The Quality of Flour

The quality of flour, and discussions thereof involve numerous physical and chemical
variables and indshe technical aspects of a wide variety of flours have been have been
covered in numerous texts and scientific papers. The more practical aspects of flour, vis-a-vis
whether or not this or that flour makes a better loaf of bread are more subjective and will be
discussed in another part of this treatise. The breadmaking potential of wheat is largely
derived from the quantity and quality of its protein content. Genetic and environment each
play important roles in determining protein quality. rotein quantity is influenced mainly by
environmental factors, while the quality of the protein is genetically determined. In wheat
varieties that are grown under comparable environmental conditions, a high quality wheat will
produce good bread over a fairly broad range of protein levels, but a poor quality wheat will
generally result in low quality bread even if the protein content is higher. For more on this
topic the reader is referred to Pyler (3). In "Baking Science & Technology" Pyler also states
that
!"heat is unique among cereals in that its milled product, flour, alone is capable of forming a
dough that will retain the gas evolved during fermentation and, on ba#ing, will yield a light,
well aerated loaf of bread. $his unique characteristic of wheat is derived from its proteins
which, on combining with water during the mi%ing process, result in gluten, the actual
substance that imparts the property of gas retention to dough. &ecause of the preeminent
position that the wheat proteins occupy in ba#ing, it is not surprising that a great deal of
research has been e%pended on them, and it is indicative of the comple%ity of protein material
in general that many basic questions still remain unanswered'!
The proteins in flour can be divided into two groups based upon their solubility in water. !s
indicated earlier, when the insoluble proteins in the flour are combined with water during the
mixing process, gluten is formed. ! number of noted sources describe gluten as a cohesive
substance, somewhat rubbery and elastic, gray in color, with an insipid taste. Gluten is
comprised of two insoluble proteins, glutenin "which is stable, and gives it its strength#, and
gliadin "which is soft and sticky, and gives it its elasticity#. $talian law allows values of dry
gluten that range from %& in type '' flour, to ('& in type (, ), and whole wheat flour. *trong
flours, i.e. those with high protein content, have upwards of (+-(,& dry gluten. -ry Gluten is
the product of .washing. a specific amount of dough under gently running water while
catching the dough pieces in a cheesecloth. ! dough thus washed and prepared from /' gr.
of patent flour, +' ml of water and ( gr. of salt will yield about (/ grams of a cohesive, sticky
and gummy substance or dough. The remaining dough consists of a moist sticky albumen
"protein# which is insoluble inwater. This dough can be stretched without breaking and
contracts when released. 0eighing this dough, and then drying it in an oven at low
temperature, results in what is termed .dry gluten.. The difference in weight between the wet
and dry gluten equals the absorption capacity of the gluten producing albumen. This is about
one third of the weight of the original "pre-drying# dough. 1f importance is the fact that the
weight of the dry gluten made from ('' grams of flour equals the percentage of gluten
producing albumen "protein# in the flour. (lbumin is a gluten forming protein in wheat flour. In
a given batch of flour about )*+ of the albumen is gluten forming protein and appro%imately
)+ is water soluble albumen. ,ore details on this sub-ect can be found in !Baking, The Art
and Science", (.).
$o continue from Baking Science & Technology (3)
!&a#ers often use the terms protein and gluten interchangeably. /et, these terms do not
denote the same thing. Protein comprises all the nitrogenous substances present in flour and
other food materials and is estimated by the 0-eldahl and other methods that are specific for
nitrogen. 1luten, on the other hand, represents the end product obtained when a small piece
of dough is wor#ed and washed in water....
....$he concepts of flour quality and flour strength are difficult to define concisely. $his is
largely because flour quality is e%pressed by a variety of chemical and physical properties of
dough, none of which serves as an adequate inde% by itself, or is independent of other
variables. $hus, different physical and chemical testing methods, different ba#ing test
procedures, and different dough processing treatments, when applied to the same flour, will
yield results that may lead to widely divergent conclusions as to the flour2s quality. ,oreover,
the end use to which a flour is to be put enters importantly into any evaluation of its quality.
$he mar#ed distinction between a soft wheat ca#e flour, and a hard wheat bread flour is
clearly recogni3ed by most ba#ers. 4n the other hand, a ba#er may be less certain in
distinguishing between the specifications of flour intended for the production of white pan
bread as against hearth breads. $his difficulty accounts for the frequently observed fact that
flours purchased by ba#ers for specific purposes, such as bread, pastry, crac#er, or biscuit
production, show wide quality variations within each group'!
$n addition to the physical and chemical data briefly described above, bakers need to be
aware of other criteria by which to judge their flours. The information provided below has been
excerpted from "Special and Decorative Breads" ")# with additional technical information
adapted from the Molino Sima "2# recipe booklet, "Il Manuale del Panificatore" "/#, and
"Baking Science & Technolog" "+#!
0e cannot state too strongly that providing these data regarding the chemical and physical
composition of flour to commercial bakers is standard procedure in 3urope and, as far as we
are aware, in 4anada, but not so in the 5*. This must be changed if the artisan bread effort in
the 5*! is to continue to move forward.
Criteria for Judging Quality
Flour Color
! very simple way to determine color differences in different batches of flour is to look at the
color of different types of flour under a sheet of glass. This can be done with more than one
flour at a time. This method not only facilitates a comparison of the whiteness of different
flours but allows for an inspection for impurities. The flour should have a.... perfectly regular
consistency and not contain any specks. ")#. This obviously does not pertain to mixed grain or
to other than white flours.
Texture and Feel
The texture and si6e of the grains play an important role in kneading and also determine the
speed at which the dough rises"+#. $n general, bread flour is slightly coarse and falls apart
when pressed into a lump. astry flour is smooth and fine and can be squee6ed into a lump.
4ake flour is smooth and fine, can be squee6ed into a lump, and stays in a lump more solidly
when pressed.
Expansion and Extensibility
*everal factors determine the rising ability and elasticity of a particular flour. $n 7rance, $taly
and the 5* the 4hopin !lveograph, or 3xtensopraph is used to determine the relationship
between the elasticity of the dough and rising power. !n example of an !lveograph reading on
a number of dough samples is presented below.
utting a sample of dough to the !lveograph test allows one to measures the resistance of
the dough to expansion and the extensibility of a thin sheet of the dough. .P. expresses the
resistance of the dough to deformation, and is related to the dough8s tensile strength and
stability ")#. $t is measured in millimeters "mm# and then multiplied by the factor (.(. 7lours
with a high .P. value tend to have a high gluten content and absorb a relatively large quantity
of water. The letter .". measures the distance , in millimeters, from the start of the curve to
the point where the dough bubble ruptures under the conditions of this test. .". represents the
extensibility of the dough or its ability to rise.
9easuring the area under the curve and then multiplying it by another factor ":./,# affords the
value of .#.. .#. is proportional to the baking strength of the dough. ;alues of .#. range
from ,/ for very soft flours to ,'' for very strong, hard red wheat flours. The relationship
between .P. and .". expressed as a ratio serves as an index of gluten behavior. <igh values
of .P. and .#. indicate a strong flour.
The following information $Ta%le I&' is adapted from the Molina SIMA "2# recipe booklet, and
represent the range of values for "#" as applied to $talian wheat flour and breads.
Table !
# (omments
)*+, Poor -ualit flours, unusa%le for %read making
*+, .
*/,
#eak flours, appropriate for the production of =iscotti
*/, .
+0,
Medium or average strength flours, used for soft doughs $paste "olli# in the production of
$ugliese, ciabatta, Francese% pane piu"a, etc!, for firm doughs &paste dure# in the
production of pane ferrarese , and also for the refreshment of natural east &lie'ito
naturale#!
+0, .
1*,
2lours of strength o%tained from high -ualit national 3heat and strong 3heat of national
or foreign origin, used in the production of maggiolino, %aguette, rosetta, soffiato, & %iove!
1*, .
1+,
2lours e4tracted from strong 3heat, used primaril for doughs 3ith a long fermentation,
indirect method doughs emploing a biga or lie'iti $natural easts' 3ith long rises, or for
s3eet raised doughs such as pandoro, panettone, vene5iane, etc!
4apello "/#, providing another view, states that if the formula or recipe calls for a long rise
"indirect method, biga#, a flour able to tolerate long rises and more work time "i.e. .#. of
about ):'-+''# should be utili6ed. =y comparison, if the formula calls for a shorter rise "direct
method# it is appropriate to use a flour with a lower "#" lower "i.e. "#. of about )''-)+' or
lower#. otherwise, the use of a stronger flour may damage the resulting product.
The following information is also adapted from the Molina SIMA "2# recipe booklet, and
describes the "P6"" ratio which serves as an index to the behavior of the gluten.
$he $() e%presses the relationship between the tenacity and e%tensibility of the dough,
connoting a value of equilibrium or unbalance between these two factors. $he equilibrium is
e%pressed (according to the type of production and technique employed) between 5.65 and
5.75. $hese values indicate that, in relationship to the !*!, a ba#er will be able to produce a
bread with ma%imum volume and a well proportioned inside structure. "hile this may sound
esoteric, it is not.
0hen The Artisan receives recipes from baker colleagues in $taly, the .#. value of the flour
used is also provided. *ince we do not have equivalent information about !merican flours, we
test bake until the process produces a bread similar to that described in the recipe. 1ur task
would be much easier if we had access to the .#. values of our !merican flour. !n example
of an $talian recipe using the .#. values in the recipe "formula# may be seen in the recipe for
a (roccantina "4iabatta# provided by our colleague *ergio !gosti of $l 7ornaio in *alo, $taly.
8igher P9: values indicate flours that are more difficult to wor# and that result in a bread less
developed with a compact crumb. :ower P9: values indicate flours that will be wea#, too
e%tensible, and difficult to wor# because they are often stic#y. $he bread which results will be
flattened because the dough has not succeeded in holding bac# the developing gases. $he
indices most often used for appraising the plastic qualities of the flour are the !"! and the
!P9:!.
The .0. is utili6ed in conjunction with information obtained from the data afforded by
measuring mixing resistance of dough on an instrument called a =rabender 7arinograph and
results in a 7arinogram. The information presented below, including the 7arinogram "4hart )#,
is from yler "+# The 7arinograph uses the resistance of the dough against the kneading arm
during the mixing process as its means of measurement. The purpose of this test is to
determine the amount of water the dough can absorb as this indicates the dough8s firmness
and dough yield. !dditionally the 7arinograph determines the degree of softening of the
dough when mixed for too long. This provides information about the doughs stability.
*pecifically, 7arinograph tests determine the following>
*ater absorption is indicated as the amount of water needed to develop a standard
dough of ;55 &rabender <nits (&<) at the pea# of the curve. In the case shown on
the graph (bsorption is .5.7+ $he absorption rate is the quantity of water, e%pressed
in percentage, that is required to give a sample of dough a fi%ed consistency.
$he $eak Ti"e is the time needed for the curve to reach the pea# or ma%imum
dough consistency, and indicates the relative strength of the flour.
$he +rri'al Ti"e is the time required for the top of curve to first intersect the ;55 &<
consistency line.
$he ,eparture Ti"e is the time required for the tip of the curve to drop below the
;55 &<.
$he -ixing Tolerance ndex &-T# is represented by the difference between the
$eak Ti"e and the ,eparture Ti"e, and is a measurement used to indicate the
mi%ing requirements of the flour. =tability $ime >> the hori3ontal line directly under the
$eak Ti"e >> is )).5 minutes in this sample, and represents the interval between the
+rri'al and ,eparture Ti"es (see abive definitions). It is often referred to as the
tolerance of the flour to !over! or !under2 mi%ing. ?hart * below includes =tability
times.
Chart .
/
$he =tability of the dough is the interval of time that it remains at ma%imum
consistency, and is very important relative to the type of fermentation and mechanical
stress to which a dough can be sub-ected. $he =tability $ime &S# or mi%ing tolerance
is an important inde% of flour quality.
!ll dough eventually break down on sustained mixing. 3xcellent quality flour breaks down at
between ' and +' =rabender 5nits and has a *tability Time, expressed as "S" of greater than
(' minutes. oor quality flours breakdown between %' and (+' =58s and have a *tability time
of not less than + minutes. $t has been noted "2# that a strong flour with a "#" ? )/' and an
"S" ? (' will tolerate long processes of varying times, while a weak flour will not. Ta%le &
compares =rabender 5nits and stability factors for a variety of flour qualities "@#.
Table !
74cellent 8ualit Breakdo3n of dough %et3een , and 1, B9: S;*, minutes
<ood -ualit Breakdo3n of dough %et3een 1, and 0, B9: S not less than = minutes
2air -ualit Breakdo3n of dough %et3een 0, and =, B9: S;not less than 0 minutes
Poor -ualit Breakdo3n of dough %et3een =, and *1, B9: S;not less than 1 minutes
Inferior -ualit Breakdo3n higher than *1, B9
!ll of these data are used at the mills to determine the quality of the flours produced. 0e have
discovered only one mill which provides these data. That is (ooks >atural Products. Aog
onto their $nternet site and see how they present their wheat and flour information. $t includes,
!lveograph and 7arinograph data, the 7alling Bumber, !sh content and a lot moreC
Fer"enting +bility and En0y"e Content
The quantity of en6ymes "amylases# contained in flour determines the rate at which starch is
converted to sugar and thus rendered accessible to the yeasts. !lpha-amylase is the specific
en6yme measured in this test relative to its ability to liquify starch. Too high an amylase
content results in high fermentation sugar values in the dough, whereas too low an amylase
content results in a dough with little gassing power")#. The alpha amylase activity and its
relationships to the bread baking process are measured by .The 7alling Bumber.. !nother
amylase, =eta-amylase is also involved in the breakdown of starch into sugars, especially
maltose. Deaders interested in an exhausive discussion of en6ymes and baking are referred
to both volumes of yler "+#
The 7alling Bumber "or <agberg $ndex# is indicative of the amylase "specifically alpha-
amylase# activity and the fermentation process taking place in a wheat flour dough. $t is based
on the rapid gelatini6ation of flour suspended in water and measures the degradation of
starch made available from alpha-amylase activity in rising temperature conditions similar to
those of bread making.
The following 7alling Bumber values are inversel proportional to the amylase activity. The
information provided below "Table E$# is meant as a guide. 4ontact your flour mill to ascertain
specific numbers for the flour you use.
Table !
2alling
>um%er
(omments
/. *0,
7levated amlase activit! This flour is derived from germinated grain, and its use
results in a %read crum% that remains stick and under %aked! It is nearl unusa%le
unless it is ade-uatel mi4ed 3ith other flour 3ith a higher 2alling >um%er!
*0, . ++, Superior amlase activit to that 3hich is normal! This flour re-uires a correction %
%eing %lended 3ith flours of a higher 2alling >um%er or using particular %read making
methods during production!
++, . +?, >ormal amlase activit!
;+?, . 1,,
#eak amlase activit! The use of this flour results in %read that is not 3ell developed,
3ith lo3 volume and too dr a crum%! It re-uires the addition of diastatic malt!
-oisture Content
If the moisture content of a flour is elevated, the flour will have a shorter shelf life and lower
yield. ! guide to water content and flour relative to storability is as follows> ! water content
greater than (:& cannot be stored. ! water content of about (/& has limited storage
potential. ! water content of less than (/& indicates good storage potential ":#.
+bsorption +bility
!bsorption measures the amount of water that can be absorbed by a given quantity of flour. $n
bread making, it is usually preferable to have flour that can absorb a large amount of water.
9easurements of absorption are done to determine the amount of water the dough can
absorb, which in turn indicates dough yield and shelf life. 1ptimum absorption represents the
maximum amount of water, as a percent of the flour weight, that will produce a high yield of
bread during the baking process "(#. 1ther tests exist which measure a flour8s ability to
absorb water, but we shall not discuss them here. They are beyond the scope of this
presentation, but may be found by examining the references provided.
The 9altose Bumber relates directly to the gassing power of the flour. *tronger flours have
higher gassing power.
! graphic display of some of the information presented above is contained in Table E$$ below,
which was excerpted from =aking, The !rt and *cience ":#.
Ta%le &II
#eak flour for
%iscuits,sponge cakes and
tart doughs
Standard.tpe flour for
3hite %read, 3heat6re
%read and rolls
Strong or high protein flour
for 3hite %read, 2rench
%read and soft rolls!
@MT.
Aolume
Bield
C,, . /=, /+, . =1, =*, . =/,
Protein
(ontent
? . **!=0 **!+ . *1!0 *+!= . *C
Maltose
>um%er
* . + + . 1 + . 1!0
2all
>um%er
+,, . 1,,
>ote: The Aolume Bield is done % the @MT D @apid Mi4 Test, a Standard Baking test for %read
Su""ary
!s presented above, scientific evaluation of essential factors relative to the quality of flour can
be, and usually is made, by laboratory analyses. !s a rule, both commercial and serious
home bakers in the 5* are given minimal technical information regarding the majority of the
wheat flours that are available for use. ,ore often than not, they are provided the type flour,
i.e. patent, high>gluten, all>purpose, bleached or unbleached, pastry, etc., whether or not the
flour is made up of hard or soft wheat, or a blend, and a per cent protein content. 4ther
information, such as the results from laboratory analyses, is not readily obtainable. In fact,
many ba#ers are not aware that the information derived from the various tests and analyses
described here are available in the laboratories of the commercial millers. "e have not
ascertained why these results are not generally available, nor why ba#ers have not
demanded why they are not made available.
&y contrast, Italian commercial ba#ers have a greater variety of flours and more technical
information about these flours available to them. For instance, a list of the flours available
from ,olino =I,( di (rgenta includes *5 types of flours and their technical and analytic data.
$hese data include the !"!, !P9:! and percent dry gluten @gluten producing albumen(protein)A
and are provided with a description of each flour and its suggested use.
(merican flour companies provide only sparse information about the flours they sell. $he
following discussion is e%cepted from a te%t by ?orriher ()5) regarding current domestic flour
product labeling practice in the <=
.The amount of protein in a particular flour is an indicator of bread-baking quality for plain
white flour alone because rye flour, oat flour, and rice flour contain proteins unconnected with
gluten, as does whole wheat flour with the proteins in the wheat germ. That means reading
the label on these flours relative to their protein content will not reveal much about the bread
they will make..
5nfortunately, new 5* 7ood and -rug !dministration "7-!# regulations have made labels
less informative even for white flour. The protein content stated on the label of a bag of flour is
subject to a round-off rule, so flour labeled as having @ grams of protein per serving actually
can have from 2./' to @.,@ grams. 5nder the old regulations "before 9ay (@@,#, the serving
si6e was ( cup, and the protein content on the label effectively showed what the best use of a
flour was. Thus, a flour labeled as @ grams "protein# was indeed a low-protein flour, ideal for
pie crusts and quick breads whereas a flour labeled as (, grams protein "(+./' to (,.,@
grams per cup# was a high-protein flour, excellent for yeast breads.
<nder the new regulations, however, the serving si3e is )96 cup or about 35 grams. "ith
rounding, any flour containing *.;5 to 3.6B grams of protein per )96 cup can be labeled as
containing 3 grams of protein. $his means both moderately low>protein =outhern flour (about
B grams per cup) and high>protein unbleached flour (about )6 grams per cup) can be labeled
as 3 grams per )96 cup. In fact, most flour on the mar#et now says 3 grams of protein, telling
you almost nothing about the protein content so important to ba#ing and to coo#ing.
/ou can call the flour company and as# the e%act protein content, but in the e%perience of
The !rtisan staff what you are told by a consumer representative is not always reliable.
0e have provided the following table "Table E$$$# from 4orriher as a general guide. This
provides approximate values for protein in both grams per cup and percentages. The
measure of flour strength that is used professionally is percentage protein, and this same
parameter is important to home bakers.
In (onclusion
1ne of the things we have tried not to do on The !rtisan is to try and convince visitors that
there is a single method by which $talian style bread should be made. 0e have spent more
years than we like to remember unlearning techniques that were presented as authentic and
irrefutable in texts published in this country, and we try not to repeat that experience. To a
certain extent, we have an advantage when attempting to reproduce $talian regional breads,
because we have experienced these breads ourselves during numerous visits to $taly. 0e
know how breads were made, and tasted, nearly +' years ago, and how they are made, and
taste, today. 0e have eaten the breads of artisan bakers, and those of a more industrial
persuasion. 0e know the look and taste of regional breads and we know when a recipe or a
bread falls short of the original. This knowledge is a benchmark for everything that we do.
=ecause so many of the texts, maga6ines, and catalog product literature prominent today
.think. for us, we have shied away from thinking for you, our visitors. 0e have and will
continue to present as many basic formulas "recipes#, techniques, and variations as are
available to us. $t is our desire that you, the baker, decide for yourself which breads you prefer
to bake time and again. That being said, we will now present our own personal preferences in
respect to flour suitable for making $talian style bread.
0e do not prefer organic, unbleached, high protein, or all purpose flour over other flour. 0e
have not found that bread made with organic unbleached flour is necessarily superior any
other. This surprised us, because we often read that organic grains and methods produce a
tastier, higher-quality flour. $t may be that organic flour production is still in its infancy, and as it
develops so will its performance and consistency. 0e do prefer organic flour in recipes which
call for whole wheat flour.
0e have tried conventional flours categori6ed as both high-protein and high-gluten. !lthough
high-protein flour, commonly referred to as bread flour, works well for the style of bread
produced in the 5*, we have not found it to work well for 3uropean, and in this instance,
$talian style breads. rof. Daymond 4alvel of 7rance is quoted on this topic in ;olume (,
Bumber ,, of The =read =akers Guild of !merica Bewsletter, published in Fuly of (@@+.
.$t is a common belief that high gluten, spring wheat is the best choice for hearth baked
breads. =ut rofessor 4alvel questions that belief, pointing out that, although spring wheat
does have a high quantity of gluten, it does not have the quality of gluten needed for the long-
fermentation, non-machined, hearth baked breads made by most Guild members. $nstead, he
feels the gluten in hard winter wheat provides the best possible combinations of performance
characteristics....
$t is on this last point that we differ from rof. 4alvel regarding $talian style bread. 0e have
tried a variety of unbleached all-purpose flours, milled from (''& hard red winter wheat, and
have not found these flours preferable, especially as these wheats relate to the texture and
taste of the resulting bread.
1ur preferred flour is an unbleached all-purpose flour, ranging in protein content from @.2 -
((&. This unbleached, all-purpose flour is a blend of hard red wnter wheat flour and soft
winter wheat flour. This flour has proven to be the most dependable relative to performance
characteristics and consistency. $t is our flour of choice when making $talian style bread
0e have seen it suggested, in more than one instance, that either pastry or cake flour can be
blended with unbleached all-purpose flour to approximate $talian flour. 0e have also seen it
suggested that high-protein flour be utili6ed in starters, especially for breads with long
fermentation. 0hile we know the blending of a variety of flours and the use of more than one
type of flour can be effective in a commercial setting, we have not found it to be the case
when working with those flours available to the serious home baker.
$n our opinion, the best way in which to judge flour quality is to experiment with a number of
flours and determine which produces the most favorable results. 0e also recommend that
time be spent becoming acquainted with the concepts we have presented. They are not
terribly exciting in that they do not tempt one8s sense of smell as a freshly baked loaf of bread
might, but the end result of knowing the .08s., .8s. and .A8s. of your flour may well be a
better loaf of bread.
&ibliography
Cuaglia, 1.&. ,anuale del Panificatore, an edition from the publishers of
Panificatione D Pasticerria.
&ilheu%, Eoland, (lain Fscoffier, Ganiel 8erve, and Hean>,arie Pouradier, =pecial
and Gecorative &reads, Iol ), Jew /or#Ian Jostrand Eeinhold, )BKB.
Pyler, Frnst H. &a#ing =cience D $echnology, $hird Fdition. 0ansas ?ity =osland
Publishing ?o., )BKK.
Cuaglia, 1.&. =cien3a e $echnologia della Panifica3ione, Pinerolo ?hiriotti, )BK6,
Italia.
?apello, Eoberto. Il ,anuale del Panificatore, &ergamo Fditrice =an ,arco s.r.l.,
)BB3.
=chunemann, ?laus and 1unter $reu. &a#ing, $he (rt and =cience. ?algary&a#er
$ech Inc., )BK..
&oriani, 1uido, Fabri3io 4stani. Il pane, ,ilan 4ttaviano, )BK..
,olino =I,(, Eicettario , a recipe boo#let published by =ima di (rgenta. $his boo#let
indicates that it used Cuaglia, 1.&., =cien3a e $echnologia della Panifica3ione,
Pinerolo ?hiriotti, )BK6, and ,anuale del Panificatore ()) as its ma-or sources of
reference.
1iorilli, Piergiorgio and :aura, =imona, Il Pane, <n (rte, <na $echnologia. ,ilano
Franco :ucisano Fditore, )BB..
?orriher, =hirley. ?oo#"ise, $he 8ows D "hys of =uccessful ?oo#ing, Jew /or#
"illiam ,orrow and ?ompany, lnc., )BB7.
?antore, ?laudio, a series of Personal ?ommunications during )BB.>)BBK . ?laudio2s
=pecialty &reads, ?astroville, ?(.