British Journal of Social Psychology (2010), 49, 803-826

2010 The British Psychological Society

803
The
British
Psychological
www.bpsjoumals.co.uk
Changes in social identities over tinne: The role
of coping and adaptation processes
Catherine E. Amiot' *, Deborah J. Terry^, Dian Wirawan^
and Tim A. Grice^
'Universit du Qubec Montral, Canada
^University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
The present studies investigated the processes by which group members integrate a
new social identity. Based on a newly developed theoretical model, we anticipated that
social factors (social support and need satisfaction) would be facilitators of this change
process and should have an impact on the coping and adaptation strategies group
members use to deal with the membership in a new group. These strategies, in turn,
should predict intra-individual changes in level of identification with the new group,
which should then predict enhanced psychological adjustment over time. The proposed
associations were tested among university students over the course of their first
academic year (Study I) and among on-line gamers joining a newly established on-line
community (Study 2). Path analyses provided support for the hypothesized associations.
The results are discussed in light of recent theoretical developments pertaining to
intra-individual changes in social identities.
Whether it is through international migration, organizational change, and restructuring,
national deconstruction/reconstruction, or major natural disasters, social change is
omnipresent in today's world. At an individual level, joining a new social group
represents an important change that requires the need to respond to new in-group
norms, at the same time as finding a way to contribute to the new group context
(Hornsey, Grice, Jetten, Paulsen, & Callan, 2007; Postmes & Jetten, 2006). Cognitively,
joining a new social group means that an individual's own conception of him or herself
will possibly change to accommodate to and integrate the new group identity within his
or her overall sense of self.
The present research investigates the processes through which new social identities
become important to the individual's self over time. Specifically, the research focuses on
the phenomenon of intra-individual change in social identities, which captures how
social identities changeover time within the individual (Cervone, 2005). Doing so allows
to focus on the individual's own subjective experience in the identification process and
* Correspondence should be addressed to Dr Catherine Amiot, Dpartement de psychologie, Universit du Qubec
Montral, C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville, Montral, PQ, Canada H3C 3P8 (e-mail: amiolcatherine@uqam.ca).
DOI: 10.1348/014466609X480624
804 Catherine Amiot et o/.
to identify diverse trajectories of change (Nesselroade, 1991; Roberts, Caspi, & Moffitt,
2001). Putting the emphasis on these intra-individual changes is important given that
most research has concentrated on how overall samples of participants, on average,
changeover time (a phenomenon referred to as inter-individual change and which
captures the level of change among an entire population), without considering each
individual's pattern of change (or intra-individual change, which refers to the
magnitude of increase or decrease exhibited by each individual over time).
We adopt the position that contexts of change - such as joining a new social group -
trigger intra-individual changes in social identities. In such contexts, changes in social
identities are likely to require the reorganization of the self-concept in order to integrate
the new social identity (Phinney, 1993). A growing number of studies have provided
evidence for the variations that occur in group members' social identities over time
Getten, Iyer, Tsivrikos, & Young, 2008; Jetten, O'Brien, & Trindall, 2002; Kessler &
Mummendey, 2002). However, the specific processes that underpin intra-individual
changes in social identities remain understudied. Furthermore, past intergroup research
has tended to focus on the short-term, situationally activated variations in social
identities (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & WethereU, 1987) - that is, how the salience
of different social identities change from one context to another. The question of how
new social identities become part of the self is definitely worth investigating to account
for the deeper changes taking place within the self over time and to capture group
members' diverse experiences in the change process. Based on a newly developed
theoretical model (Amiot, de la Sablonnire, Terry, & Smith, 2007), the first goal of the
present studies was to investigate the processes through which social identities change
intra-individually and become part of the self over time.
A cognitive-developmental model of social identity change and integration
At the heart of our model is the concept of social identity, which refers to 'that part of
the individual's self-concept which derives from his or her knowledge of membership to
a social group together with the value and the emotional significance attached to it'
(Tajfel, 1981, p. 255). Because each of us belongs to different social groups, our sense of
self is composed of multiple social identities (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Based on
developmental principles, our model assumes that, over time, the self tends to become
increasingly complex as different social identities are integrated into the self-concept
(e.g.. Harter, 1999). When identities are integrated into the self-concept, they can
coexist within the self without clashing or conflicting with one another. By definition,
identity integration should therefore predict a state of enhanced psychological
adjustment and well-being (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al, 2007).
Social faaors
Although the integration of new social identities and an increased feeling of
identification with a new social group over time are desirable goals, the social context
also needs to provide the nutriments that will allow a new identity to actually develop.
As can be seen in Figure 1, a number of social and individual factors are proposed to
predict the changes that occur in social identity over time. When joining a new social
group, two social factors that arise within the group - social support and need
satisfaction - are proposed to be adaptation resources that will facilitate both group
members' adjustment into their new group and the integration of a new social identity.
This prediction is consonant with writings in developmental psychology, which have
Change in social identities 805
Social support
T1
Need
satisfaction
T1
^ -
Task-oriented
coping
T2
Disengagement
-oriented
coping T2
Inclusion efforts
T2
Positive
affirmation
T2
Change in
social identity
T1-T2
Change in
well-being
T1-T2
Social factors Coping and
adaptation processes
Consequence
Figure I. Hypothesized associations.
Stressed the role of the social environment and interpersonal relations in the
developmental process (Harter, 1999). Research conducted during changes such as
immigration and organizational mergers has revealed the importance of social support
in predicting adjustment to these changes (Ataca & Berry, 2002; Terry, Callan, & Sartori,
1996). Social support also predicts the use of more adaptive strategies when coping
with life-changes (e.g., Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002; Terry ei/., 1996). Applying a
social identity approach to social support, Haslam, O'Brien, Jetten, Vormedal, and Penna
(2005) showed that informational support had a particularly positive effect in
attenuating stress when it was provided by in-group members.
In addition to social support received in the group context, the extent to which
fundamental psychological needs are satisfied by the group should also be a potent
predictor of how new group members deal with and adjust to their entry into a new
social group (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al, 2007). According to self-determination
theory (SDT), when the fundamental needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness
are satisfied, this wl lead to optimal human functioning and well-being. More recently,
research has suggested that these needs can be satisfied via our social groups. In fact,
Bettencourt and Sbeldon (2001; Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002) found that satisfaction of
the needs for autonomy (i.e., perceiving that one can be authentic in the group context
and is accepted for who one really is), competence (feeling that one's contribution to
the group is valued and that one is a competent group member), and relatedness
(establishing meaningful relations with other group members) bave a positive impact on
both identification with the group and on psychological well-being. Interestingly, and in
line with SDT, these three needs are not mutually exclusive and they have been found to
be positively associated with one another (e.g., Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002).
Cop/ng ar\d adaptation strategies
Coping and adaptation efforts should also play a role in predicting whether a new social
identity will develop and be endorsed by group members (Figure 1). The process of
joining a new^ group requires effort and motivation. Group members need to expand
energy and efforts to deal with the new demands, norms, and ways of functioning in
806 Catherine E. Amiot et al.
their new group context (Chen & Klimoski, 2003). Whereas coping has been formally
defined as the person's behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage the internal and
external demands of a troubled person-environment transaction (Lazarus & Folkman,
1984), coping efforts can also be conceptualized as developmental mechanisms
(Brandtstdter, 1998; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995). According to Skinner and Edge
(2002), prolonged negotiations with environmental demands characterize the process
of self-development and integration, through which novel elements are assimilated to
the self. Based on these propositions, we propose that coping and adaptation strategies
represent the concrete actions through which group members actively become part of
their new group and identify with this in-group (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al, 2007),
Research conducted during changes such as an organizational merger and the transition
to university have cotifirmed that coping plays a role in predicting identification with a
new social group (Amiot, Terry, Jimmieson, & Callan, 2006) and social role (Amiot,
Blanchard, & Gaudreau, 2008).'
In the present research, we investigated the role of coping and adaptation strategies
at a point in time when new group members had the opportunity to realize the
requirements of their new membership and when they were concretely accotnmo-
dating to the demands of their new in-group (e.g,, Amiot, Terry, & Callan, 2007; Moreland &
Levine, 1982), We also elected to investigate two broad types of coping and adaptation
strategies. First, those that are employed individually, as proposed by traditional stress
and coping models (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), These individual-level strategies include
task-oriented coping strategies, such as investing effort, planning, and seeking relevant
information. Such task-oriented strategies should predict increased levels of
identification with the new group. Conversely, the individual-level disengagement-
oriented coping strategies, which involve disengaging mentally and behaviourally from
the new situation, should predict a decrease in social identification over time.
Second, the current research investigates two group-level adaptation strategies that
relate to the efforts made by the individual in relation to joining the group (Mummendey,
Kessler, Klink, & Mielke, 1999). While past studies have uncovered links between social
identification and group-level strategies Qetten etal, 2008; Mummendey ei a/., 1999),
herein we conceptualized these strategies as antecedents of social identity change, and
more precisely, as mechanisms through which new social identities take shape and
become embedded more deeply into individuals' selves.
The first group-level strategy investigated pertains to inclusion efforts. This strategy
refers to the extent to which individuals are willing to exert efforts to fit into their new
group and to adopt the norms of this group. This strategy differs from traditional stress
and coping strategies by tapping directly into the efforts new group members make to
be accepted in their in-group and by capturing the intragroup actions that aim at
establishing relationships with other in-group members (e.g,, Moreland & Levine, 2000),
It also differs from the social mobility strategy which involves leaving a lower status
group to join a higher status group one, and where the statuses of one's old and new
social identities are hence directly compared (Tajfel & Turner, 1986),
The other group-level strategy we assessed pertains to positive affirmation. This
strategy is used by in-group members to affirm their group's positive value in
comparison to other groups. It differs from traditional stress and coping strategies by
' In the original model (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al., 2007), we mentioned that coping could aaually serve as a mediator in
the association between social support and change in social identity. In the current studies, Ms proposition was tested explicitly
Change in social identities 807
tapping directly into group members' intergroup behaviours. This strategy should come
into play particularly strongly as group members seek to establish the positive
distinctiveness of their new emerging in-group within the already existing intergroup
structure (e.g., Mummendey et al, 1999). Because these two group-level strategies
connect the individual to concrete group-related demands and involve the public
expression of one's in-group allegiance, both of these strategies should lead to an
increased identification with the new social group.
Psychological well-being as a consequence of social identity change
As mentioned above, an important goal of the present research was to investigate the
factors (i.e., social support, need satisfaction; coping and adaptation strategies) that
predict the intra-individual changes in social identities that take place over time.
Another goal worth pursuing aims at identifying the consequences of such changes. In
line with our model, we hypothesized that an increased sense of identification with
one's new social group should predict increased psychological well-being. Social
identity has been shown to predict enhanced well-being (e.g., Cameron, 1999) as well as
work and life satisfaction (Riketta, 2005; Riketta & van Dick, 2005), and to even act as a
buffer against negative events (e.g., Haslam, Jetten, Postmes, & Haslam, 2009). In the
context of a life-change such as the transition to university, Schmitt, Spears, and
Branscombe (2003) found evidence for the mediating role of identification in the
association between feelings of discrimination and well-being. Bettencourt, Charlton,
Eubanks, and Kernahan (1999) similarly reported positive associations between an intra-
individual increase in students' identification with their residence hall (over their first
academic year) and their adjustment to college.
Hypothesized associations
Given our interest in investigating changes over time, both of the social identification
and well-being variables were constructed so as to tap into the intra-individual changes
occurring in these variables (see also, Bettencourt et al, 1999; Brissette et al, 2002).
Doing so allowed us to assess intra-individual changes in identity over time and also to
control for baseline (Time 1) measures when predicting the Time 2 consequences.
Using such change scores also allows for a more unbiased prediction of these variables
and avoids spuriously inflated estimates of our associations. These constitute major
advantages of our design (Cole & Maxwell, 2003).
As illustrated in Figure 1, the following associations were tested. Social support and
need satisfaction provided in the context of the new group were expected to predict
coping and adaptation strategies used as group members were actually confronting the
requirements of this new context. More specifically, social support and need satisfaction
represent resources that should facilitate the use of the more active task-oriented coping
strategies and the group-level adaptation strategies of inclusion efforts and positive
affirmation, while predicting a lower use of the disengagement-oriented coping
strategies. In turn, these coping and adaptation strategies should lead to changes, over
time, in social identification. In line with traditional coping research (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984), it was proposed that these coping and adaptation strategies would then
mediate the associations between the social factors (i.e., social support and need
satisfaction) and the change in identity variable (see Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al,
2007). Specifically, task-oriented coping, inclusion efforts, and positive affirmation
808 Catherine E. Amiot et ai
strategies were expected to lead to an increase in social identification over time,
whereas disengagement-oriented coping strategies were expected to predict decreased
social identification. Finally, we hypothesized that an increase in social identification
would predict enhanced psychological well-being.
These associations were tested among two samples: (1) first year university students
and (2) members of a new on-line gaming community. Given the applicability of many
social psychological theories to different types of social groups (e.g., Ashmore, Deaux, &
McLaughlin-Volpe, 2004) and the fact that the model of social identity change and
integration aims to apply to different types of social identities (Amiot, de la Sablonnire
et al, 2007), we anticipated that the proposed associations should replicate from one
study to the next.
STUDY I
The first study tested these associations in the context of the transition to university,
which is considered an important life-change (Ruble & Seidman, 1996). In this context,
coping processes are particularly important as they allow entering students to develop a
plan of action for navigating through this transition and to integrate the changes brought
about by this life stage (Brissette et al, 2002). In terms of social identity, this life
transition involves joining a new educational institution and student body, in this case,
the University of Queensland (UQ).
Method
Procedure and participants
All participants were recruited for the Time 1 questionnaire within the first 2 months of
their first semester at UQ. The Time 2 questionnaire was completed 4 months later.
Participants received course credit for completing Time 1 questionnaire, and they
received a compensation of AU$10 for the completion of the Time 2 questionnaire.
A total of 334 students completed the Time 1 questionnaire, and 121 participants
completed the Time 2 questionnaire, whereas 119 students completed both
questionnaires (98 women; 21 men). Participants' ages ranged from 17 to 45 years
old (M = 19.07, SD = 3.83).
To investigate whether participants who completed both questionnaires of the study
(TV =119) differed from those who completed only the Time 1 questionnaire
(A^ =215), Bonferroni t tests were conducted on the Time 1 variables. These analyses
revealed one significant difference: participants who completed both questionnaires
reported higher levels of identification as a UQ student at Time \ (M = 5.01) in
comparison to participants who completed only the Time 1 questionnaire (M = 4.57;
i(l, 333) = 3.39, p = .001). However, drop-out accounted for 3% of the variance in
Time 1 identification and no other difference was found on any other variable.
Measures
Questiormaire 1 included the social support and need satisfaction measures, along with
baseline measures of identification as a UQ student and psychological well-being, which
was assessed using the vitality scale (Ryan & Frederick, 1997). Questionnaire 2 assessed
Change in social identities 809
the coping and adaptation strategies used to deal with the transition to university and
again, measures of identification and well-being were taken.
Perceived social support
Fifteen items from the perceived availability of social support (Cohen & Hoberman,
1983) were used. This instrument is well-suited to assess social support available to first
year university students (e.g., Brissette etal., 2002). The instrument assesses three social
support dimensions (five-items each); tangible support (e.g., 'I know someone who
would loan me some money to help me pay my tuition'), companionship support
('Lately, I often felt lonely, like I don't have anyone to reach out to' - reverse score), and
emotional support 1 know someone who I see or talk to often with whom I would feel
perfectly comfortable talking about any problems I might have adjusting to university
life'. Items were completed on a scale ranging from 1 (definitely false) to 4 (definitely
true). An overall social support score was created using all 15 items (a = .83).
Need satisfaction
Items from Sheldon and Bettencourt's (2002) measure were used to assess how each
of three psychological needs where satisfied in the context of being part of tbe UQ
student body (Deci & Ryan, 2000); autonomy (e.g., 'How free and choiceftil do you
feel when being in this group?'), relatedness How close and connected do you feel to
other members of the group?', and competence To what extent do people at UQ
make you feel as a valuable member of this group?'. The items were completed using a
seven-point response format, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). Three items
were used to assess each need. An overall need satisfaction score w^as created using all
of the 9 items (a = .92).
Coping
The COPE inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) has been successfully used to
assess coping strategies used by students experiencing the transition to university
(Brissette et al, 2002). When completing the COPE, participants were asked to rate how
each item reflected how they were dealing with the transition to university (1 = not at
all; 7 = very strongly). The COPE subscales pertaining to active coping, planning,
seeking of social support for emotional and instrumental reasons, positive
reinterpretation of the transition, and acceptance were used to assess task-oriented
coping. The COPE subscales measuring behavioural disengagement, denial, and
ventilation of negative emotions were used to assess disengagement-oriented coping.
The disengagement-oriented coping strategy of other-blame (blaming the others for
one's difficulties in the transition) was also included.
Identification as a university student
This 12-item instrument was designed to measure strength of social identity Gackson,
2002) and was adapted to measure three aspects of participants' degree of identification
as a UQ student (1 = not at all; 7 = very strongly). First, the cognitive dimension of
identity was assessed by asking participants how strongly they identified as a university
student (e.g., I identify myself as a UQ student'). Second, the affective component of
identity was measured by asking participants bow positive they felt as a university
810 Catherine Amiot et ai
student 'I am glad to be a UQ student'. Third, to tap into how this new identity was
embedded and well-integrated within one's overall life, questions were included to
assess how being a university student provided a sense of purpose and direction 'Being a
UQ student helps me achieve things that are important in my life'. An overall
identification score was created using these 12-items (Time 1, a = .92; Time 2, a = .93).
Psychological well-being (vitality)
The seven-item vitality scale was employed to measure the energization aspect of
psychological well-being (Ryan & Frederick, 1997). This dimension of well-being,
which captures enthusiasm and spirit, is considered an important and relevant indicator
of eudemonic well-being (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2001). This well-being measure is also
content-free with respect to external criteria of well-being (e.g., objective success,
health, social support). Given that the transition to university can be stressful and
requires energy, this well-being indicator is well-suited and pertinent. Participants
indicated the extent to which each of the items corresponded to how they had
generally felt over the past 2 weeks (e.g., 'I felt alive and vital'). Each item was rated on
a seven-point Likert scale (1 = not agree at all, 7 = very strongly agree; Time 1, a = .93;
Time 2, a = .66}.
Results
Main analyses
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and correlations among the main variables.
Table I . Descriptive statistics and correlations among the main variables (Study I )
1. Tl social support
2. Tl need satisfaction
3. T2 task-oriented coping
4. T2 disengagement-oriented coping
5. Change in social identity
6. Change in vitality
M
3.10
4.22
4.92
2.24
0.00
0.00
SD
0.53
1.03
0.84
0.92
1.00
1.00
1
.49***
.36***
- . 3 1 * *
- . 01
.20*
2
_
48***
- . 06
.11
.04
3
_
.05
.36**
. 21*
4

- . 03
.04
5
_
.23*
Note. M, mean; SD, standard deviation.
*p < .05; **p < .01 ; ***f) < .001.
Inter- and intra-individual changes over time
Because of our conceptual interest in changes occurring over time, patterns of inter-
individual changes (mean-level changes) in identification and well-being were first
inspected. Inter-individual change refers to an overall population's pattern of change.
Repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) allow to tap into inter-individual
change (e.g., Roberts etal, 2001). Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed no significant
change in identification as a UQ student (M at Time 1 = 5.01; M at Time 2 = 4.96;
F(l, 118) = 0.54, p = .465, f]^ = .005) and in vitality (M at Time 1 = 388; M at
Time 2 = 3.88; F(l, 118) = 0.01,p = .977, T]^ = .000).
While these mean-level analyses revealed no significant inter-individual changes in
our overall sample, we needed to look at each individual's intra-individual pattern of
change in order to determine whether the scores of some people were significantly
Change in social identities 811
increasing over time, whereas others' were significantly decreasing. Indeed, even in the
absence of significant inter-individual change, there can be significant intra-individual
change. Furthermore, the correlation between social identification at Times 1 and 2 was:
r = ,73 (p < .001), indicating that the continuity and consistency of the social
identification variable over time was far from perfect and that we need to account for
such change (Roberts et al, 2001).
Specifically, intra-individual change refers to the magnitude of increase or decrease
exhibited by each individual over time. To assess whether a given participant exhibited
reliable change on the identification and well-being (i.e., vitality) variables, we
calculated the reliable change index (RCI; Christensen & Mendoza, 1986), a procedure
that has been employed to assess the psychological changes occurring during life
transitions among normal populations (e.g., Amiot et al, 2008; Roberts et al, 2001).
One major advantage of the RCI is that it allows to compensate for the unreliability of the
change scores. The RCI is also informative for nonintervention or natural history studies
(Robert et al, 2001), such as in the current studies.
The specific formula used to obtain RCI scores is as follows (Christensen & Mendoza,
1986): RC = ^2 - Xi/5diff, where Xi represents a person's score at Time 1,
X2 represents that same person's score at Time 2, and Sdift is the standard error of
difference between the two test scores, which can be computed using the standard
error of measurement: 5diff = (2(5E)^)' ^^ The standard error of the difference score
represents the spread of the distribution of change scores that would be expected if no
actual change has occurred. RCI scores smaller than -1.96 or larger than 1,96 are
unlikely to occur without true change and are thus considered reliable. Furthermore, if
change were random, then we would expect the distribution of RCI scores to be normal,
with approximately 2,5% below - 1.96, 2.5% above 1.96, and 95% of the participants
remaining the same. Based on this formula, we can then use the RCI to identify the
proportions of participants from our sample who significantly increased, significantly
decreased, or showed no appreciable change (Christensen & Mendoza, 1986; Roberts
etal, 2001).
Based on the RCI, we observed that 22% of participants decreased their identification
as a UQ student from Times 1 to 2, whereas 20.2% increased their identification,
and 57.8% stayed the same. Chi-squared statistics revealed that on the identification
variable, the distribution of decreasers, nonchangers, and increasers differed
significantly from the pattern that would be expected by chance (x^(2) = 291.98,
p < .001), suggesting that significant proportions of participants displayed reliable intra-
individual change in social identification over time. On the vitality variable, 16.9% of
participants displayed a decrease, 16.9% displayed an increase, and 66.2% stayed the
same, again representing significant intra-individual change (x^(2) = 174.62,p < .001).
Taken together, these results suggest that significant proportions of participants
displayed intra-individual changes on the social identification and well-being
(i.e., vitality) variables.
The next step was to examine whether the coping variables predicted these intra-
individual changes. To do so, residualized difference scores were computed.
To compute these scores, each Time 2 variable was regressed on to its corresponding
Time 1 variable and the residual values for these predictions were saved as distinct
variables (Cronbach & Furby, 1970). Residualized change scores are particularly useftil
to use in the current context given that they represent the intra-individual change that
exists in the targeted variables (Roberts etal, 2001). These change variables were then
embedded into a path analysis.
812 Catherine E, Amiot et ai
P a t h a n a l y s e s
The maximum-likelihood estimation procedure was used to estimate model fit. We
assessed the model's goodness of fit by using the chi-squared ratio, the comparative
fit index (CFI), the root mean residual (RMR), and the root mean square of
approximation (RMSEA). The chi-squared should ideally be non-significant. CFI values
greater than .90 serve as the lower cut-off (Hu & Bentler, 1999). RMR values below
.10 are acceptable. Values smaller than .08 on the RMSEA indicate acceptable fit of
the model, whereas values smaller than .05 represent good fit (Byrne, 1994; Hoyle,
1995). Statistics that adjust for the amount of non-normality in the data were also
computed (i.e., Satorra-Bentler (S-B) chi-squared; adjusted CFI, and RMSEA). The La
Grange multiplier test (LM-test) was used to identify parameters that, if added to the
model, would yield a significantly better fit. The Wald test was used to identify non-
significant parameters.
The model was specified as illustrated in Figure 2. When testing the hypothesized
model, fit indices were marginal (x^(7) = 15.911,j5 = .026, S-B x^ = 14.111,CFI = .911,
adjusted CFI = .910, RMR = .066, RMSEA = .105, adjusted RMSEA = .094). The LM-test
suggested that a path between social support and change in vitality should be added. This
addition is in line with prior research that has shown the importance of social support in
predicting increased vitality and well-being (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2000) The addition of this
association resulted in a significantly better model (x^A(l) = 5.221,p = .022) that also
yielded satisfactory fit indices (x^(6) = 10.690, p = .098, S-B x^ = 9.465, CFI = .953,
adjusted CFI = .956, RMR = .060, RMSEA = .082, adjusted RMSEA = .071). As can be
seen in Figure 2, most of the hypothesized associations were supported. Only two
associations were found to be non-significant, namely, the associations between need
satisfaction and disengagement-oriented coping and between disengagement-oriented
coping and change in identification. A final model that did not include these non-
significant links did not significantly differ from the prior one (x^A(2) = 0.783,p = .676)
and presented satisfactory fit indices (x^(8) = 11.473, p = .176, S-B x^ = 10.252,
CFI = .965, adjusted CFI = .971, RMR = .059, RMSEA = .061, adjusted RMSEA = .049).
Tests of mediation
To test for the mediating role of the coping and change in identification variables, and
in line with the procedures proposed by Holmbeck (1997), we first tested a model in
.49*
Need
satisfaction
Tl
.19*
\ . .38*
X-
.07
/
Task-oriented
coping
T2
36*
\
Disengagement-
oriented coping
T2
.20*
Change in
social identity
T1-T2
.24*
Change in
vitality
T1-T2
Consequence
Social factors Coping and
adaptation processes
Figure 2. Path model for Study I.
Change in social identities 813
which the direct paths between both social support and need satisfaction to changes in
identification and in vitality was compared to the final model that did not include all of
these direct paths (Holmbeck, 1997). Results revealed that the model that included all
direct links did not present a significantly better fit (x^A(5) = 8.508, p = .150]
X^(l) = 2.182, p = .139, CFI = .988, adjusted CFI = .987, RMSEA = .101, adjusted
RMSEA = .093, RMR = .027). These results suggest that the coping and change in social
identity variables significantly mediated the associations from the social factors to the
well-being (i.e., vitality) variable.
A second procedure was employed to test for mediation. To this aim, indirect effects
were investigated. As can be seen in Figure 2, our model suggests that the effects of
social support and need satisfaction on the change in social identity and in well-being
(i.e., vitality) are mediated by the coping variables. As well, the change in identity
variable should mediate the association between the coping variables and change in
vitality. Each of these relationships can be broken down into direct and indirect effects
tbat are amenable to tests of significance. Whereas a direct effect represents the direct
association between an independent variable and a dependent variable, an indirect
effect corresponds to the effects of one or more mediating variables in that relationship.
In structural equation modeling (SEM), mediated paths are considered indirect
associations (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). If the paths representing the indirect associations
are significant, then (at least partial) mediation exists. Results of the indirect tests
indicated that coping strategies significantly mediated the impact of social support on
change in social identity ( = 0.08, p = .038). Coping strategies also significantly
mediated the impact of need satisfaction on change in social identity ( = 0.13,
p = .007). The mediating role of change in social identity in the association between
task-oriented coping and change in vitality was also significant ( = 0.08, p = .030).
The only non-significant indirect effect to emerge revealed that change in social identity
did not significantly mediate the effect of disengagement-oriented coping on change in
vitality ( = -0. 01, p = .562). These findings suggest that the majority of the
associations from the social factors to the well-being (i.e., vitality) variable were
mediated through the coping and change in identification variables.
Discussion
This first study provided support for most of our hypothesized associations and for
the mediating role of coping strategies and change in social identification in the
associations between the social factors (i.e., social support and need satisfaction) and
psychological well-being (i.e., vitality) as a consequence of this change. In terms of
identity change, ANOVAs revealed that the sample as a whole did not change
significantly on the identification and well-being variables (inter-individual change).
However, results from the intra-individual change analyses (i.e., RCI) revealed that
significant proportions of participants changed by either increasing or decreasing
their level of identification as a UQ student from the beginning of their first year to
4 months later. Significant intra-individual changes were also observed in the well-being
variable. Together, these results confirm the existence of intra-individual changes in
social identity and well-being over time (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al, 2007).
Change variables were then created (through residualized change scores) and
embedded in path analyses in order to test whether coping processes predicted these
intra-individual changes. While most of the hypothesized associations were supported.
814 Catherine Amiot et ai
the association between disengagement-oriented coping and changes in identification
was not sigtiificant (see also, Amiot etal, 2008). It thus seems that coping strategies that
reflect a disengagement from the new social context do not impact negatively on
identity. In contrast, strategies that connect the individual to the demands of the
situation (task-oriented coping) play a more potent role in facilitating the development
of a new social identity.
Together, these results provide support for some of the basic premises of our
model (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al, 2007). To test these links in another life
context. Study 2 was conducted among members of an emerging on-line gaming
community. This second study added to Study 1 by investigating the role played
by group4evel adaptation strategies as additional mediators in the associations
between the social factors and changes in identification. The investigation of these
group-level strategies in Study 2 appeared particularly relevant. In fact, according to
social identity theory, collective strategies can be quite useful when group members
seek to acquire a positive position in the intergroup structure (Tajfel & Turner,
1986). This was indeed the case in Study 2, where group members were in the
process of building cohesion within the new group and were establishing a positive
standing for this new in-group relative to other on-line communities. In comparison,
in Study 1, the intergroup situation (UQ vs. other universities) was well established.
These group-level strategies should hence be particularly potent in a situation where
group members have all to gain as they are building intragroup cohesion
and establishing the positivity and distinctiveness of their new in-group relative
to out-groups.
STUDY 2
The second study was conducted among on4ine gamers in the context of the
emergence of a new on-line gaming community. Virtual communities can be vivid
and important social identities for their members. There is growing empirical
evidence to suggest that group processes play an important role in Internet
communities, including gaming communities (Hornsey et al., 2007; Reicher, Spears,
& Postmes, 1995).
In this study, we aimed to replicate the hypothesized model presented earlier.
Furthermore, in an effort to account more fully for the processes through which social
identity changes over time, we assessed two group-level adaptation strategies
(Mummendey etal, 1999). These included inclusion efforts, which refer to the efforts
made by group members to adopt the norms of the new in-group and to fit into this
group, z.npositive affirmation, which reflects the extent to which players are actively
affirming the positive aspects of their new group in comparison to other groups.
Including these group-level strategies allows to capture a dimension of adaptation that is
distinct from traditional stress and coping strategies. In fact, while individual-level
strategies tap into the individuals' own actions to deal with the change (without
reference to their social group), group4evel adaptation strategies capture behaviours
performed at the intragroup and intergroup levels of analysis. Including these strategies
in Study 2 brings further nuances to the coping and adaptation processes involved as
individuals are joining and establishing a new social group, while also allowing a direct
comparison of how efficient individual-level versus group4evel adaptation strategies are
in predicting change in social identity.
Change in social identities 815
Method
Procedure and participants
To facilitate the recruitment of our participants, the official website of the emerging
gaming community advertised the study and displayed a link to our on-line survey on
their introductory web page. All participants were recruited for the Time 1
questionnaire within the first 3 months after the opening of the game on the Internet.
The link to the second questionnaire was sent to each participant through e-mail
3 months after they had completed the Time 1 questionnaire. A total of 1,399 on-line
gamers completed the Time 1 questionnaire, whereas 447 participants completed the
Time 2 questionnaire, and 4l4 participants completed both questionnaires (36l men;
53 women). Participants' ages ranged from 13 to 58 years old (M = 28.78, SD = 8.02).
The sample included participants from a range of different nationalities: 70.5% of
participants were American, 9% European, 8% Canadian, 4% Australian, and 2% Asian. In
terms of education, 40% of the sample had obtained a diploma or certificate, 31% had a
university degree, 16% had completed high school, 9% had graduate qualifications, and
4% had completed primary school.
To investigate whether participants who completed both questionnaires of the study
differed from those who completed only the Time 1 questionnaire, Bonferroni t tests
were conducted on the Time 1 variables. These analyses revealed no significant
differences between the two samples.
Measures
Questionnaire 1 included the social support and need satisfaction measures, along with
baseline measures of identification as a member of the on-line gaming community and
psychological well-being (assessed using a measure of positive emotions in the context
of the game). Questionnaire 2 measured the coping and adaptation strategies used by
participants as they were joining the new gaming community and again, identification
and well-being were assessed. In this study, the measures and items were chosen with
parsimony in mind so as to maximize participation and minimize the drop-out of our
virtual participants.
Perceived social support
Three items were adapted to assess social support in the context of the on-line game
(e.g., 'Since you started playing the game, how often did other players go out of their
way to help you in the game?'; a = .85). Each item was responded to on a 1 (not at all) to
7 (very much) Likert scale.
Need satisfaction
Three items from Sheldon and Bettencourt (2002) were used to assess how each of the
three psychological needs were satisfied in the context of the on-line community:
autonomy (e.g., 'When you think about your experience of joining the new on-line
game, how free and able to make decision do you feel in this gaming community?'),
competence 'When you think about your experience of joining the new on-line game, to
what extent do other players make you feel like a competent player?', and relatedness
'When you think about your experience of joining the new on-line game, how much of
816 Catherine Amiot et al.
a sense of relatedness do you feel w^ith other players of the gaming community?'. The
items used a seven-point response format, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely).
Coping and adaptation
Items from the COPE inventory (Carver et al, 1989) were adapted to assess how
participants dealt with joining the new gaming community (1 = not at all; 7 = very
much). Three COPE items pertaining to task-oriented coping were included. One item
assessed expending effort 'I concentrated my efforts on learning the rules and norms of
the game', one assessed planning 'I came up with a strategy to really get to know how
the game works', and one assessed seeking of social support for instrumental reasons
'I sought advice from people who could help me in the game', A fourth task-oriented
item was included to assess goal-oriented behaviour: I focused on the goals I have in the
game and tried to achieve them'. The alpha for this four-item task-oriented coping
measure was ,6l.
Two group-level adaptation strategies were also assessed. First, three-items assessed
the adaptation strategy of inclusion efforts (a = ,62), One item was adapted from
Mummendey et al (1999; 'I make efforts to be considered as a valuable played of the
on-line community'), and two other items were included: 'I adopt behaviors that allow
me to fit into the on-line community'; 'I adapted my style of playing so I could meet the
game's norms and rules'. Second, two items were included to assess positive affirmation.
These items were: When I can, I tell people how good the new on-line game is in
comparison to other on-line games'; 'I sincerely think that the new on-line game
compares positively to other on-line games and I find myself expressing this to other
people' (a = ,84),
Identification as a member of the on-line community
Three items from Jackson (2002) were employed to measure identification as a
member of the new on-line community (1 = not at all; 7 = very strongly). First, the
cognitive dimension of identity was assessed by asking participants how strongly they
identified themselves as a player of the new on-line community. Second, the affective
component of identity was measured by asking participants how proud they were to
be a player of the new on-line community. Third, participants were asked how
connected they felt to other players of the on-line community, A fourth identification
item was included based on the 'Inclusion of the Other in the Self Scale' (Aron, Aron, &
SmoUan, 1992), When completing this measure, participants were asked to select,
among seven pictures representing circles overlapping to differing degrees, the one
that best illustrated the relationship between themselves and their new on-line
community. An overall identification score was created using these four items (Time 1,
a = .86; Time 2, a = .84).
Psychological well-being (positive emotions)
Three items assessed positive emotions in the context of the new on-line game (e.g.,
'In general, I like playing the new on-line game'; 1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly
agree; Time 1, a = ,83; Time 2, a = .85). Positive emotions are considered important
indicators of well-being (e.g,, Fredrickson, 1998), This indicator of well-being was
chosen for Study 2 given that it is directly tied to the context of the on-line
community and that it represents a more direct and specific outcome of this social
Change in social identities 817
identity (see also, Riketta & van Dick, 2005). In fact, while membership to on-line
communities is important for their members (Hornsey et al, 2007; Reicher et al,
1995), such an identity may have a more limited impact on overall well-being than an
identity that represents a dimension of the self in which significant amounts of time
and energy are invested and that guides important life outcomes such as choice of
ftiture career and earning potential (i.e., being a member of the UQ student body;
Campbell, Assanand, & Di Paula, 2000).
Results
Main analyses
Table 2 presents descriptive statistics and correlations for the main variables.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlations among the main variables (Study 2)
1. Tl social support
2. T1 need satisfaction
3. T2 task-oriented coping
4. T2 inclusion efforts
5. T2 positive affirmation
6. Change in social identity
7. Change in positive emotions
M
4.76
5.13
4.42
3.75
4.78
0.00
0.00
SD
1.49
l . l l
I.OI
1.25
1.50
1.00
1.00
1
_
65***
. 34***
. 30**
33***
. 18***
. 12*
2

34***
31* * *
. 44***
. 20**
. 11*
3
-
. 60***
44***
. 31* * *
15**
4
_
. 30***
27***
13**
5

42***
. 27***
6
-
. 37***
Note. M, mean; SD, standard deviation.
*p < .05; **f) < .01 ; ***/) < .001.
Inter- and intra-individual changes over time
First, patterns of inter-individual changes in the variables of identification as a member
of the gaming community and positive emotions in the context of the game were
inspected in order to test for the changes occurring in our sample over time. Repeated
measures ANOVAs revealed significant inter-individual decreases in positive emotions
(M at Time 1 = 5.94; M at Time 2 - 5.58; F<il,4l5) = 44,14, p < .001, ti^ = .097).
Identification as a member of the on-line community decreased marginally over time
(M at Time 1 = 4.37; M at Time 2 = 4.29; F(1,415) = 2,75, p = .099, ti^ = .007).
As in Study 1, we looked at the correlation between social identification at Times 1
and 2, which was r = .65 (p < .001), suggesting a far from perfect degree of consistency
and continuity in this social identification variable (Roberts etal, 2001). A RCI was then
calculated to assess whether a given participant exhibited reliable changes over time
(Christensen & Mendoza, 1986). Based on the RCI, we observed that 14.5% of
participants decreased in their identification as a member of the on-line community
from Times 1 to 2, while 7.2% increased in their identification, and 78.3% stayed the
same. Chi-squared statistics revealed that on the identification variable, the distribution
of decreasers, nonchangers, and increasers differed significantly from the pattern that
would be expected by chance (x^(2) = 69372,/ < .001). With respect to the positive
emotions variable, 25.1% of participants decreased reliably on this variable, while 8.9%
increased, and 66% stayed the same. This pattern of intra-individual change was again
significant (x^(2) = 229541,/? < .001). Together, these results suggest that a significant
proportion of participants displayed intra-individual changes on the identification and
818 Catierine Amiot et ai
positive emotions variables. To examine which variables predicted such changes,
residualized difference scores were computed. These change variables were then
embedded into a path analysis.
Pati analyses
The model was specified as illustrated in Figure 3. Because of the significant correlation
observed between task-oriented coping and inclusion efforts, the error terms of these
two variables were allowed to intercorrelate. When testing the hypothesized model, fit
indices were satisfactory (x^(9) = 55.273, p < .001, S-B x^ = 46.069, CFI = .940,
adjusted CFI = .943, RMR = .070, RMSEA = .112, adjusted RMSEA = .100). The LM-test
revealed no additional paths that would improve model fit.
As can be seen in Figure 3, most of the hypothesized associations were supported.
One association was found to be non-significant, namely the one between task-oriented
coping and change in identification. A model that did not include this non-significant
link did not significantly differ from the prior one (x^A(l) = 2.291, p = .130) and
presented satisfactory fit indices (x^(lO) = 57.564, p < .001, S-B x^ = 48.045,
CFI = .938, adjusted CFI = .941, RMR = .073, RMSEA = .107, adjusted RMSEA = .096).
Tests of mediation
To test for the mediating role of the coping and change in identification variables, a
model in which the direct paths between social support and need satisfaction to
changes in identification and to positive emotions (the outcome variable) was compared
to a model in which these direct paths were not included (Holmbeck, 1997). Results
revealed that the model that included the direct links did not present a significantly
better fit (x^A(7) = 8.973, p = .255; x^(2) = 46.300, p < .001, S-B x^ = 33.881,
CFI = .943, adjusted CFI = .951, RMSEA = .232, adjusted RMSEA = .196, RMR = .064),
hence confirming the mediating role of the coping and adaptation variables as well as
the change in identity variable in the associations between the social factors and positive
emotions as a well-being indicator.
Social factors
Change in
positive
emotions T1-T2
Coping and
adaptation processes
Consequence
Figure 3. Path model for Study 2.
Change in social identities 819
Second, indirect effects provided by the EQS program were investigated to
further test for mediation. As can be seen in Figure 3, tbe model tested if the effect
of social support and need satisfaction on the change in social identity and in well-
being (i.e., positive emotions) is mediated by the coping and adaptation variables. As
well, the change in identity variable should mediate the association between the
coping variables and change in positive emotions. Results of the indirect tests
indicated that coping and adaptation strategies significantly mediated the impact of
social support on change in social identity ( = 0.10, p=.OO2). Coping and
adaptation strategies also significantly mediated the impact of need satisfaction on
change in social identity ( = O.l6, p < .001). While change in social identity did not
significantly mediate the effect of task-oriented coping on change in positive
emotions ( = 0.03, p .147), the change in social identity variable marginally
mediated the effect of inclusion efforts on positive emotions ( = 0.04, p = .060)
and significantly mediated the effect of positive affirmation ( = 0.13, p < .001) on
positive emotions. These findings suggest that the majority of the associations from
the social factors to the well-being consequence were mediated through the coping
and change in social identity variables.
Alternative model
Somewhat unexpectedly, when we tested the hypothesized model, the association
between task-oriented coping and change in social identity was found to be non-
significant. In order to test tbe unique role played by task-oriented coping as an
individuaHevel coping strategy, an alternative model was tested, in which only task-
oriented coping was included as a coping process, and where the group adaptation
strategies of inclusion efforts and positive affirmation were excluded from the model.
This alternative model presented satisfactory fit indices; x^(5) = 6.532, p = .258,
S-Bx^ = 5.825, CFI = .996, adjusted CFI = .997, RMSEA = .027, adjusted RMSEA = .020,
RMR = .043. In this model, tests of indirect effects also confirmed the mediating role of
the change in social identity variable in the association between task-oriented coping
and change in positive emotions ( = 0.12, p < .001). Most importantly, the direct
association betw^een task-oriented coping and change in social identity was significant
( = 0.51, p < .001). However, as demonstrated above, when the two group-level
strategies are included in the model, this association becomes non-significant. Together,
these findings suggest that, over and above the effect of individuaHevel coping
strategies (task-oriented coping), the group4evel strategies of inclusion efforts and
positive affirmation are potent predictors of change in identification.
Discussion
Conducted in a different life context and among members of a different type of social
group (i.e., a virtual community), the second study provided support for most of the
hypothesized associations and for the mediating role of adaptation strategies and social
identity change in the relationships between the social factors (i.e., social support and
need satisfaction) and psychological well-being (assessed by measuring positive emotions
in the context of the on4ine game) as an outcome variable. As in Study 1, significant intra-
individual changes were observed in social identification and in well-being. While most of
820 Catherine Amiot et ai
the hypothesized associations were confirmed in the path analyses, the association
between task-oriented coping and changes in identity was not significant.
Before concluding that task-oriented coping does not play any significant role, an
alternative model was tested in which only task-oriented coping was included as an
adaptation process. This alternative model revealed a significant association between
task-oriented coping and change in social identification. This finding suggests that task-
oriented coping does impact on intra-individual changes occurring over time in identity,
but that when compared with group-level adaptation strategies, task-oriented coping
loses its predictive power These results replicate past findings showing how, in
changing contexts, group-level processes predict adjustment to such changes, over and
above individual-level coping processes (Terry, Carey, & Callan, 2001). In fact, while
investing efforts into fitting in the new group proved particularly useful in terms of
increasing one's sense of identification with the group, talking positively about this
group was another group-level strategy that increased social identification.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The present studies are among the first to investigate intra-individual changes occurring
in social identities over time and the processes predicting these changes (Amiot et al,
2008). Based on a recently developed model (Amiot, de la Sablonnire etal, 2007), the
studies tested how two social factors (i.e., social support and need satisfaction)
represent intragroup resources (i.e., facilitators) that predict which coping and
adaptation strategies will be employed by new group members to adjust to the group
context. In turn, these coping and adaptation processes were expected to predict intra-
individual changes in levels of identification with the new group, which should then
predict enhanced psychological well-being. Two studies were conducted that involved
changes in quite different social identities. Study 1 was conducted in the context of the
transition to university and focused on the integration of the new institutional identity
into the self-concept and on individual-level coping strategies. Study 2 was conducted
among on-line gamers joining an emerging new on-line community and investigated
both individual- and group-level adaptation strategies. Despite the different nature of
these groups, convergent findings emerged across the studies.
Different statistical techniques - some v^^hich w^ere imported from the
developmental and personality psychology domains (e.g., RCT) - were used to
investigate both inter- and intra-individual changes in social identities and to test for the
significance of these changes. In both studies, evidence of intra-individual changes in
social identification and psychological well-being was found. Interestingly, individuals
displayed both increases and decreases in these variables, indicating that change may
take different directions and that we need to account for these different change patterns
and trajectories. In order to identify the variables that predicted these intra-individual
changes, residualized change scores were then embedded in path analyses. Results of
these analyses confirmed most of the hypothesized associations and provided support
for the mediating role of adaptation strategies and change in social identification in the
associations between the social support variables and well-being. Across the two
studies, social support and need satisfaction predicted a greater reliance on both task-
oriented coping strategies and group-level adaptation strategies, and a lower use of the
disengagement-oriented coping strategies. These results suggest that providing social
support to new^comers and valuing these new group members' individuality and
Change in social identities 821
contribution to the new group not only predicts their enhanced use of strategies that
allows them to individually and actively deal with the transition (i.e., task-oriented
coping), but also leads them to attempt to fit into this group (i.e., inclusion efforts) and
to affirm its positivity (i.e., positive affirmation).
In Study 1, which focused on individual-level coping strategies, task-oriented coping
in turn predicted increased identification as a member of one's new university whereas
disengagement-oriented coping did not significantly predict change in social
identification. In Study 2, the group-level strategies of inclusion efforts and positive
affirmation were investigated, along with the individual-level strategy of task-oriented
coping. Results revealed that when the individual-level task-oriented coping strategies
were included in the same model as the group-level strategies (i.e., inclusion efforts;
positive affirmation), it was only the two group strategies that predicted increased social
identification. However, when task-oriented coping was included on its own as a
mediating factor, these individual-level strategies accounted significantly for the changes
in social identification. These results indicate that, over and above individual-level coping
strategies, it is important to account for group-level adaptation processes in order to
understand how individuals develop a sense of identification with a new group context
(Terry et al, 2001). The impact of these group-level adaptation strategies could be
particularly potent in a context where the emerging social group aims to position itself
within the existing intergroup structure and establish its distinctiveness and positivity.
A note must also be made about the social support measures used across studies and
the differences between these measures. Whereas in Study 1, social support was
assessed broadly (i.e., by referring to different sources of social support - family, people
at university, social groups), in Study 2, the social support variable was more specific
(i.e., support received by other members of the gaming community). An iiiteresting
question that could be raised is as follows: in an important life-change such as the
transition to university (e.g., Brissette et al., 2002), is it more useful to receive social
support from broader sources (rather than a more specific, university-based social
support)? Whereas past research has shown that social support provided by the in-group
specifically is particularly beneficial in reducing stress (Haslam etal., 2005), in major life
transitions (e,g,, organizational mergers; immigration; Ataca & Berry, 2002; Terry etal.,
1996), broader social support may prove necessary (e,g,. Harter, 1999). In such
situations, the individual may resort to more 'distal' and global sources of social support,
and benefit from all of these sources. Perhaps, a superordinate identity (i,e,,
identification with a very inclusive and broad social category) becomes salient in
these situations so as to capture as much social support as it is possible and ftilly benefit
from this support. In comparison, joining a new virtual leisure group stills involves the
development of an important social identity (e,g,, Hornsey et al., 2007; Reicher et al.,
1995), but may require less global life adjustments. In such a context, a more targeted
and specific form of social support may prove sufficient and may fill more efficiently new
group members' needs. Definitely, these interesting questions deserve further
investigation.
The two studies presented in this paper focused on the intragroup factors that
facilitate the integration of new social identities. However, other factors may inhibit the
development of a new social identity, including threat to one's original (pre-existing)
social identities and intergroup power/status asymmetries (Amiot, de la Sablonnire
et al, 2007), In fact, when group members feel that some of their pre-existing identities
are threatened by a change and that the new identity to be integrated 'pushes' aside
these identities, it should be more difficult for the new identity to become integrated
822 Catherine . Amiot et al,
without causing conflicts within the self. In the context of the present studies, threat to
one's pre-existing social identities might not have been particularly salient given that the
changes participants experienced were presumably based on voluntary decisions (i.e.,
choosing to attend university; choosing to become part of a new on-line gaming
community - a leisure group). However, many life-changes are imposed and can
threaten the individual's pre-existing social identities (e.g., organizational mergers that
require employees to relinquish their pre-existing organizational identity). Future
studies should investigate the inhibiting role of threat in relation to intra-individual
changes in social identities in such contexts.
Intergroup status and power asymmetries represent another factor that may inhibit
the integration of a new social identity (Amiot, Terry et al, 2007). Social identities that
differ markedly in terms of their statuses or the power they provide will be more difficult
to integrate in comparison to social identities that are more simar in their statuses
and the power associated with each (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al, 2007). More
specifically, the social identity associated with higher levels of status or power could
predominate the person's overall sense of self, and hence preclude identity integration.
Despite the advantages of the longitudinal design used in both studies to investigate
social identity change (e.g., decreased common method variance; assessment of intra-
individual changes over time), future research could also employ even more elaborate
longitudinal designs to further capture the change dynamics taking place over time.
As well, the current longitudinal design did not allow to test for the assumptions of
stationarity (i.e., when one set of variables produce the same change in another set of
variables at different time points) and equilibrium (i.e., when associations between
variables stabilize over time). Testing for these assumptions would have provided more
stringent evidence for the consistency and stability of the associations observed in the
current studies (Cole & Maxwell, 2003). To address these issues and directly test these
assumptions, cross-lagged panel analyses could be employed in future research. Such
analyses would also require a greater number of time points given the nature of the
model tested and the number of mediators included (e.g.. Cole & Maxwell, 2003). Daily
diary methodologies could also be useful to tap more extensively into the change
process and the interplay between short-term and long-term changes involved as a new
identity is becoming part of the self (Amiot, de la Sablonnire et al, 2007). In this
context, hierarchical liner modelling analyses (which also tap into intra-individual
changes; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002) could also be employed.
Future research should also aim at including more diverse measures of psychological
well-being as consequences of social identity change. The current research assessed
vitality and positive emotions as consequences of change in social identity.^ These
well-being measures are considered tw^o valid and relevant indicators of psycbological
well-being (Fredrickson, 1998; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryan & Frederick, 1997). To further
ensure the generalizabuity of our findings, other well-being measures could be included
Other well-being measures had been included in the current studies (i.e., identity conflict; psychological growth). However,
path models that included t)ese other well-being measures presented less adequate fit indices. However, in the path analyses
that included these other well-being measures, the associations observed between the change in social identity variable and
these well-being measures were nearly all significant Furthermore, bivariate correlations revealed significant associations
between change in identity and these other well-being measures. More precisely, in Study I, the correlation between change in
social identity and change in identty conflict was r = -.22, p = .009, whereas the correlation between change in social
identity and change in psychological growth was r = .23, p = .012. As reported in the manuscript, the correlation between
change in identity and change in vitality (Study / j is r = .23, p = . 0/ 2, whereas the correlation between change in social
identity and change in positive emotions (Study 2) is r = .37, p < .001.
Change in social identities 823
in ftiture research to cover diverse dimensions of psychological well-being. For instance,
the hedonic and eudomanic forms of well-being have been proposed (Ryan & Deci,
2001). While hedonic well-being refers to itnmediate happiness and an emphasis on the
presence of positive affect and the absence of negative affect, eudemonic well-being
refers to living a complete human life and realizing valued human potentials. These two
forms of well-being are also assessed using different instruments. For example, hedonic
well-being can be measured using scales such as the positive and negative affect
schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), whereas eudemonic well-being can be
assessed using Ryff's (1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995) psychological well-being measure.
Using more diverse well-being scales will greatly contribute to the growing literature
investigating the association between social identity and psychological well-being (e.g.,
Haslam et al, 2009). Eudamonic measures of well-being may also be particularly well-
suited to capture the idea that social groups provide individuals with a sense of meaning,
purpose, and belonging (Haslam et al, 2009). This dimension of well-being could be
particularly impacted in the context of social change.
Another area for future studies concerns the multiplicity of identities issue and how
these multiple identities are cognitively organized within the overall self. Social identity
theory explicitly recognizes that each individual belongs to a variety of social groups
(Tajfel & Turner, 1979). In the context of the integration of new social identities, it is
relevant to consider what is already in place within the self to understand how the new
identity will fit into this overall portrait (e.g., Jetten et al, 2008). Future research should
thus assess how the self-structure reorganizes to make 'cognitive space' for the new
social identity and whether some identities become less important as a new one
becomes integrated. For new university students, this could be determined by
considering the other groups to which they belong (e.g., family, friends, people from
work, prior school), and how these are conjugated within their global sense of self.
To test these ideas, intra-individual change techniques that focus on ipsative change
would be particularly relevant. In fact, such analyses capture whether there is stability
over time in the person's tendency to display a preference for one identity relative to the
other. Such analyses also allow to identify each person's repertoire of multiple identities
and to evaluate the consistency and change of the intra-individual organization of these
identities over time (e.g., Caspi & Herbener, 1990; Roberts et al, 2001). Definitely,
different domains of psychology (e.g., social, personality, developmental, health) can
complement one another nicely and provide a more integrated and original perspective
on important psychological phenomena such as social identity change.
Acknowledgements
This research w^as facilitated thanks to postdoctoral fellowships from Fond qubcois pour la
recherche sur la socit et la culture (FQRSC) and Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada (SSHRC) and to a University of Queensland New Staff Start-Up Grant to
Catherine E. Amiot.
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Received 20 July 2008; revised version received 3 November 2009
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