Sequence Stratigraphic Modelling and Reservoir

Research paper
Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the

shallow marine successions of Barameld, West Baram Delta, offshore
Sarawak, East Malaysia
Abdul Hadi Abd. Rahman
a
, David Menier
a, b,
*
, Md. Yazid Mansor
a, c
a
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
b
GMGL, UMR 6538 CNRS, University of South Brittany, France
c
Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB), PETRONAS Twin Tower, KLCC, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 13 July 2013
Received in revised form
8 March 2014
Accepted 14 March 2014
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Sequence stratigraphy
Modelling
Baram Delta
South China Sea
a b s t r a c t
The Baram Delta Province is located in the northern part of Sarawak (West Baram Delta) and extends
north-eastward into Brunei and further into the south-western part of Sabah (East Baram Delta). The
delta is a Neogene basin which developed over an accretionary wedge implying Cretaceous to Eocene
sediments during the Late Eocene to Late Miocene times (Tongkul, 1991; Hutchison et al., 2000; Morley
et al., 2003; Sapin et al., 2011).
Facies and well log analyses were carried out on core and well data for the Late Miocene successions of
Baram eld, a medium-sized oileld located in the north-eastern ank of the Baram Delta Oil Province,
offshore Sarawak. A numerical model of sea-level uctuations and progradational basin-ll was generated
using the Clastic Modeling Program (Hardy and Waltham, 1992a and 1992b; Waltham, 1992) software to
evaluate the possible controls of sea-level changes in the development of the siliciclastic successions and
their bounding surfaces. This model was based on four lines of evidence, namely core data, eldwide
wireline logs correlation, seismic sections and average thickness variations across the eld.
Cored intervals of the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) display reservoir successions dominated by thick
swaley cross-stratied (SCS) sandstones, thin hummocky cross-stratied sandstones and other shallow
marine, wave and storm-dominated facies, interbedded with laminated shelfal mudstones. The vertical
facies organisation suggests deposition during shoreface progradation associated with a fall of relative
sea level.
Analysis and correlation of well logs reveal stacking patterns comprising three scales of depositional
cyclicity: the parasequences (w10ew30 m thick), the parasequence sets (w45ew130 m thick) and the
major cycles (w600e800 m thick).
Field-wide, dip-oriented seismic sections show very well-developed horizontal to slightly upward
convex layers traceable over great distances, which suggests a ramp-type margin, in which the basin
oor dipped gradually seaward and lacked a distinct shelf-slope margin.
The evidences gathered demonstrate that the deposition and build-up stratigraphy of the Late
Miocene sedimentary successions could have been strongly controlled by superimposed short-term,
medium-term and long-term sea-level changes.
The simulated sea level and sedimentary basin-ll model, generated by the Clastic Modelling Program,
match to the well log correlation. This model illustrates that high frequency sea-level uctuations enable
sands to be distributed over large areas within a shallow, low gradient shelf. Our study shows that in-
tegrated studies incorporating cores, well logs, seismic sections and simulated models can be employed
as important tools for correlation and reservoir modelling.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The focus of this study is a medium-sized oil eld situated on
the north-eastern part of the Baram Delta province, offshore north
of Miri town, Sarawak (Fig. 1). In this article, we document the
* Corresponding author. Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar,
31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: hadi_rahman@petronas.com.my (A.H. Abd. Rahman), david.
menier@petronas.com.my, dmenier5@gmail.com (D. Menier), yazidm@petronas.
com.my (Md.Y. Mansor).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine and Petroleum Geology
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ marpet geo
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
0264-8172/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17
Please cite this article in press as: Abd. Rahman, A.H., et al., Sequence stratigraphic modelling and reservoir architecture of the shallow marine
successions of Baram eld, West Baram Delta, offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
Figure 1. . (A) Location map of the study area (A) Tectonic elements of Northwest Borneo. (B) Structural framework of the Baram Delta Province in offshore Sarawak and (C) Wells
location map of Baram eld.
A.H. Abd. Rahman et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology xxx (2014) 1e17 2
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
characteristics of facies and facies associations of the cored interval
belonging to the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) of the Baram eld
and illustrate the stratigraphic architecture of the area. The core
intervals are limited to the reservoir intervals and our description
and interpretation are supported by well log analyses and corre-
lation, evaluation of seismic data and comparisonwith other earlier
work within the deltaic province. The aims of this article are: (i) to
document the facies characteristics and stratigraphic architecture
of the shallow marine, Late Miocene sedimentary succession, (ii) to
evaluate the possible controls of sea level uctuations on strati-
graphic architecture, and (iii) to illustrate how this understanding
can be used to support future correlation work and evaluation/
prediction of reservoir facies architecture and rock quality distri-
bution within the shallow marine complex.
Shallow marine sedimentary environment comprises a contin-
uum of sub-environments which are laterally gradational, and they
are all affected by a complex interaction of geological processes
(Walker and Plint, 1992). The sedimentary sequences deposited
within the shallowmarine setting reect this complexity of process
mixing through space and time (Yoshida et al., 2007), and this is
further complicated by their sensitivity to uctuations of sea level
(Walker and Plint, 1992). Deposits of these environments are
characterised by sedimentary structures form in response to uni-
directional and oscillatory (wave) currents; structures include rip-
ples and dunes, hummocky cross stratied thin-bedded sandstones
and thickly-bedded swaly cross stratied sandstones (Harms, 1975;
Leckie and Walker, 1982; Walker and Plint, 1992).
Shallowmarine stratigraphic architecture is formed by the basic
building block referred to as parasequence e upward-coarsening,
upward-shoaling facies successions (van Wagoner et al., 1990).
Two types of parasequences have been recognised e a gradational-
based prograding shoreface parasequence and a sharp-based
shoreface parasequence (high frequency sequence) (Plint, 1988;
Walker and Plint, 1992; Storms and Swift, 2003). In West Baram
Delta Province, coarsening upward progradational parasequences
or high frequency sequences (w20e50 m thick) are common
(Johnson et al., 1989; Tan et al., 1999). These are commonly overlain
by thinner, muddy retrogradational intervals (w7e15 mthick). The
progradational sand bodies display high lateral continuity with
good eld-wide correlation. The preservation of these well-
developed progradational and retrogradational parasequences
was linked to high subsidence and sedimentation rates within the
Baram Delta Province (Johnson et al., 1989).
Numerical modelling of depositional sequences has been used as
a tool to simulate, explain and predict the behaviour and pattern of
sediment dispersal systems and the resulting stratigraphic archi-
tecture (Storms and Swift, 2003). Sedimentary simulations do not
provide unique solutions to the sources and controls of sediment
geometry and stratigraphic architecture; however, they can be used
as a tool to test hypotheses that describes the effects of interplay of
eustatic sea level change, tectonic deformation and subsidence, and
uctuations in sedimentation rates (Kendall et al., 2012; Storms and
Swift, 2003; Steckler, 1999). Sequence stratigraphy has been suc-
cessfully used as a tool for well correlation and reservoir modelling.
In this paper, we evaluated cores, well logs and seismic data from a
Middle Miocene shallow marine reservoir succession, interpret and
propose a sequence stratigraphic framework for the succession, and
compare the results with computer generated numerical models.
The aim is to evaluate the usefulness of numerical models in
sequence stratigraphic analyses and reservoir modelling of shallow
marine sequences. This exploratory approach is an attempt to
scrutinize the possible controls exerted by high frequency sea level
uctuations on the development of the thick shallow marine suc-
cession of Baram delta in general. We assume a history of areally
uniform subsidence, at least across the eld, which was conducive
for the accumulation of substantial thickness of areally extensive
shallow-marine sediments. Further research on Baram delta should
be focussed on the control of subsidence on sedimentation.
2. Geological setting
The Baram Delta Province is a sub-basin of the larger, Neogene
Sarawak foreland basin (Fig. 1A). The Middle Miocene to Recent
deltaic province is spread from the northern part of Sarawak and
extends north-eastward through Brunei and into the southern part
of Sabah (Fig. 1). The delta is a Neogene basin which developed over
an accretionary wedge implying Cretaceous to Eocene sediments
during the Late Eocene to Late Miocene times (Tongkul, 1991;
Hutchison et al., 2000; Morley et al., 2003; Sapin et al., 2011). The
Sarawak part of the delta, known as the West Baram Delta, covers
an area of about 7500 square km: 2500 square km of it is onshore
(Ho Kiam Fui, 1978; Rijks, 1981). The West Baram Line, a major
northeast-hading fault zone forms the western margin of the
province. This line separates the delta from the older, and more
stable, Balingian and Central Luconia Province (Fig. 1A). The eastern
margin is marked by the Morris Fault e Jerudong Line in Brunei,
which separates the Neogene delta from the older, more deformed
rocks of the Inboard Belt, offshore NW Sabah (Tan et al., 1999).
An estimated thickness of about 6000e9000 m (20,000e
30,000 ft) Neogene clastic sediments, of coastal to coastal uvio-
marine sands andshales, formthe stratigraphyof the deltaic province
(Johnsonet al.,1989). InWest BaramDelta, depositionis characterized
bytheoutbuildingof northwardprogradational sequences whichwas
initiated sometime in Middle Miocene times. The stratigraphic ar-
chitecturewasconstructedbythickandsandyprogradational shallow
marine-deltaic sequences which are separated by transgressive ma-
rineshaleintervals (Tanet al.,1999). HoKiamFui (1978) denedeight,
Upper EocenetoPleistocene, sedimentarycycles for theneighbouring
Balingian and Central Luconia Province of offshore Sarawak. These
cycles, which are also developed within the Baram Delta, comprise
pulsesof clasticorcarbonatesuccessionseparatedbyprominent shale
layers deposited during rapid transgression (Johnson et al., 1989).
These have been dated through biostratigraphic zonation based on
planktonic foraminifers, larger benthonic foraminifers and spor-
amorphs (pollen and spores) (Ho Kiam Fui, 1978). This early strati-
graphic framework has been the reference tool for regional
correlation and facies mapping throughout the Sarawak basin.
3. Dataset
The eld under investigation covers an area of about 100 square
km and comprises two separate fault-bounded dip closures in the
intermediate to deep reservoir levels of Late Miocene age. This is
within the depth interval between 1220 and 2135 m (4000e
7000 ft; Fig. 4.1). Two wells of the eld, Wells BX8-1 and BX16-2,
have core intervals from the Upper Miocene (w5.0e8.0 Ma)
reservoir sections. Well BX8-1 has a total of w54.00 m (177.0 ft) of
cores from 4 cored intervals; well BX16-2 has about w70.00 m
(233.0 ft) cores divided into six (6) core intervals. Well logs from
thirteen wells and representative seismic sections were also
examined. The wireline logs record geophysical properties of rock
succession between w1740 m and 2320 m (5710 fte7610 ft) of the
Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) of the Baram eld.
4. Sedimentological and sequence stratigraphic analysis
4.1. Core facies analysis
Based on the analyses of 125 m (410 ft) of cores from the Upper
Cycle V (Late Miocene) reservoir sections from two wells from
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
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Barameld, twelve (12) lithofacies based on lithology, sedimentary
structures, bioturbation index and geometry (thickness and basal/
top surface contact) (Abdul Hadi Abd. Rahman, 1995; Tan et al.,
1999). These are summarised in Figures 2A and 2B, 3A and 3B,
and briey described below:
1. Hummocky cross-stratied (HCS) facies e thin-bedded
(<30 cm), ne-to-very ne grained sandstones, with
parallel-to-low angle laminations, interbedded with thin
mudstones, interpreted to be hummocky beds. Most beds are
sharp-to-erosively based, and commonly bioturbated near
the top. Trace fossils identied are Ophiomorpha nodosa,
Chondrites, Planolites and Skolithos linearis (?). These are
interpreted as lower shoreface storm beds.
2. Swaley cross-stratied (SCS) facies e thick-bedded and
amalgamated (3e10 m), ne-to-very ne grained sand-
stones, with no interbedded mudstone. Trace fossils are not
common; these include O. nodosa, Ophiomorpha irregulaire,
Planolites and Teichicnus. This facies is interpreted as storm
and fairweather middle to upper shoreface deposit.
3. Massive coarse sandstone e well-sorted, medium-to-coarse,
sandstone. Interbedded with mudstone and bioturbated
siltstone. This facies commonly occur above ooding surfaces
and is interpreted as a transgressive lag deposit.
4. Ripple cross-laminated sandstone-siltstone-mudstone
interbedding. A thin-bedded and well-laminated heterolithic
facies. The thin sandstone layers (1e70 cm) are sharp-based,
laminated and often ripple cross-laminated. Bioturbation is
rare. These rippled beds are interpreted as offshore transition
zone deposit.
5. Interbedded laminated sandstone and bioturbated
mudstone. Within this facies, thin laminated sandstone/
siltstone (2e10 cm) is interbedded with intensely bio-
turbated mudstone (5e15 cm). The laminated sandstones are
sharp-based and laminated; the mudstone is intensely bio-
turbated and mottled. The intensity of the bioturbation re-
ects starvation of the basin and condensation of the bed.
This is a transgressive, condensed interval.
6. Laminated mudstone facies. This dark grey laminated
mudstone facies is marked by the presence of thin (mm) to
hairline silt and sand layers which are commonly laminated
and ripple cross-laminated. This is an offshore transition
zone to offshore deposit.
7. Bioturbated silty mudstone and siltstone facies. Several
notably thick layers (1.5e3.0 m) of well-to-intensely bio-
turbated mudstones and siltstones occur above ooding
surfaces and also interbedded with HCS beds. These are
interpreted to be bioturbated condensed section related to
the transgression.
8. Laminated, ning-upward sandstone facies with shell frag-
ments. This interval displays distinct internal stratication.
The basal contact is erosional. Its lower part is planar lami-
nated sand with thin layers of calcareous shell fragments. It
grades upward into thin light grey, low angle-to-parallel
laminated ne sandstone and capped with a ripple lami-
nated sandy interval. This interval is interpreted to be gutter
cast, storm deposit.
9. Heterogeneous sandstone facies. This sandy facies exhibit
clay clasts, wavy and rippled sandstone-mudstone inter-
bedded layers and is sparsely bioturbated. Trace fossils
include O. nodosa, O. irregulaire, Palophycus and Thalassi-
noides. The presence of irregular mud layers, and associated
aser beds suggest some form of tide-inuenced process
within the environment.
10. Flaser bedded sandstone facies. This is ne-to-medium
grained sandstone with simple to bifurcate asers. This
facies is also interpreted to be the product of tide-inuenced
processes.
4.1.1. Facies associations and depositional environments
Three environmentally signicant facies associations were
identied based on the core facies analysis. These are:
I. Gradational, upward-coarsening HCS-SCS shoreface succes-
sion (FA-1). This succession consists of a lower interval of
interbedded bioturbated mudstone, laminated mudstone
and thin, planar-to-ripple laminated sandstone. Upwards,
the sandstone layers thicken and the HCS beds may amal-
gamate to form thick SCS. The gradational vertical facies
Figure 4. . Schematic diagram showing the interpreted locations for the development of the different parasequences of the cored intervals of BX8-1 and BX16-2.
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
organisation suggests a progressive, gradual shallowing of
the environment, reective of a prograding, wave-dominated
shoreface (Fig. 2A).
II. Sharp-based, upward-coarsening SCS shoreface succession
(FA-2). This facies association is characterised by the occur-
rence of thick (w7e10 m) SCS beds abruptly above a mud-
dominated, thinly interbedded HCS sandstones and mud-
stones. The thick SCS middle-to-upper shoreface sandstone
is interpreted to be deposited during a period of rapid fall of
relative sea level, resulting in shoreface progradation into
mud-dominated inner shelf areas, thus resulting in the
sharp-based characteristic (Fig. 2B).
III. Fining-upward tidal succession (FA-3). This interval displays
a ning-upward, shallowing-upward succession of tide-
inuenced facies. The succession may have been deposited
due to the slight shallowing of the sub-tidal, tide-inuenced
environment. This facies association is less well developed;
the thickness and occurrence of this unit suggest periods of
localised and restricted tide-inuenced sedimentation
within a wave-dominated setting.
4.2. Well log interpretation and correlation
Figure 7 shows the location of the wells of the Baram eld
analysed for this part of the study. The thirteen (13) wells analysed
in this study show spacing of 0.7 kme5.0 km. All the wells are
located within the Baram eld. The Upper Cycle V of Baram Delta
has been dated from 5.3 Ma to about 7.8 Ma by Sarawak Shell
Berhad (Table 1). The Upper boundary of the Upper Cycle V is
shown to be the boundary between the plantktonic foraminiferal
A B
Figure 5. (A). Sedimentological and stratigraphic interpretation of the well logs for the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) section of Well BX8-1. (B). Sedimentological and stratigraphic
interpretation of the well logs for the Upper Cycle V (Late Miocene) section of Well BX16-2.
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
zones SN 17 and SN 18. The SSB Well Penetration Chart for Baram
Delta Province (1983) shows this boundary between the Globor-
otalia dutertrei zone and Globorotalia margaritae zone (Table 2). SSB
Well Penetration Chart (1983) gave a younger age of 7.1 Ma for the
lower boundary of the Upper Cycle V, while Hageman (1987) x the
boundary at about 7.5 Ma. None of the Barameld wells penetrated
beyond the lower boundary. Table 3 shows the penetrated thick-
nesses of Upper Cycle V in the 13 wells analysed.
We employ sequence stratigraphic methods in the analyses and
correlation of the well logs. The term parasequence has been
dened as a relatively conformable succession of genetically
related beds or bedsets bounded by marine ooding surfaces or
their correlative surfaces (van Wagoner et al., 1988; van Wagoner
et al., 1990). We use the term parasequence (PS) here to
describe any coarsening upward and ning upward succession of
genetically related strata, regardless of the inferred magnitude and
duration of sea-level change involved in its genesis. The inuence
and interaction of relative sea-level change and sediment ux/
sedimentation rate on the eld-wide stratal pattern is discussed in
later sections.
4.2.1. Vertical facies relationships in parasequences
Four types of facies successions are recognised from core-to-
gamma ray log calibration, gamma-density-sonic log
interpretation and eldwide log correlation of the Upper Cycle V of
Baram eld. These are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3, and described
below.
1. Gradational-based shoreface parasequence, PS-1;
2. Shallow marine, sharp-based shoreface sandstone para-
sequence, PS-2;
3. Progradational-retrogradational parasequence, PS-3;
4. Coastal-plain sandstones and mudstone parasequence, PS-4
PS-1 and PA-2 are dened by core-gamma ray log calibration of
the cored intervals of wells BX8-1 and BX16-2 (Figs. 2 and 3). They
are recognisable from gamma-density log patterns. PS-3 and PS-4
are dened from the analyses of gamma ray, density and sonic
logs of the Upper Cycle V of wells BX8-1 and BX16-2, and are also
recognisable throughout the eld. Field-wide log correlation of
these parasequences improves their denition.
4.2.1.1. Gradational-based shoreface parasequence, PS-1. The gen-
eral shape of the gamma log curves for PS-1 is of abrupt top funnel
shape, which reects the gradual coarsening-upward trend of the
grain size and sandier-upward facies sucession (Fig. 2B). These
parasequences coarsen upward from thin-bedded sandstone and
mudstone interbedding, through HCS sandstone and mudstone
Figure 6. (A). Sandstone thicknesses variation with depth for the upper cycle V of Well BX8-1. The short arrows represent parasequence sets. (B). Sandstone thicknesses variation
with depth for the upper cycle V of Well BX16-2. The short arrows represent parasequence sets.
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
into thick SCS sandstone. The gradational vertical relationship be-
tween the different facies of PS-1 is interpreted to be the result of a
progressive, gradual shallowing within a prograding wave-
dominated shoreface environment (Fig. 4). Similar shoreface suc-
cessions have been reported by Plint (1988) and Walker and Plint
(1992). The inferred water depth change, implied by the facies
successions of PS-1 of well BX16-2, is from 50 m to subtidal
(w10 m) or sea level (w0 m).
4.2.1.2. Shallow marine, sharp based shoreface sandstone para-
sequence, PS-2. PS-2 is a sharp-based, upward-coarsening shore-
face succession, best displayed in Figure 2A. The sharp contact
between the thick SCS sandstone and the underlying interbedded
lower shoreface HCS sandstone and shelfal mudstone is marked by
an overall decrease in the gamma reading (Fig. 4). The para-
sequence boundary is indicated by abrupt change in lithology, from
sandstones below the boundary to mudstone above the boundary;
by abrupt decrease in bed thickness and abrupt deepening of
depositional environment across the boundary. PS-2 are similarly
identied from logs of uncored intervals of wells BX8-1 and BX16-
2, and other wells of Baram eld.
The facies association within this upward-coarsening para-
sequence shows evidence of rapid decrease in water depth indi-
cated by the thick SCS sandstone unit which abruptly overlies the
self mudstone. The interpreted water-depth change for PS-1 is from
50 m for the shelf mudstone to a depth of between 20 and 5 m for
the SCS sandstone, depending on the thickness of the sand unit.
4.2.1.3. Coastal sandstone and mudstone parasequence, PS-3.
PS-4, when present, usually occurs immediately on top of a thick
PS-2 (Fig. 4.23). it exhibits a very distinctive, funnel shape log
signature. A similar facies succession was described by Johnson
et al. (1989) from neighbouring Betty eld in Baram Delta. They
described it as retrogradational sands which form during the early
part of the incoming transgression. van Wagoner et al. (1990)
identied and interpreted similar log patterns as coastal-plain
sandstone and mudstones. This rare parasequence may reach a
thickness of 25 m, but the interpreted thicknesses of the sandstones
never exceed 10 m.
4.2.1.4. Progradational/retrogradational parasequence, PS-4.
PS-3 show symetrical gamma-log shape interpreted as amalgam-
ated coarsening-upward and ning-upward units (Figs. 3 and 4).
This is possibly an offshore-to-offshore transition zone para-
sequence. It is interpreted to be the result of sedimentationwithin a
rising relative sea level (retrogradational-to-aggradational para-
sequence). The lower upward-coarsening section represents the
short period of progradation, while the upper ning upward part
records period when the rising sea-level overwhelmthe lowrate of
incoming sand. The depositional water-depth is interpreted to
change froman initial w30 mto w10 to 5 mand eventually back to
w30 m.
4.2.2. Lateral facies relationship in parasequences
Parasequences PS-1, PS-2, PS-3 and PS-4 are genetically related,
and thus showclose vertical and lateral relationship (Fig. 4). PS-1 is
interpreted to form during a normal progressive phase of a sub-
siding and prograding wave-dominated shoreface. The formation of
the parasequences is the result of the impact of relative sea-level
uctuations and their location within the shallow marine zone;
PS-1 represent a shoreface progradational phase while PS-2 in-
volves a more rapid relative sea-level fall accompanied by active
progradation. PS-3 is interpreted to have formed in more proximal,
coastal part and showslight coarsening-upward log pattern, while
PS-4 is visualised to have formed in the more distal, offshore part of
the complex, thus resulting in the serrated and near-symmetrical
shape log pattern (Fig. 4).
Figure 7. . Map of Baram eld and well location and graphical logs of sandstone thicknesses against relative depth.
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
4.2.3. Field wide wireline log correlation
4.2.3.1. Parasequence, parasequence sets and major cycles. The li-
thology and sequence stratigraphy of the Upper Cycle V for wells
BX8-1 and BX16-2 is interpreted based on the recognition and
interpretation of the parasequences supported by the rock-log
calibration (Fig. 5A and B). Figure A shows the lithological inter-
pretation of well BX8-1. The whole Upper Cycle V succession is
dominated by parasequence types PS-1 and PS-2, with subordinate
occurrences of PS-3 and PS-4. This suggests that during this period,
Baram eld was dominated by shallow marine, wave and storm
sedimentation with minor tidal inuence. A total of 67 para-
sequences can be identied and these can be grouped into 17 larger
cycles of thickening-upward parasequence sets.
A similar pattern is shown in well BX16-2 (Fig. 5B). A total of 78
parasequences are recognised; these can be grouped into 17 para-
sequence sets. In general, each parasequence sets presents a shal-
lowing upward trend of individual parasequences, which suggest
an overall regressive trend. The younger parasequences in any
particular parasequence set tend to be thicker than the older par-
asequences in the set, indication good accommodation and high
Table 1
Stratigraphic division of Sabah and Sarawak (Borneo).
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
sediment inux. This pattern corresponds to progradational para-
sequence set stacking pattern. Progradational parasequence sets
form during periods when the rate of deposition is greater than the
rate of accommodation, this results in successively younger para-
sequences being deposited farther basinward (van Wagoner et al.,
1990).
4.2.3.2. Sandstone thicknesses variation with depth. Sandstone
thicknesses were estimated by way of well log interpretation. These
thicknesses were plotted against well depth (Fig. 6A and B). For well
BX8-1, a maximum of 17 cycles, which corresponds to para-
sequence sets, are identied, while well BX16-2 exhibit 16 of these
cycles which are dominated by thick PS-1, with sandstone thick-
nesses reaching 15e20 m. For both wells, only the upper (younger)
major-cycle is complete.
Sandstone thicknesses variation with depth was plotted for the
other wells of Baram eld (Fig. 7). This yield similar results; the
total number of upward- thickening parasequence sets for all the
wells ranges from 15 to 24 sets. The two major cycles can also be
recognised in most of the wells. The upper (younger) major cycle is
complete in most wells. No complete lower cycle is recorded in any
of the wells. All the logs are tied to a regionally extensive upper
datum of Upper Cycle V (5.3 Ma).
4.2.4. The Upper (younger) major cycle
The Upper major cycle looks complete in wells BX24-1, BX7,
BX32-1 and BX42 in the western block of the eld. The thickest
and uppermost sandstone layer in all these wells ranges from 10
to 15 m. This cycle is complete but less pronounced in wells
BX4, BX8-1, BX3, BX9-1 and BX16-2. The thickness of the up-
permost sandstone is also reduced to between 20 and 40 m. The
cycles in wells BX2, BX27, BX5 and BX23 are marked by the
occurrence of a thick, sandstone layers in the middle part of the
cycle.
This may be due to thicker sedimentation post-Upper Major
Cycle in these more basinward part of the delta, differential sub-
sidence or because the sandy zone of the upper cycle did not extend
into these areas.
Table 3
Thicknesses of Cycle V.
Baram eld cycle V e Upper major cycle (w5.3e6.3 Ma)
Recorded thicknesses across the eld
Wells Total thickness (ft/m)
BA-X24 2040/621.8
BA-X7 2010/612.6
BA-X32 1965/598.9
BA-X42 2090/637
BA-X4 2140/652
BA-X8 2120/646
BA-X3 1825/556
BA-X16 2320/707
BA-X9 2030/618
BA-X2 1975/601
BA-X27 2045/623
BA-X5 2045/623
BA-X23 1740/530
Table 2
Sedimentary cycle of Sarawak with Planktonic foraminifera and palynological zonation.
EPOCH
GEO
CHRONO
Ma
PLANKTONIC
FORAMINIFERAL
ZONATIO
GEOLOGICAL, LAB
1977
PALYNOLOGICAL
ZONATION
SEDIMENTARY
CYCLE
PLIESTOCENE
2.85
3.3
5. 2
5.4
7.2
8.5
Globorotalia
truncatulinoids
Globorotalia tosaensis
Pv 2 581
Pv 3 481
VIII
VII
PLIOCENE
Globoquadrina altispira
Globorotalia
margaritae
Globorotalia
dutertrei
Globorotalia
acostaensis
Globorotalia
lenguasensis
Pv 2 128
Po 3 46
Sa 35 Scz 230
P02 327
Pco 69
Pv 2 391
upper
middle VI
lower
upper
middle V
LATE
MIOCENE
Sa 300
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
4.2.5. The Lower (older) major cycle
None of the wells show a complete lower cycle. Note that the
uppermost thick parasequences of this lower cycle (PS-2) are better
developed and generally thicker throughout the eld compared to
the top parasequence of the upper cycle.
The stacking of shallowing-upward, shallow-marine para-
sequences indicates uctuations in depositional water depths,
which in turn implies cycles of relatives sea-level rise and fall.
Employing the values of the interpreted change in depositional
depths for the different parasequences, plots of depositional depths
change against depths are constructed for all the wells of Baram
eld. Figures 8A and B shows these plots for wells BX8-1 and BX16-
2 (see Fig. 9).
The plots obtained essentially show the same small-scale, in-
termediate and major cycles like the sand thicknesses vs depth plots
(Fig. 8A and B). A single small-scale cycle begins at a depositional
depth of 50 m, and shoals upward to sea level. As soon as the
shallowest depth is reached, this cycle is abruptly terminated by a
transgression, represented by a return to depth of 50 m. This
termination also becomes the beginning of the next cycle.
An intermediate cycle comprises a group of small-cycles (the
numbers range from 4 to 7 small-scale cycles) that progressively
shallows upward. This intermediate-cycle is a parasequence-set,
and indicates a more pronounced relative sea-level fall than a
small cycle.
The major-cycles can also be recognised here. The tops of most
of these cycles are occupied by thick PS-1. These represent a major
progradation phase which may be due to a relative sea level fall. It is
interesting to note that the intermediate cycle thicknesses show
very little variation, which may suggest some temporal regularity of
these cycles.
Figure 9. . Dip-oriented well logs correlation of Baram Field.
Figure 8. . Plots of depositional depths uctuation against well depths for two wells
(BX8-1 and BX16-2).
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
4.3. Seismic data
Limited seismic data was made available for this work. Figure 10
shows a north-south dip oriented section of part of the eld. Flat,
low lying and laterally correlatable reectors can be clearly seen in
this section, with minor disturbance. The section display very well
developed horizontal to slightly upward convex layers traceable to
great distances. This is indicative of ramp-type margin, inwhich the
basin oor dipped gradually seaward and lacked a distinct shelf-
slope margin. The interpreted shallow marine succession exhibit
laterally uniform facies and thicknesses. This may be indicative of a
history of areally uniform subsidence, at least across the eld, that
facilitates the accumulation of such a thick succession of shallow-
marine sediments.
4.4. Simulation of sediment dispersal trend and sedimentary ll in
Baram eld
4.4.1. Mechanisms for relative sea level change
The three different scales of cycles of Baram eld are formed as
the result of relative sea-level rises and falls, which can be produced
by three different mechanisms, namely, I) autocyclic delta-lobe
switching, ii) intermittent, jerky subsidence, and iii) eustasy.
4.4.1.1. Autocyclic processes. This is a well-documented mechanism
in which the relatively rapid sea-level rise is caused by compaction
of prodelta mudstones in a delta lobe, following distributary
channel avulsion (Frazier, 1967; van Wagoner et al., 1990). Elliot
(1974) noted that this drowning event will produce an abrupt,
planar and erosional surface with little or no preserved trans-
gressive lag lying above it. This rapid rise in relative sea level will
also create a parasequence boundary in the form of a marine
ooding surface with the areal extent equivalent to the areal extent
of the lobe itself.
However, possible major problems with invoking this mecha-
nism are the slow rate of compaction itself, and the implied regu-
larity of its occurrence, to produce thick multiple-stacked
successions of shallow marine sandstones and mudstones. van
Wagoner et al. (1990) also argued against the case for rapid
deltaic progradation as a mechanism for sequence boundary
formation.
He noted that preserved deltas and delta lobes show
distributary-channel deposits encased in stream-mouth bar and
delta-front deposits, and lack the subaqueous, sandy deltaic deposit
beneath the sequence boundary.
4.4.1.2. Intermittent, jerky subsidence. Rapid rise in relative sea-
level caused by subsidence along tectonically active faults can
also form parasequence boundaries (van Wagoner et al., 1990). This
kind of subsidence along low-lying shorelines can drown large
coastal areas and produce areally extensive marine ooding sur-
faces. However, it is thought unlikely that spasmodic subsidence
associated with faulting could yield regional, high-frequency cycles.
It also looks almost impossible for intermittent subsidence to
support the formation of cycles with such a narrow range of
thicknesses like those of Baram eld.
4.4.1.3. Eustasy. The depositional cycles of the Baram eld are in
the form of parasequences, parasequence sets and major-cycles.
These parasequences and parasequence sets can appropriately be
termed high-order sequences and sequence sets of Mitchum and
van Wagoner (1991).
The hierarchy of sequences forms as a response to relative sea-
level uctuations, which can be the result of rise and fall of sea-
level itself. Sea-level cycles are classied according to the dura-
tion of the cycle: third order cycles (1e10 millions years); fourth
order cycles (200,000 0 500,000 yr) and fth order cycles (10,000e
200,000 yr) (Plint et al., 1992).
High-frequency cyclicity of fourth order and higher has long
been recognised in carbonate rocks (Fisher, 1964, 1986;
Goldhammer et al., 1987; Koerschner and Read, 1989). Koerschner
and Read (1989) argued that sea-level uctuation is the simplest
mechanism to form regional high-order cycles. This is because
there is an actualistic model that is the Milankovitch climate-
forcing, which is able to cause the sea-level uctuations with the
required high frequencies. Milankovitch climatic uctuations with
roughly w20 k.y., w40 k.y. and w100 k.y. (and possibly longer
periods, e.g. w400 k.y.) periods have been shown to have occurred
at least back into the Mesozoic and Late Palaeozoic (Olsen, 1986;
Anderson, 1986). By developing statistical approaches to
measuring and estimating frequencies of interpreted Milankovitch
cycles in carbonates, Goldhammer et al. (1987) and Koerschner and
Read (1989) recognised important frequencies at about 100,000
and 20,000 years, which are superposed on the third order
frequencies.
In the Muskiki and Marshybank Formations (Cretaceous) of the
Alberta Foreland Basin, Canada, Plint (1991) identied 15 regionally
traceable siliciclastic high-order sequences, each of which appar-
ently lasted about 100,000 years. He suggested an orbitally forced
glacio-eustatic mechanisms for the formation of the 100,000 year
frequency cycles.
Figure 10. . NortheSouth dip-oriented seismic section.
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
4.4.2. Modelling Late Miocene eustatic changes and the deposition
of Baram eld cycles
Parasequence stacking patterns in Upper Cycle V of Baram eld
suggest that deposition and build-up stratigraphy were controlled
by superimposed short-term and long-term uctuations in relative
sea level. The control of third order cycles of durations of 1e10 m.y.
is problematic and controversial. Haq et al. (1988) and Vail et al.
(1977) suggest control of third-order cycles by the waxing and
waning of continental ice masses. However, growth and decay of
continental ice masses takes place over much shorter periods of
time (Plint et al., 1992). Analysis of the stable oxygen isotope record
for the Cenozoic suggests that third-order changes may be driven
by a combination of glacio-eustatic sea-level and ocean paleo-
temperature changes (Williams, 1988). However, to date, there is
still no consensus on the driving mechanism of third order cycles.
Fourth and fth-order cycles, widely documented in many Phan-
erozoic shallow marine and pelagic rocks, are readily explained by
changes in climate driven by different cyclic perturbations of the
Earths tilt and orbit (Plint et al., 1992). These are the Milankovitch
cycles. According to the Milankovitch theory, the principal control
on the growth and decay of Quaternary ice sheets is the uctuation
in the seasonal distribution of incoming solar radiation (Raymo
et al., 1989). Thus, fourth and fth-order sea level changes may
be easily produced by the alternate accumulation and melting of
continental ice caps, in response to Milankovitch cycles (Plint et al.,
1992).
Sequence stratigraphic well log interpretation has made
possible the estimation of approximate dates of the terminations of
the 2 major cycles of Baram eld. These are the 5.3 Ma and 6.3 Ma
lowstands, which corresponds to the eustatic falls of Haq et al.
(1988). The Messinian Upper Major Cycle comprises w10 cycles
of 100 Ky Milankovitch cycle. The 6.3 Ma boundary shows better
developed sandstone layers. This is probably due to a longer period
of lowstand as also indicated on Haq et al. (1988) curve (Fig. 11). The
seismic sections suggest that the Messinian sequence of Barameld
is a Type -2 sequence deposited in a ramp margin setting.
Fifth-order cycles (parasequences) of Barameld are dominated
by thin sand PS-1, suggesting an appreciable fall of relative sea
level. The interpreted change in water depths is from w50 m for
shelf mudstones to between w40 and w30 m for lower shoreface
SCS sandstones; a fall ofw10ew20 m of relative sea level. Fourth-
order cycles (parasequence sets) are characterised by thicker PS-1
and PS-2, indicating a greater fall of relative sea level. A fall of
w20ew40 m of relative sea level is assigned for these cycles. The
vertical organisation of the major, third-order cycles of Barameld,
commonly marked by very thick PS-2 and PS-1 at the top, suggests
a fall of relative sea level between w40 and w50 m. This corre-
sponds to a change from mud-dominated shelfal environments
(w50 m) to shallow shoreface (w10), and possibly even intertidal,
supratidal and non-marine environments (w0 m).
Figure 11. . Correlation of Baram sequence and sequence to Haq et al. (1988) sea-level curve.
Sea level at start : 50 m Rate of linear rise ( ) : 0.05 m/ky
Period (Ky) Amplitude (m)
1000 50
100 25
20 10
Sea level at start : 50 m Rate of linear rise ( ) : 0.05 m/ky
Period (Ky) Amplitude (m)
1000 50
100 25
20 10
10 3
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
Clastic 2.0 (Hardy and Waltham, 1992a,b; Waltham, 1992) is a
Macintosh program to simulate the growth and development of a
clastic depositional system through time. This program produces
plots of time lines of the growth of a clastic wedge and facies
markers based upon the general grain-size distribution (sand, silt,
mud) of a given sedimentary interval (arbitrary thickness). The
development of the system is controlled by user-supplied param-
eters of sediment supply, erosion-rate and sea level variation.
Using Clastic 2.0, two simulated models of the growth and
development of the Late Miocene BaramDelta was generated using
the parameters obtained from sequence stratigraphic interpreta-
tion of the Baram eld. The Baram Delta during this period con-
stitutes a very low-gradient shelf which slopes northward to a
depth of more or less 50 m in 100 km. Similar shelf geometry has
been suggested for extensive shelf sandstone complexes (Brenchley
et al., 1986; Plint, 1991). Default values of sediment supply and
erosion-rate were used (Table 4.5 a and b).
The rst model (Model 1) was generated with the following
value of sea level variation :
The second model (Model 2) was generated with an additional,
higher frequency sea level change (10 Ky; 3 m amplitude):
Figure 12A shows the 1000 Ky run of Model 1. The simulated
model shows that the bulk of sediments remain close to the initial
coastline. This plot displays stratigraphic surfaces (multi-coloured
lines) at 1.0 Ky increment. The dark lines are chronostratigraphic
(time) lines, here drawn at 20 Ky. Intervals. The 1000 Ky Run
(Fig. 12A) plot display stratigraphic surfaces (coloured lines) every
10 Ky and time lines (dark lines every 100 Ky). It shows that with
further fall of relative sea level, the delta or shoreface has pro-
graded further basinward, to a distance of at least 15.0 km away
from the initial coastline.
The 500 Ky Run of Model 2 is shown in Figure 12B. Stratigraphic
lines are shown at 5.0 Ky Interval, while the dark time lines are
drawn for every 100 Ky. In this model, the introduction of addi-
tional, higher order sea-level uctuation enables more sediments
to be spread further basinward. This plot shows howparasequences
developed through time within the pre-set sea level variation
scheme.
These are preliminary, exploratory models to test how realistic
are the interpretation of high-frequency relative sea-level oscilla-
tions for Late Miocene BaramDelta. The models are based on broad
assumptions of initial shelf geometry, the rate of sediment inux
and erosion rates; thus, they have many limitations. The plots ob-
tained, however, do show close similarities to the stratal charac-
teristics fromwireline logs correlations. In particular, the basinward
and landward swinging movements of thick shoreface sand-
stones are quite apparent in Model 2. More denite parameters
need to be obtained, and rigorous testing be carried out, in order to
construct a more realistic model for the Late Miocene Baram Delta.
5. Conclusion
I. Facies analysis of the cored intervals of the Upper Cycle V
(Late Miocene) of Baram eld recognized ten lithofacies
characteristics of wave and storm-dominated, shallow ma-
rine deposits. The stacking pattern of these lithofacies,
marked by the repeated occurrences of SCS and HSC sand-
stones, suggests shoreface progradation into shelfal envi-
ronments within the background of relative sea level fall. The
presence of minor tidal facies suggests localised process-
mixing within the environment.
II. Three environmentally signicant facies associations were
recognised based on the core facies analysis. These are: i)
Gradational, upward-coarsening HCS-SCS shoreface succes-
sions. The gradational, coarsening-upward shallowing-up-
ward vertical facies organisation suggests a progressive,
Figure 12. . Schematic and simulated models illustrating the evolution of the Baram eld cycles in relation with the sea-level change. The two gures (A - Model 1; B - Model 2)
show how the distribution of sand-rich facies (HCS and SCS) changes with changes in the pattern of sea level uctuations.
10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.03.010
gradual shallowing of the environment, reective of a pro-
grading, wave-dominated shoreface; ii) Sharp-based, up-
ward-coarsening SCS shoreface succession. The thick SCS
middle-to-upper shoreface sandstone is interpreted to be
deposited during a period of rapid fall of relative sea level; iii)
Fining-upward tidal succession displays a ning-upward,
shallowing-upward succession of tide-inuenced facies.
The thickness and occurrence of this unit suggest periods of
localised and restricted tide-inuenced sedimentation
within a wave-dominated setting.
III. The vertical organization of parasequences (well logs) of the
Upper Cycle V of Baram eld show progradational para-
sequence set stacking pattern, with the younger para-
sequences in any particular parasequence set generally
thicker than the older parasequences in the set. This suggests
that sedimentation occurred when the rate of depositionwas
greater than the rate of accommodation, resulting in suc-
cessively younger parasequences being deposited farther
basinward.
IV. Sequence stratigraphic well log interpretation of the Late
Miocene section of Baram eld dene three (3) scales of
depositional cycles: i) upward-coarsening small scale cycles,
the parasequences, which show average thicknesses ranging
between w10 and w 30 m; ii) the medium-scale cycles
(parasequence sets) comprise four to seven parasequences
showing upward-thickening trend, and bounded by major
marine-ooding surfaces. These small and medium-scale
cycles are interpreted to have formed as the result of the
glacio-eustatic controlled w20 Ky and w100 Ky Milanko-
vitch cycles, respectively. The large-scale cycles, which
generally consist of nine to eleven parasequence sets, closely
correlate with Haq et al. (1988) third-order cycle.
V. Simulated models of the growth and development of the Late
Miocene Baram eld sedimentary cycles show close simi-
larities to the stratal characteristics from wireline log corre-
lations. The basinward and landward to-and-fro, swinging
movements of thick shoreface sandstones are well modelled.
With more denite parameters and rigorous testing, simu-
lation models can be well employed as a complimentary tool
for correlation and reservoir modelling.
Acknowledgements
This paper was partly based on an earlier study by Abdul Hadi
Abd. Rahman (1995) and Tan et al. (1999). The authors would like
to thank Petronas for permission to present and publish this paper.
We would also like to thank the University Malaya and PSD (Public
Services Department) Malaysia for their nancial support. The
ideas presented herein, however, are solely the authors
interpretation.
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