b& *neu$atic or h&draulic o*eration< the latter bein"
used for lar"er a**lications. /reater "ri**in" *o-er is obtained usin" h&draulics since the
h&draulic fluid is essentiall& inco$*ressible. Such chucEs ha9e a La- $o9e$ent of onl& a
fe- $illi$etres and so $ust be initiall& set for the dia$eter of -orE*iece bein"
$achined. 1uto$atic chucEs are nor$all& o*erated b& a foot *edal but a KchucE enableK
button< on the o*eratin" console< has to be de*ressed before the chucE can be released.
This is a safet& de9ice to *re9ent accidental $is3o*eration of the chucE. Far feeders $a&
be e$*lo&ed -here $an& identical co$*onents are reBuired< and the ra- $aterial can be
obtained in bar stocE for$.
Chen loadin" co$*onents into chucEs< it is desirable to locate the co$*onent a"ainst the
bacE face of the chucE< or a suitabl& desi"ned s*acer. This ensures *ositi9e location to
resist the a**lied cuttin" forces. Chere the co$*onent is not bacEed u* in this -a&< the
o*eration is rel&in" on the frictional location *ro9ided b& the chucE La-s alone.
Collets
Collets or collet chucEs are BuicE3actin" fi)ed3dia$eter -orE3holdin" de9ices. The& are
desi"ned for holdin" close dia$eter round co$*onents. If co$*onents are to be
$achined fro$ len"ths of bri"ht bar< the bar stocE can be fed throu"h the centre of the
collet onto a fi)ed sto*. Collets offer BuicE< *ositi9e and constant re3chucEin" and afford
a -ide area of contact for "ri**in". Fecause the& are of fi)ed dia$eter< a set is reBuired
to acco$$odate different3dia$eter -orE*ieces. Collets $a& ha9e La-s of different for$s
to acco$$odate different sections of co$*onents.
Unit 11 //
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure ** 5 Collet etails
Collets o*erate on the *rinci*le of $o9in" alon" a ta*er. There are different desi"ns in
that the ta*er $a& be *ushed 5as in a *ush3out collet7< or *ulled 5as in a dra-3bacE collet7.
The& $a& be $anuall& o*erated or *o-er assisted.
Far feeders are useful additions to a collet set u* for s*eed of co$*onent feedin". The bar
stocE is fed throu"h the collet auto$aticall& for each ne- co$*onent.
Collet details are illustrated in Fi"ure ...
Turning Fi6tures
Chere the co$*onent is unusuall& lar"e or irre"ular 5as in the case of castin"s or
for"in"s7< s*ecial3*ur*ose turnin" fi)tures $a& ha9e to be desi"ned. The fi)tures -ill
then be $ounted directl& onto the s*indle of the $achine itself< or on a face*late $ounted
on the s*indle. It -ould be unusual to e$*lo& face*lates alone on CNC $achines since
the settin"3u* ti$e -ould be *rohibiti9el& lon". 'obotic de9ices can easil& co*e -ith
loadin" and unloadin" *ur*ose3desi"ned fi)tures e$*lo&in" *o-er o*erated cla$*in"
de9ices.
Unit 11 /6
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Categor$ 2
ForDholding e.ices on Machines :!,lo$ing "otating Cutters
In all cases the -orEholdin" de9ice should be *ositioned at the centre of the -orEtable in
the ;3a)is on $achinin" centres and $illin" $achines. This ensures the "reatest su**ort
and $ini$ises an& static deflection of the $achine table due to the -ei"ht of the
co$*onent and the -orEholdin" de9ice. Si$ilarl&< *ositionin" the -orEholdin" de9ice as
near to the colu$n of the $achine as *racticable $ini$ises an& deflection of the $achine
tool structure due to the effects of o9erhan". The direction of the cuttin" forces should
al-a&s be directed to-ards a *ositi9e< fi)ed location. Ao-els are useful location de9ices
in this res*ect since the& offer *ositi9e location in all directions. Finall&< if there is
fle)ibilit& to *osition the -orE*iece or the table< other factors that $i"ht be considered
concern the ease of loadin" and unloadin" and the ease of s-arf re$o9al fro$ the cuttin"
Hone. The co$*onent should be *ositioned such that the cuttin" action directs the
$achined s-arf a-a& fro$ the o*erator. So$e co$$on -orEholdin" $ethods are
discussed belo-.
Machine 7ice: The $ost 9ersatile -orEholdin" de9ice for s$all *ris$atic co$*onents is
the fa$iliar $achine 9ice. This offers si$*licit&< 9ersatilit&< ri"idit&I it can easil& be
ada*ted to *o-er3assisted o*eration and it is readil& a9ailable in a ran"e of siHes at a
reasonable cost. ()tra fle)ibilit& $a& be offered b& the use of a s-i9el 9ice 5allo-in"
rotation in the horiHontal *lane7< or a uni9ersal 9ice 5allo-in" rotation in both horiHontal
and 9ertical *lanes7. The 9ice should be cla$*ed to the -orEtable in such a -a& that the
co$*onent is *ositi9el& located 5to resist cuttin" forces7 a"ainst the fi)ed La- of the 9ice.
'el&in" on the frictional location of the 9ice La-s is not reco$$ended. S*eciall&
$achined re*laceable 9ice La-s can enhance the location and cla$*in" abilit& of the
$achine 9ice< at $ini$al cost.
Cla!,ing :le!ents: Cla$*in" ele$ents co$*rise a ran"e of $odular co$*onents
-hich can be asse$bled to for$ -orEholdin" de9ices. 1 $ini$u$ set -ould include a
ran"e of studs< nuts< -ashers< cla$*in" stri*s< *acEin" *ieces or ste**ed blocEs< tee3
nutsDbolts< etc. The&Kre nor$all& used in conLunction -ith other standard ite$s of
-orEsho* eBui*$ent for su**ortin" the -orE 3 for e)a$*le< *arallel bars< 9ee3blocEs<
an"le *lates and so on.
Unit 11 /7
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Figure *4 5 Cla!,ing &et 1,eration
The $ost co$$on set3u*s are those of the Kbrid"eK or Kstra*K cla$*in" arran"e$ent or an
Ked"eK cla$*in" arran"e$ent. The latter is *referred -here it is reBuired to $achine the
-hole of the to* face of a co$*onent -ithout necessitatin" an inter$ediate cla$*
chan"e. These are illustrated in Fi"ure .4. Chen used in these confi"urations< certain
*oints should be obser9ed:
Position studsDbolts as close as *ossible to the -orE*iece.
PacE the rear of the cla$* until it is le9el -ith< or sli"htl& hi"her than< the hei"ht of
the -orE*iece ne9er lo-erW
Position cla$*s so that the stud is closer to the -orE*iece than it is to the *acEin"
blocE.
Select studs that are as short as *ossible but lon" enou"h for the nut to be full&
en"a"ed on the thread.
1l-a&s use s*herical cla$*in" -ashers underneath the cla$*in" nuts.
(nsure that all cla$*s and *acEin" are clear of< and do not i$*ede< the intended
cutter *ath.
1l-a&s cla$* on a solid *art of the -orE*ieceI use su**ortin" de9ices -here
necessar&.
Use $ore than one cla$*.
Fefore $o9in" cla$*s< after *artial $achinin"< ensure that one or $ore other cla$*s
are still holdin" the -orE*iece in *osition.
S*rin"s should be inserted bet-een the $achine table and the stra* cla$* to su**ort
the cla$* durin" loadin" and unloadin".
Unit 11 /%
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
The selection and usa"e of cla$*in" sets is lar"el& a $anual o*eration. It is *ossible to
auto$ate the o*eration b& usin" s$all *neu$atic c&linders instead of cla$*in" nuts.
The& find "reatest a**lication in CNC -orE -here co$*onents can be loaded a-a& fro$
the $achine on sub3tables or *allets. 'ead&3loaded *allets can then be e)chan"ed ra*idl&
at the $achine tool.
Fi6tures
S*ecial3*ur*ose fi)tures are often e$*lo&ed. The decision to desi"n and $anufacture
such a fi)ture -ill de*end on such factors as:
5a7 The siHe< sha*e and for$ of the co$*onent or ra- $aterial.
5b7 Suitabilit&< or other-ise< for efficient -orEholdin" 5and settin"7 b& other $eans.
5c7 The nu$ber of co$*onents reBuired and the liEelihood of re*eat orders.
5d7 1ntici*ated increase in *roducti9it&.
5e7 ProLected cost of *roducin" the fi)ture.
5f7 The need to coordinate -orEholdin" -ith auto$ated loadin" and unloadin" of
co$*onents.
5"7 The *ossibilit& of $achinin" a nu$ber of co$*onents at the sa$e set3u*.
5h7 The need to *ro9ide e)tra de"rees of $o9e$ent not *ro9ided b& the $achine tool
itself. For e)a$*le< rotar& inde)in" of co$*onents.
If a fi)ture is to be s*eciall& desi"ned< it is a "ood idea to incor*orate so$e $eans for
establishin" the ;+< =+< ?+ datu$ *osition for settin" the cuttin" tool. This could taEe the
for$ of a si$*le hardened and "round settin" blocE -hich for$s *art of the fi)ture but
does not interfere -ith the $achinin" o*erations. The o*erator -ould then KtouchK on to
the settin" blocE and set the a**ro*riate a)is re"isters to Hero.
1ther ForDholding e.ices
Man& ad9anced CNC $achinin" centres are eBui**ed -ith the ca*abilit& to *erfor$
si$ultaneous $achinin" o*erations in $ore than three a)es. ()tra a)es of $otion $a&
include rotar& $otions about the *ri$ar& linear a)es ;< = and ?. Chere such ca*abilit&
e)ists< e)tre$e fle)ibilit& for the *roduction of co$*le) co$*onents is *ro9ided. Chere
it does not e)ist< it $a& be necessar& to fall bacE on traditional -orEholdin" de9ices to
*ro9ide the e)tra a)es of $o9e$ent. In this cate"or& are the di9idin" head< rotar& table<
adLustable an"le *late< and so on.
In "eneral< such de9ices are not full& co$*atible -ith the conce*t of CNC $achinin"
techniBues. 4o-e9er the s*ecific a**lication -ill deter$ine their use.
Unit 11 /'
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
Machine 1,erating Considerations
S-arf re$o9al fro$ the cuttin" area $a& ha9e to be carried out durin" $achinin". The
*ro"ra$ c&cle $a& ha9e to be sto**ed at *re3deter$ined inter9als usin" *ro"ra$ codes
to enable the o*erator to clean a-a& s-arf.
:!ergenc$ &hutdo3ns
Fefore usin" the $achine the o*erator $ust be a-are of the location of the e$er"enc&
sto* button or buttons. ($er"enc& sto*s in9ariabl& reBuire the *ro"ra$ and cuttin" tool
to be re3set at the *ro"ra$ start *osition before $achinin" can re3start.
Feed 1.erride Control
This control usuall& *ro9ides for a feed rate o9erride fro$ + 3 10+N. This allo-s the
o*erator to $anuall& correct *ro"ra$$ed feed rates -ithin these li$its. Feed rate
o9erride can also be used to re"ulate Lo" feed -hen settin" u* tools.
Unit 11 6)
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
&elf 2ssess!ent
@uestions on FacE"round Notes Module 4.Unit 11
1. Friefl& e)*lain Nu$erical Control in relation to a CNC Machine.
2. !ist t-o of the Constructional Features of a CNC Machine.

Unit 11 61
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
*. Na$e so$e of the ad9anta"es of a CNC Machine.

4. In Part Pro"ra$$in" -hat does selection of ?ero Point $ean,
/. Chat does the Settin" of 1)is Aatu$ $ean,

Unit 11 62
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
2ns3ers to 4uestions 15/. Module 4. Unit 11
1.
(u!erical Control8
Nu$erical Control 5NC7 is the techniBue of "i9in" instructions to a
$achine in the for$ of a code -hich consists of nu$bers< letters of
the al*habet< *unctuation $arEs and certain other s&$bols. The $achine
res*onds to this coded infor$ation in a *recise and ordered $anner to
carr& out 9arious $achinin" functions.
Instructions are su**lied to the $achine as a series of blocEs of
infor$ation. 1 blocE of infor$ation is a "rou* of co$$ands sufficient
to enable the $achine to carr& out one indi9idual $achinin" o*eration
e.". $o9e cutter fro$ *osition 1 to *osition 2 at a s*ecified feed rate.
(ach blocE is "i9en a seBuence nu$ber for identification. The blocEs
are then e)ecuted in strict nu$erical order. 1n e)a$*le of a blocE is
as follo-s:
NI /++ ;1+ ) =2+
The $eanin" of this infor$ation is as follo-s:
NI is blocE nu$ber 1I /++ directs the $achine or cutter to $o9e at the
ra*id tra9erse rate. ;1+ and =2+ are the coordinate 9alues of the tar"et
*oints of the $o9e$ent.
Chen the instructions are or"anised in a lo"ical $anner the& direct the
$achine tool to carr& out a s*ecific tasE 3 usuall& the co$*lete $achinin"
of a -orE*iece or X*artP. It is thus ter$ed a *art *ro"ra$.



Unit 11 6*
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
2.
Unit 11 64
Constructional Features of C(C Machines8
1 con9entional $achine tool has an intelli"ent source for error
co$*ensation 5the o*erator7. Aurin" $achinin" a sEilled o*erator
can 9ar& the cuttin" conditions to co$*ensate for deflection< 9ibration
etc. to "enerate the desired sha*e< siHe and finish.
The CNC $achine can onl& co$*ensate for an error that is detected
and co$$unicated to the control. Aeflection< 9ibration etc. cannot
as &et< be easil& $onitored. For this reason NC $achines are $ade
stron"er and stiffer to *erfor$ to a $ore accurate standard than their
con9entional counter*arts.
The ca*acit& for 9ar&in" the conditions -hile $achinin" is therefore
li$ited. 1s far as *ossible the conditions ha9e to be established as the
*ro"ra$ is *roduced.
In addition to this< CNC $achines are s*endin" $ore ti$e *er shift
cuttin" than con9entional $achines did in the *ast. This hi"her
*ercenta"e of cuttin" ti$e results in faster -ear rates on the slides
and trans$ission s&ste$s.
Con9entional $achine tools are also desi"ned -ith the 9ie- to ha9in"
the sEilled o*erator standin" directl& in front controllin" the $achine.
This is no lon"er reBuired for CNC since the $achine is o*eratin" under
*ro"ra$ control.
#*ti$u$ cuttin" s*eeds and feeds< continuous *ath $achinin"< ra*id
slide $o9e$ent to brin" the tool close to the -orE and then sudden
sto**in"< all subLect the $achine to forces -hich are not encountered
on con9entional $achines.
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
*.
2d.antages of C(C Machines8

'educed !ead Ti$e.
(li$ination of #*erator (rrors.
Fle)ibilit& in chan"es of Co$*onent Aesi"n.
'educed Scra* and Ins*ection.
Co$*le) #ne3#ffs and S$all Fatch @uantities.
!o-er !abour Cost.
1ccurate Costin" and Schedulin".



4.

&election of Aero Point8
In order to define certain *oints on a -orE*iece in this $anner< &ou
-ill first ha9e to decide -here to *ut the coordinate s&ste$ on the
-orE*iece< es*eciall& -here to *lace the Hero *oint. For $illin"
the Hero *oint 5or reference *oint7 of all di$ensions $a& be *laced
an&-here on the -orE*iece. !etKs call this Hero *oint K-orE*iece HeroK
5C?7 or -orE*iece datu$. To sa9e trouble of unnecessar& calculations
it is ad9isable to *lace -orE*iece Hero at that *oint on a *art dra-in"
on -hich $ost of the di$ensions are based.
Cont.
Unit 11 6/
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
4. Continued.

1 -orE*iece datu$ $a&be defined as a *oint< line or surface fro$
-hich di$ensions are referenced. It $a& or $a& not be -ithin the
-orE*iece area.

The S&$bol used to denote CorE*iece ?ero is:
Figure 1/8 ()a$*le of ?ero Point #*tions on CorE*iece.
Figure 168 ()a$*le of Co$*onent -ith ?ero Point in CorE*iece
Centre.

Unit 11 66
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
/.

&etting 26is atu!s8
#n CNC $achines e$*lo&in" full& floatin" datu$ facilities it is
co$$on to *osition the -orE*iece or -orEholdin" de9ice on the
$achine table< for con9enience. The tool< or settin" *robe< is then
Lo""ed $anuall& to touch the co$*onent in each a)is in turn. Cith
the tool or settin" *robe in the correct settin" *osition 5co$*onent
datu$ *osition7< one of t-o actions $a& be taEen. The choice -ill
de*end on the $achine tool.
The first action in9ol9es settin" the rele9ant a)is re"ister to Hero
b& enterin" at the console. 1 button $arEed Ka)is HeroK $a& also
ha9e to be de*ressed to confir$ the action. Thereafter< the $achine
Hero *osition is assu$ed to be that *oint. 1ll subseBuentl&
*ro"ra$$ed *ositional $o9es -ill be $ade -ith reference to this
Hero *oint.
The second action is *erha*s $ore *re9alent on CNC turnin" centres.
1t start3u*< $an& turnin" centres send their slides to a Eno-n *osition
nor$all& at the e)tre$es of their a)is $o9e$ents. Chen at this *osition
indicated b& li$it s-itches detectin" the li$its of tra9el< the control unit
KEno-sK that the slides are at Eno-n di$ensions fro$ the $achine datu$
*oint. This $a& be< for e)a$*le< :++ $$ fro$ the bacE face of the
chucE in the ?3a)is< and 0++ $$ fro$ the centre3line of the s*indle in
the ;3a)is. The e)act di$ensions -ill< of course< 9ar& fro$ $achine to
$achine. The tool can then be Lo""ed to touch on the co$*onent as
*re9iousl& described. The di$ensions sho-in" on the a)is read3outs are
then subtracted fro$ the Eno-n Kli$its of tra9elK di$ensions. The
resultin" 9alues are then entered into a)is offset re"isters -ithin the
CNC control unit. In a roundabout -a& this creates the datu$ *osition
for the tool ti*. The datu$ *ositions are not initialised to ;+ and ?+
ho-e9erI the& are co$*uted 5-ithin the control unit7 fro$ the Eno-n
Kli$its of tra9elK di$ensions< and the 9alues contained in the a)is offset
re"isters.
Unit 11 67
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11

/. Continued.

'e"ardless of the actual *rocedure< the *art *ro"ra$$er *ro"ra$s the
*art fro$ a datu$ *oint relatin" to the co$*onent. The *ositionin" of the
co$*onent at the $achine< and a si$ilar $anoeu9re to those described
abo9e and then reconciles the *osition of the co$*onent to the datu$
*ositions set at the $achine tool. @uite ob9iousl&< the correct *rocedure
for each indi9idual $achine $ust be follo-ed. To this end the o*eratin"
Dsettin" $anual for the indi9idual $achine $ust be thorou"hl& studied.

Unit 11 6%
Trade of Metal Fabrication Phase 2
Module 4 Unit 11
+nde6
Unit 11 6'