1-2-2014

For our other free eBooks,

50 - 555 Circuits
1 - 100 Transistor Circuits and: 101 - 200 Transistor Circuits
100 IC Circuits
For a list of every electronic symbol, see: Circuit Symbols.
For more articles an !ro"ects for the hobbyist: see TALKING ELECTRONICS
WESITE
email Colin #itchell: talkin$%t!$.com.au
CONTENTS
Battery Monitor MkI MkII
Bi-Coloured LED
Bike Flasher Bike Flasher - amazing
Bike Turning Signal
Bi-Polar LED Driver
Constant Current
Constant Current !"# drives $%att LED
Di&e
Dimming a $" %att LED
Domino E''e&t - The
Driving ( Bi-Coloured LED
Driving )hite LEDs
E*ual Brightness
Fading LED
Flashing ( LED
Flashing LED on +,"v
Flashing -ailroad Lights
Fli&kering LED
Fli. Flo. Cir&uit
In'rared diode
In'rared LED
/itt S&anner
/night -ider
LED and Piezo - sim.lest &ir&uit
LED Chaser
LED Dete&ts Light
LED Di&e
LED Dimmer
LED Flashlight
LED F0
LED 1ight Light
LEDs on $+"v and +,"v
LEDs on $+"v %ith voltage dou2ling
LED 3e..elin
Lights - Tra''i& Lights
Lo% Fuel Indi&ator
Mains 1ight Light
Multivi2rator
Phone Light
Poli&e Lights $4+45
Po%ering ( Pro6e&t
-ailroad Lights 7'lashing8
-9B Flashing LED
-9B LED Driver
-9B LED Flasher
-esistor Colour Codes
-o2ot Man
-oulette
Shake LED Tor&h
Sim.lest &ir&uit - LED and Piezo
Solar 9arden Light
Solar Tra&ker
The Domino E''e&t
Tra''i& Lights
Tra''i& Lights - , %ay
Turning Signal
:.;Do%n Fading LED
:.;Do%n Fading LED - +
<oltage Dou2ling
)hite LED on $=#v Su..ly
)hite LED Flasher
$ %att LED - a very good design
+ )hite LEDs on $=#v Su..ly
5>5>5 Cu2e
, %ay Tra''i& Lights
! Million 9ain?
$" LED Chaser
$" LEDs on a @v Battery
$" %att LED - dimming
$+"v and +,"v LEDs
to &ne'
INTRODUCTION
This e-book covers the Light Emitting Diode.
The LED (Light Emitting Diode) is the modern-day equivalent to the light-globe.
It has changed from a dimly-gloing indicator to one that is too-bright to look at.
!oever it is entirely different to a "globe."
# globe is an electrical device consisting of a gloing ire hile a LED is an electronic device.
# LED is more efficient$ %roduces less heat and must be "driven" correctly to %revent it being
damaged.
This e&ook shos you ho to connect a LED to a circuit %lus a number of %ro'ects using LEDs.
It(s sim%le to use a LED - once you kno ho.
CONNECTING A LE!
# LED must be connected around the correct ay in a circuit and it must have a resistor to limit
the current.
The LED in the first diagram does not illuminate because a red LED requires ).*v and the cell
only su%%lies ).+v. The LED in the second diagram is damaged because it requires ).*v and the
to cells su%%ly ,v. # resistor is needed to limit the current to about -+m# and also the voltage
to ).*v$ as shon in the third diagram. The fourth diagram is the circuit for layout ., shoing
the symbol for the LED$ resistor and battery and ho the three are connected. The LED in the
fifth diagram does not ork because it is around the rong ay.
CA(-(CTE-ISTIC <BLT(9E D-BP
/hen a LED is connected around the correct ay in a circuit it develo%s a voltage across it
called the 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E D146.
# LED must be su%%lied ith a voltage that is higher than its "0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E" via a
resistor - called a 34LT#5E D1466I75 1E2I2T41 or 0811E7T LI9ITI75 1E2I2T41 - so the LED
ill o%erate correctly and %rovide at least ):$::: to +:$::: hours of illumination.
# LED orks like this; # LED and resistor are %laced in series and connected to a voltage.
#s the voltage rises from :v$ nothing ha%%ens until the voltage reaches about ).*v. #t this
voltage a red LED 'ust starts to glo. #s the voltage increases$ the voltage across the LED
remains at ).*v but the current through the LED increases and it gets brighter.
/e no turn our attention to the current though the LED. #s the current increases to +m#$
):m#$ )+m#$ -:m# the brightness ill increase and at -+m#$ it ill be a ma<imum. Increasing
the su%%ly voltage ill sim%ly change the colour of the LED slightly but the crystal inside the
LED ill start to overheat and this ill reduce the life considerably.
This is 'ust a sim%le e<am%le as each LED has a different 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E D146 and a
different ma<imum current.
In the diagram belo e see a LED on a ,v su%%ly$ =v su%%ly and )-v su%%ly. The current-
limiting resistors are different and the first circuit takes >m#$ the second takes )+m# and the
third takes ,)m#. &ut the voltage across the red LED is the same in all cases. This is because
the LED creates the 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E D146 and this does not change.
It does not matter if the resistor is connected above or belo the LED. The circuits are the
2#9E in o%eration;
AE(D <BLT(9E
7o e turn our attention to the resistor.
#s the su%%ly-voltage increases$ the voltage across the LED ill be constant at ).*v (for a red
LED) and the e<cess voltage ill be dro%%ed across the resistor. The su%%ly can be any voltage
from -v to )-v or more.
In this case$ the resistor ill dro% :.,v to ):.,v.
This is called AE(D <BLT(9E - or AE(D--BBM or B<E-AE(D-<BLT(9E. #nd the resistor is
called the 0811E7T-LI9IT resistor.
The folloing diagram shos AE(D <BLT(9EC
The voltage dro%%ed across this resistor$ combined ith the current$ constitutes asted energy
and should be ke%t to a minimum$ but a small !E#D 34LT#5E is not advisable (such as :.+v).
The head voltage should be a minimum of ).+v - and this only a%%lies if the su%%ly is fi<ed.
The head voltage de%ends on the su%%ly voltage. If the su%%ly is fi<ed and guaranteed not to
increase or fall$ the head voltage can be small ().+v minimum).
&ut most su%%lies are derived from batteries and the voltage ill dro% as the cells are used.
!ere is an e<am%le of a %roblem;
2u%%ly voltage; )-v
* red LEDs in series ? )).=v
Dro%%er resistor ? :.)v
#s soon as the su%%ly dro%s to )).@v$ no LEDs ill be illuminated.
E<am%le -;
2u%%ly voltage )-v
+ green LEDs in series A -.)v ? ):.+v
Dro%%er resistor ? ).+v
The battery voltage can dro% to ):.+v
&ut let(s look at the situation more closely.
2u%%ose the current A )-v ? -+m#.
#s the voltage dro%s$ the current ill dro%.
#t )).+v$ the current ill be )*m#
#t ))v$ the current ill be =m#
#t ):.+v$ the current ill be Bero
Cou can see the orkable su%%ly dro% is only about )v.
9any batteries dro% )v and still have over @:D of their energy remaining. That(s hy you need
to design your circuit to have a large AE(D <BLT(9E=
# large Aead <oltage is also needed hen a %lug-%ack (all art) is used. These devices consist
of a transformer$ set of diodes and an electrolytic. The voltage marked on the unit is the
voltage it ill deliver hen fully loaded. It may be -::m#$ ,::m# or +::m#. /hen this current
is delivered$ the voltage ill be =v or )-v. &ut if the current is less than the rated current$ the
out%ut voltage ill be higher. It may be )v$ -v or even +v higher.
This is one of the characteristics of a chea% transformer. # chea% transformer has very %oor
regulation$ so to deliver )-v A +::m#$ the transformer %roduces a higher voltage on no-load
and the voltage dro%s as the current increases.
Cou need to allo for this e<tra voltage hen using a %lug-%ack so the LEDs do not take more
than -:m# to -+m#.
TESTI19 ( LED
If the cathode lead of a LED cannot be identified$ %lace , cells in series ith a --:1 resistor and
illuminate the LED. E.+v allos all ty%es of LEDs to be tested as hite LEDs require u% to ,.>v.
Do not use a multimeter as some only have one or to cells and this ill not illuminate all ty%es
of LEDs. In addition$ the negative lead of a multimeter is connected to the %ositive of the cells
(inside the meter) for resistance measurements - so you ill get an incorrect determination of
the cathode lead.
CIRC"IT TO TEST ALL T#$ES O% LE!s
IDE1TIFDI19 ( LED
# LED does not have a "6ositive" or "7egative" lead. It has a lead identified as the "0athode" or
Fathode" or "k". This is identified by a flat on the side of the LED andGor by the shortest lead.
This lead goes to the :v rail of the circuit or near the :v rail (if the LED is connected to other
com%onents).
9any LEDs have a "flat" on one side and this identifies the cathode. 2ome surface-mount LEDs
have a dot or sha%e to identify the cathode lead and some have a cut-out on one end.
!ere are some of the identification marks;

LE!s ARE C"RRENT !RI&EN !E&ICES
# LED is described as a 0811E7T D1I3E7 DE3I0E. This means the illumination is determined by
the amount of current floing through it.
This is the ay to see hat e mean; 6lace a LED and )::1 resistor in series and connect it to a
variable %oer su%%ly.
#s the voltage is increased from :v$ to )v$ the LED ill not %roduce any illumination$ #s the
voltage from the %oer-su%%ly increases %ast )v$ the LED ill start to %roduce illumination at
about ).>v to ).*v (for a red LED). #s the voltage is increased further$ the illumination
increases but the voltage across the LED does not increase. (It may increase :.)v) but the
brightness ill increase enormously. That(s hy e say the LED is a 0811E7T D1I3E7 DE3I0E.
The brightness of a LED can be altered by increasing or decreasing the current. The effect ill
not be linear and it is best to e<%eriment to determine the best current-flo for the amount of
illumination you ant. !igh-bright LEDs and su%er-bright LEDs ill illuminate at )m# or less$ so
the quality of a LED has a lot to do ith the brightness. The life of many LEDs is determined at
)*m#. This seems to be the best value for many ty%es of LEDs.
1'A to 5'A LE!s
2ome LEDs ill %roduce illumination at )m#. These are "high Huality" or "!igh &rightness" LEDs
and the only ay to check this feature is to test them A)m# as shon belo.
T(E 5) LE!
2ome su%%liers and some ebsites talk about a +v hite or blue LED. 2ome LEDs have a small
internal resistor and can be %laced on a +v su%%ly. This is very rare.
2ome ebsites suggest %lacing a hite LED on a +v su%%ly. These LEDs have a characteristic
voltage-dro% of ,.>v and should not be %laced directly on a voltage above ,.>v. If %laced on a
voltage belo ,.>v$ the LED ill not glo very brightly. If you have a voltage EI#0TLC ,.>v$ you
can connect the LED$ but most voltages are higher than ,.>v and thus you need a resistor.
The only LED ith an internal resistor is a JL#2!I75 LED. These LEDs can be %laced on a su%%ly
from ,.+v to )-v and flash at a%%ro< -!B. The LED is very eak on ,.+v but it flashing can be
used to drive a %oerful LED (see circuits section). It can also be used to %roduce a bee% for a
bee%er J9 transmitter.
7E3E1 assume a LED has an internal resistor. #lays add a series resistor. 2ome high intensity
LEDs are designed for )-v o%eration. These LEDs have a com%lete internal circuit to deliver the
correct current to the LED. This ty%e of device and circuitry is not covered in this e&ook.
LE!s IN SERIES
LEDs can be %laced in series %roviding some features are taken into account. The main item to
include is a current-limiting resistor.
# LED and resistor is called a string. # string can have )$ -$ , or more LEDs.
Three things must be observed;
). 9#II989 0811E7T through each string ? -+m#.
-. The 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E-D146 must be knon so the correct number of LEDs are used
in any string.
,. # D1466E1 1E2I2T41 must be included for each string.
The folloing diagrams sho e<am%les of )-string$ --strings and ,-strings;
LE!s IN $ARALLEL
LEDs C(11BT be %laced in %arallel - until you read this;
LEDs "generate" or "%ossess" or "create" a voltage across them called the 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0
34LT#5E-D146 (hen they are correctly %laced in a circuit).
This voltage is generated by the ty%e of crystal and is different for each colour as ell as the
"quality" of the LED (such as high-bright$ ultra high-bright etc). This characteristic cannot be
altered &8T it does change a very small amount from one LED to another in the same batch.
#nd it does increase slightly as the current increases.
Jor instance$ it ill be different by as much as :.-v for red LEDs and :.Ev for hite LEDs from
the same batch and ill increase by as much as :.+v hen the current is increased from a
minimum to ma<imum.
Cou can test ):: hite LEDs A)+m# and measure the 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E-D146 to see
this range.
If you get - LEDs ith identical 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E-D146$ and %lace them in %arallel$
they ill each take the same current. This means ,:m# through the current-limiting resistor
ill be divided into )+m# for each LED.
!oever if one LED has a higher 0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E-D146$ it ill take less current and
the other LED ill take considerably more. Thus you have no ay to determine the "current-
sharing" in a string of %arallel LEDs. If you %ut , or more LEDs in %arallel$ one LED ill start to
take more current and ill over-heat and you ill get very-ra%id LED failure. #s one LED fails$
the others ill take more current and the rest of the LEDs ill start to self-destruct. The reason
hy they take more current is this; the current-limit resistor ill have been designed so that
say >:m# ill flo hen , LEDs are in %arallel. /hen one LED fails$ the remaining LEDs ill
take ,:m# each.
Thus LEDs in P(-(LLEL should be avoided.
Diagram ( belo shos to green LEDs in %arallel. This ill ork %rovided the 0haracteristic
3oltage Dro% across each LED is the same.
In diagram B the 0haracteristic 3oltage Dro% is slightly different for the second LED and the
first green LED ill glo brighter.
In diagram C the three LEDs have different 0haracteristic 3oltage Dro%s and the red LED ill
glo very bright hile the other to LEDs ill not illuminate. #ll the current ill %ass through
the red LED and it ill be damaged.
The reason hy the red LED ill glo very bright is this; It has the loest 0haracteristic 3oltage
Dro% and it ill create a ).*v for the three LEDs. The green and orange LEDs ill not illuminate
at this voltage and thus all the current from the dro%%er resistor ill flo in the red LED and it
ill be destroyed.

T(E RESISTOR
The value of the current limiting resistor can be orked out by 4hms La.
!ere are the , ste%s;
). #dd u% the voltages of all the LEDs in a string. e.g; -.)v K -.,v K -.,v K ).*v ? @.Ev
-. 2ubtract the LED voltages from the su%%ly voltage. e.g; )-v - @.Ev ? ,.>v
,. Divide the ,.>v (or your voltage) by the current through the string.
for -+m#; ,.>G.:-+ ?)EE ohms
for -:m#; ,.>G.:- ? )@: ohms
for )+m#; ,.>G.:)+ ? -+: ohms
for ):m#; ,.>G.:) ? ,>: ohms
This is the value of the current-limiting resistor.
!ere is a set of strings for a su%%ly voltage of ,v to )-v and a single LED;

!ere is a set of strings for a su%%ly voltage of +v to )-v and a hite LED;
!ere is a set of strings for a su%%ly voltage of +v to )-v and to LEDs;
LED series;.arallel array %izard
The LED series;.arallel array %izard belo$ is a calculator that ill hel% you design large
arrays of single-colour LEDs.
This calculator has been designed by -o2 (rnold and you ill be taken to his site;
htt%;GGled.linear).orgGled.iB hen you click; Design my array
The iBard determines the current limiting resistor value for each string of the array and the
%oer consumed. #ll you need to kno are the s%ecs of your LED and ho many you(d like to
use. The calculator only allos one LED colour to be used. Jor mi<ed colours$ you ill have to
use the , ste%s e<%lained above. The result is not alays correct. 1ead the discussion belo;
"T(E !ANGERS O% "SING A *LE! WI+AR!* to understand the ord "!E#D 34LT#5E." The
!E#D 34LT#5E should be as high as %ossible to allo for the differences in 0haracteristic
3oltage and the variations in %oer su%%ly voltage.
2ource voltage
diode forard voltage
diode forard current (m#)
number of LEDs in your array
3ie out%ut as; #20II schematic iring diagram
hel% ith resistor colour codes
(esi$n my array
Resistor Ca,cu,ator
"se t-is .a)aScri/t resistor ca,cu,ator to 0or1 out t-e
)a,ue o2 t-e current-,i'itin3 resistor:
Source volta$e =
12.)
*+( for,ar volta$e ro! =
-.)
*+( current in milliam!s =
2.
Current-limitin$ resistance in /hms =
Closest .0 1esistor =
1esistor ,atta$e =
2ctual current =
3o,er issi!ate by *+( 4,atts5 =
3o,er issi!ate by resistor 4,atts5 =
LE! &OLTAGE AN! C"RRENT
LED characteristics are very broad and you have absolutely no idea of any value until you test
the LED.
!oever here are some of the generally acce%ted characteristics;


T(E !ANGERS O% "SING A *LE! WI+AR!*
6ou can fin a *+( 7&821( on the ,eb that $ives you a circuit to combine *+(s in series an9or
!arallel for all ty!es of arrays.
:ere is an e'am!le, !rovie by a reaer. Can you see the ma"or fault;
<he characteristic volta$e 4the colour of the *+(5 is not im!ortant in this iscussion. /bviously
,hite *+(s ,ill not ,ork as they re=uire -.4v to -.)v to o!erate.
<he main fault is the ro!!er resistor.
1ea our article on *+(s.
<he most im!ortant com!onent is the (1/33+1 1+S&S</1.
&t must allo, for the ifference bet,een the ma'imum an minimum su!!ly volta$e an 2*S/ the
ma'imum an minimum C:212C<+1&S<&C >/*<2?+ of the strin$ of *+(s.
7hen ,e say a re *+( has a C:212C<+1&S<&C >/*<2?+ of 1.@v, ,e nee to measure the
e'act ma'imum an minimum value for the *+(s ,e are installin$.
Some hi$h-bri$ht an su!er-hi$h-bri$ht *+(s have a Characteristic >olta$e of 1.)v to 1.Av an
this ,ill make a bi$ ifference ,hen you have A *+(s in series.
Seconly, the 12v su!!ly may rise to 1-.)v ,hen the battery is bein$ char$e an fall to 10.Av at
the en of its life.
<hirly, you nee to kno, the current re=uire by the *+(s.
<he normal value is 1@m2 for lon$ life.
<his can rise to 20m2 but must not $o hi$her than 2.m2
6ou shoul also look at the minimum current. #any hi$h-bri$ht *+(s ,ill !erform !erfectly on .-
10m2 an become <// B1&?:< on 20m2.
2s you can see, it is much more com!le' than a 7&821( can hanle.
<hatBs ,hy it !rouce the absur result above.
<he ma'imum characteristic volta$e for A re *+(s is A'1.Av C 14.4v
<his means you can only !ut ) *+(s in series. C 10.Av
<he *+(s ,ill totally ie ,hen the battery reaches 10.Av
<he value of the ro!!er resistor for ) *+(s an a su!!ly of 12v %20m2 C )0 ohms. 7hen the
battery volta$e rises to 1-.)v urin$ char$in$, the current ,ill be: 4)m2. <his is too hi$h.
<he CD11+E< *&#&<&E? resistor is too lo,.
7e nee to have a hi$her-value CD11+E< *&#&<&E? resistor an fe,er *+(s.
Dse . *+(s:
<he characteristic volta$e for . *+(s ,ill be: . ' 1.@v C A..v
2llo, a current of 20m2 ,hen the su!!ly is 12.)v (ro!!er resistor C 200 ohms.
Current at 10.Av ,ill be 11m2. 2n current at 1-.)v ,ill be 2.m2
Eo, you can see ,hy the value of the CD11+E< *&#&<&E? 1+S&S</1 has to be so hi$h.
SOL!ERING LE!s
LEDs are the most heat-sensitive device of all the com%onents.
/hen soldering surface-mount LEDs$ you should hold the LED ith teeBers and "tack" one end.
Then ait for the LED to cool don and solder the other end very quickly. Then ait a fe
seconds and com%letely solder the first end. 0heck the glo of each LED ith , cells in series
and a --:1 resistor. If you have overheated the LED$ its out%ut ill be dim$ or a slightly
different colour$ or it may not ork at all. They are e<tremely sensitive to heat - mainly
because the crystal is so close to the soldering iron.
(IG(-RIG(T LE!s
LEDs have become more efficient over the %ast -+ years.
4riginally a red LED emitted )*mcd A-:m#. These LEDs no emit )$:::mcd to -:$:::mcd
A-:m#.
This means you can loer the current and still %roduce illumination. 2ome LEDs o%erate on a
current as lo as )m#
LE!s as LIG(T !ETECTORS
LEDs can also be used to detect light.
5reen LEDs are the best$ hoever all LEDs ill detect light and %roduce a voltage equal to the
0!#1#0TE1I2TI0 34LT#5E-D146$ %roviding they receive sufficient light. The current they
%roduce is miniscule hoever high-bright and su%er-bright LEDs %roduce a higher out%ut due to
the fact that their crystal is more efficient at converting light into electricity.
The 2olar Tracker %ro'ect uses this characteristic to track the sun(s movement across the sky.
BI-COLOUR, TRI-COLOUR4 %LAS(ING LE!S and 5-co,our LE!s
LEDs can also be obtained in a range of novelty effects as ell as a red and green LED inside a
clear or o%aque lens. Cou can also get red$ blue$ hite$ green or any combination inside a LED
ith - leads.
2im%ly connect these LEDs to a >v su%%ly and ,,:1 series dro%%er resistor to see the effects
they %roduce.
2ome LEDs have , leads and the third lead needs to be %ulsed to change the %attern.
2ome LEDs can be reversed to %roduce a different colour. These LEDs contain red and green and
by reversing the voltage$ one or the other colour ill illuminate.
/hen the voltage is reversed ra%idly$ the LED %roduces orange.
2ometimes it is not convenient to reverse the voltage to %roduce orange.
In this case three leaded LEDs are available to %roduce red$ green and orange.
FL(SAI19 LEDs
Jlashing LEDs contain a chi% and inbuilt current-limiting resistor. They o%erate from ,.+v to
)-v. The flash-rate ill alter slightly on different su%%ly voltage. Cou can get ,mm and +mm
versions as ell as high-bright ty%es and surface-mount.
1B<ELTD LEDs
7ovelty LEDs can have - or three leads. They contain a microcontroller chi%$ inbuilt current-
limiting resistor and to or three colours.
The to leaded LEDs cycle through a range of colours$ including flashing and fading.
The three leaded LEDs have u% to )> different %atterns and the control lead must be taken from
:v to rail volts to activate the ne<t %attern.

LE!s LE!s LE!s
There are hundreds of circuits that use a LED or drive a LED or flash a LED and nearly all the
circuits in this e&ook are different.
2ome flash a LED on a ).+v su%%ly$ some use very little current$ some flash the LED very brightly
and others use a flashing LED to create the flash-rate.
Cou ill learn something from every circuit. 2ome are interesting and some are amaBing. 2ome
consist of com%onents called a "building &lock" and they can be added to other circuits to
create a larger$ more com%le<$ circuit.
This is hat this e&ook is all about.
It teaches you ho to build and design circuits that are fun to see orking$ yet %ractical.
Cou ill learn a lot . . . . even from these sim%le circuits.
0olin 9itchell
T#LFI75 ELE0T147I02.
talkingAt%g.com.au
SI NOTATION
#ll the schematics in this e&ook have com%onents that are labelled using the System
International (2I) notation system. The 2I system is an easy ay to sho values ithout the
need for a decimal %oint. 2ometimes the decimal %oint is difficult to see and the 2I system
overcomes this %roblem and offers a clear advantage.
1esistor values are in ohms (1)$ and the multi%liers are; k for kilo$ 9 for 9ega. 0a%acitance is
measured in farads (J) and the sub-multi%les are u for micro$ n for nano$ and % for %ico.
Inductors are measured in !enrys (!) and the sub-multi%les are m! for milli!enry and u! for
micro!enry.
# ): ohm resistor ould be ritten as ):1 and a :.::)u ca%acitor as )n.
2ome countries use the letter "E" to re%resent 4hm$ such as )::E ? ):: ohms ? )::1.
The markings on com%onents are ritten slightly differently to the ay they are shon on a
circuit diagram (such as )::% on a circuit and ):) on the ca%acitor or ): on a ca%acitor and ):%
on a diagram) and you ill have to look on the internet under Basi& Ele&troni&s to learn about
these differences.
/e have not %rovided lengthy e<%lanations of ho any of the circuits ork. This has already
been covered in T#LFI75 ELE0T147I02 &asic Electronics 0ourse$ and can be obtained on a 0D
for L):.:: (%osted to anyhere in the orld)
Jor %hotos of nearly every electronic com%onent$ see this ebsite;
htt%s;GG.egr.msu.eduGecesho%G6artsMInventoryGtotalinventory.%h%
!o good is your %oer of observationN
0an you find the LED;

to &ne'
IN%RARE! LE!
&nfrare *+(s are "ust like orinary *+(s but the li$ht out!ut cannot be seen. <o vie, an
infrare *+(s, turn it on ,ith the a!!ro!riate battery an ro!!er resistor an vie, it ,ith
a camera. 6ou ,ill see the illumination on the screen.
&nfrare *+(s are sometimes clear an sometimes black. <hey o!erate "ust like a re
*+( ,ith the same characteristic volta$e-ro! of about 1.@v.
Sometimes an infrare *+( is !ulse ,ith a hi$h current for a very short !erio of time
but the thin$ to remember is the ,atta$e-issi!ation of a .mm *+( is about @0m7. <his
means the constant-current shoul be no more than 40m2.
&nfrare *+(s are also calle <12ES#&<<&E? *+(s as they emit li$ht. <hese are $iven
the term T6 4for transmittin$5. 2n infrare *+( can be connecte to a .v su!!ly via a
2201 current-limitin$ resistor for 1.m2 current.
In2rared recei)ers 4R65 can look e'actly like infrare *+(s, but they o not emit &1 li$ht.
<hey etect &nfrare illumination an must be connecte the correct ,ay in a circuit.
<hey have a very hi$h resistance ,hen no receivin$ &1 illumination an the resistance
ecreases as the illumination increases.
<his means they are connecte to a .v su!!ly via a resistor an ,hen the resistance of
the infrare receiver ecreases, current ,ill flo, thou$ht it an the resistor. <his ,ill
!rouce a volta$e across the resistor an this volta$e is fe to the rest of the circuit.
:ere is a circuit to sho, ho, to connect an infrare *+( an &nfrare 4ioe5 receiver:
6ou cannot use an &1 *+( as a receiver or an &nfrare ioe as an illuminator. <hey are
constructe ifferently. 2n infrare *+( has a characteristic volta$e ro! of 1.@v
2n &nfrare receiver oes not have a characteristic volta$e-ro!. &t has a hi$h resistance
,hen not illuminate an a lo, resistance ,hen it receives illumination.
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$OWERING A $RO.ECT
<he safest ,ay to !o,er a !ro"ect is ,ith a battery. +ach circuit re=uires a volta$e from
-v to 12v. <his can be su!!lie from a set of 22 cells in a holer or you can also use a
Fv battery for some !ro"ects.
&f you ,ant to !o,er a circuit for a lon$ !erio of time, you ,ill nee a G!o,er su!!ly.G
<he safest !o,er su!!ly is a 3lu$ 3ack 4,all-,ort, ,all ,art, wall cube, power brick, plug-
in adapter, adapter block, domestic mains adapter, power adapter, or AC adapter5. Some !lu$
!acks have a s,itchable out!ut volta$e: -v, )v, @..v, Fv, 12v5 (C ,ith a current ratin$ of
.00m2. <he black lea is ne$ative an the other lea ,ith a ,hite stri!e 4or a $rey lea
,ith a black stri!e5 is the !ositive lea.
<his is the safest ,ay to !o,er a !ro"ect as the insulation 4isolation5 from the mains is
!rovie insie the aa!ter an there is no !ossibility of $ettin$ a shock.
<he ratin$ G.00m2G is the ma'imum the 3lu$ 3ack ,ill eliver an if your circuit takes
"ust .0m2, this is the current that ,ill be su!!lie. Some !luck !acks are rate at -00m2
or 12 an some have a fi'e out!ut volta$e. 2ll these !lu$ !acks ,ill be suitable.
Some 3lu$ 3acks are marke G12v2C.G <his ty!e of !lu$ !ack is not suitable for these
circuits as it oes not have a set of ioes an electrolytic to convert the 2C to (C. 2ll
the circuits in this eBook re=uire (C.

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Si'/,est LE! Circuit
Connect a LED to a piezo diaphragm and tap
the piezo with a screwdriver at the centre of the
disc and the LED will flash ver briefl.
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ROOT 7AN
<his multivibrator circuit ,ill
flash the 1obot #anBs eyes
as sho,n in the !hoto. <he
kit of com!onents is
available from <alkin$
+lectronics for HA..0 !lus
!osta$e. Sen an email to
fin out the cost of !osta$e:
talkin$%t!$.com.au

:ere is the circuit from
&e,,e'an Kits8 <he t,o 10k
resistors are re!lace ,ith a
resistor and /ot so the Gfli!
flo!G can be altere.
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%LAS(ING A LE!
<hese @ circuits flash a *+( usin$ a su!!ly from 1..v to 12v.
<hey all have a ifferent value of efficiency an current consum!tion. 6ou ,ill fin at least one to suit your
re=uirements.
<he sim!lest ,ay to flash a *+( is to buy a F*2S:&E? *+( as sho,n in fi$ure A. &t ,ill ,ork on -v to Fv
but it is not very bri$ht - mainly because the *+( is not hi$h-efficiency.
2 Flashin$ *+( can be use to flash a su!er-bri$ht re *+(, as sho,n in fi$ure .
Fi$ure C sho,s a flashin$ *+( rivin$ a buffer transistor to flash a ,hite *+(. <he circuit nees 4..v - )v.
Fi$ure ! !rouces a very bri$ht flash for a very short !erio of time - for a re, $reen, oran$e or ,hite *+(.
Fi$ure E uses 2 transistors to !rouce a brief flash - for a re, $reen, oran$e or ,hite *+(.
Fi$ure % uses a sin$le cell an a volta$e multi!lyin$ arran$ement to flash a re or $reen *+(.
Fi$ure G flashes a ,hite *+( on a -v su!!ly.
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CONSTANT C"RRENT
<hese four circuits elivers a constant 12m2 to any number of *+(s
connecte in series 4to the terminals sho,n5 in the follo,in$
arran$ements.
<he circuits can be connecte to )v, Fv or 12v an the bri$htness of the
*+(s oes not alter.
6ou can connect:
1 or 2 *+(s to )v,
1, 2 or - *+(s to Fv or
1, 2, - or 4 *+(s to 12v.
<he *+(s can be any colour.
<he constant-current section can be consiere as a #/(D*+ an can
be !lace above or belo, the loa:
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W(ITE LE! on 185) S"$$L#
<his circuit ,ill illuminate a ,hite *+( usin$ a sin$le cell.
See *+( <orch Circuits article for more etails.
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2 W(ITE LE!s on 185) S"$$L#
<his circuit ,ill illuminate t,o ,hite *+(s usin$ a sin$le cell.
See *+( <orch Circuits article for more etails.
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W(ITE LE! %LAS(ER
<his circuit ,ill flash a ,hite *+(s usin$ a sin$le cell.
See *+( <orch Circuits article for more etails.
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10 LE!s on a 9) ATTER#
<his circuit ,ill illuminate 10 *+(s on a Fv battery.
&t ,as esi$ne in res!onse to a reaers re=uest:
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S(AKE TIC TAC
LE! TORC(
&n the ia$ram, it looks like the coils sit
on the ItableJ ,hile the ma$net has its
e$e on the table. <his is "ust a ia$ram
to sho, ho, the !arts are connecte.
<he coils actually sit flat a$ainst the
slie 4a$ainst the sie of the ma$net5 as
sho,n in the ia$ram:
<he out!ut volta$e e!ens on ho,
=uickly the ma$net !asses from one
en of the slie to the other. <hatBs ,hy
a ra!i shakin$ !rouces a hi$her
volta$e. 6ou must $et the en of the
ma$net to fully !ass thou$h the coil so
the volta$e ,ill be a ma'imum. <hatKs
,hy the slie e'tens !ast the coils at
the to! an bottom of the ia$ram.
<he circuit consists of t,o )00-turn coils
in series, rivin$ a volta$e oubler.
+ach coil !rouces a !ositive an ne$ative !ulse, each time the ma$net !asses from one en of the slie
to the other.
<he !ositive !ulse char$es the to! electrolytic via the to! ioe an the ne$ative !ulse char$es the lo,er
electrolytic, via the lo,er ioe.
<he volta$e across each electrolytic is combine to !rouce a volta$e for the ,hite *+(. 7hen the
combine volta$e is $reater than -.2v, the *+( illuminates. <he electrolytics hel! to kee! the *+(
illuminate ,hile the ma$net starts to make another !ass.
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LE! %LAS(LIG(T
:ere is a re=uest from one of our reaers:
I 0ant to :ui,d a so,ar /o0ered 2,as-,i3-t8 It 0i,, contain ;-AAs nic1e, -<dride :atteries
o2 182) eac-8 I 0ant 'an< u,tra:ri3-t 0-ite LE!S = 25'A8 I a,so need a )o,ta3e
re3u,ator circuit so t-e :atteries 0on>t o)erc-ar3e8 T-e :atteries are ?00 'A(
ca/acit<8 I need a -i3--,o0 :ea' too8 !o <ou -a)e a sc-e'atic 2or t-is@
:ere is a very sim!le circuit.
<he circuit !rouces a volta$e hi$her than -.)v, from a su!!ly of 4..v to )v to illuminate -
su!er-bri$ht *+(s in series.
<he flyback transformer consists of -0 turns an -0 turns ,oun on an ol ferrite antenna
slab. 1everse the feeback ,inin$ if the *+(s o not illuminate.
Some solar !anels ,ill rain a small current from the battery ,hen not illuminate, so a
G!rotection ioeG can be ae.
6ou can also use a sin$le -.@v *i-&on cell.
<hese are available on eBay for H2.00 !ost free. Solar !anels are also available on eBay.
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LE! !ETECTS LIG(T
<he *+( in this circuit ,ill etect li$ht to turn on the oscillator. /rinary re *+(s o not
,ork. But $reen *+(s, yello, *+(s an hi$h-bri$ht ,hite *+(s an hi$h-bri$ht re *+(s
,ork very ,ell.
<he out!ut volta$e of the *+( is u! to )00m> ,hen etectin$ very bri$ht illumination.
7hen li$ht is etecte by the *+(, its resistance ecreases an a very small current flo,s
into the base of the first transistor. <he transistor am!lifies this current about 200 times
an the resistance bet,een collector an emitter ecreases. <he --0k resistor on the
collector is a current limitin$ resistor as the mile transistor only nees a very small
current for the circuit to oscillate. &f the current is too hi$h, the circuit ,ill GfreeLe.G
<he !ieLo ia!hra$m oes not contain any active com!onents an relies on the circuit to
rive it to !rouce the tone.
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? 7ILLION GAINA
<his circuit is so sensitive it ,ill etect Gmains hum.G
Sim!ly move it across any ,all an it ,ill etect
,here the mains cable is locate. &t has a $ain of
about 200 ' 200 ' 200 C A,000,000 an ,ill also
etect static electricity an the !resence of your
han ,ithout any irect contact. 6ou ,ill be amaLe
,hat it etectsM <here is static electricity
+>+167:+1+M <he in!ut of this circuit is classifie
as very hi$h im!eance.

:ere is a !hoto of the circuit, !rouce by a
constructor.

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LE!s on 2B0)
& o not like any circuit connecte irectly to 240v mains.
:o,ever Christmas tress li$hts 4$lobes5 have been
connecte irectly to the mains for -0 years ,ithout any
ma"or !roblems.
&nsulation must be !rovie an the li$hts 4*+(s5 must
be a,ay from !ryin$ fin$ers.
6ou nee at least .0 *+(s in each strin$ to !revent
them bein$ ama$e via a sur$e throu$h the 1k resistor
- if the circuit is turne on at the !eak of the ,aveform.
2s you a more *+(s to each strin$, the current ,ill
ro! a very small amount until eventually, ,hen you
have F0 *+(s in each strin$, the current ,ill be Lero.
For .0 *+(s in each strin$, the total characteristic
volta$e ,ill be 1A0v so that the !eak volta$e ,ill be --0v
- 1A0v C 1.0v. +ach *+( ,ill see less than @m2 !eak
urin$ the half-cycle they are illuminate 4because the
volta$e across the 0.22u is 1.0v an this volta$e
etermines the current-flo,5. <he 1k resistor ,ill ro! @v
- since the 1#S current is @m2 4@m2 ' 1,000 ohms C
@v5. Eo rectifier ioes are neee. <he *+(s are the
Grectifiers.G >ery clever. 6ou must have *+(s in both irections to char$e an ischar$e the
ca!acitor. <he resistor is !rovie to take a heavy sur$e current throu$h one of the strin$s of *+(s if
the circuit is s,itche on ,hen the mains is at a !eak. <his can be as hi$h as --0m2 if only 1 *+( is
use, so the value of this resistor must be a"uste if a small number of *+(s are use. <he *+(s
above etect !eak current. <he *+(s are turne on an off .0 times !er secon an this may create
Gflickerin$G or Gstrobin$.G <o !revent this flicker, see the (C circuit belo,:
A 100n ca/ 0i,, de,i)er 5'A R7S or 10'A /ea1 in 2u,, 0a)e or ;85'A R7S C10'A /ea1 2or
-a,2 a c<c,eD in -a,2-0a)e8 4,hen only 1 *+( is in each strin$58
<he current-ca!ability of a ca!acitor nees more e'!lanation. &n the ia$ram on the left ,e see a
ca!acitor feein$ a full-,ave !o,er su!!ly. <his is e'actly the same as the LE!s on 2B0) circuit
above. &ma$ine the */2( resistor is remove. <,o of the ioes ,ill face o,n an t,o ,ill face u!.
<his is e'actly the same as the *+(s facin$ u! an facin$ o,n in the circuit above. <he only
ifference is the mi-!oint is "oine. Since the volta$e on the mi-!oint of one strin$ is the same as
the volta$e at the mi-!oint of the other strin$, the link can be remove an the circuit ,ill o!erate
the same.
<his means each 100n of ca!acitance ,ill eliver @m2 1#S 410m2 !eak on each half-cycle5.
&n the half-,ave su!!ly, the ca!acitor elivers -..m2 1#S 410m2 !eak on each half-cycle, but one
half-cycle is lost in the ioe5 for each 100n to the loa, an urin$ the other half-cycle the 10m2
!eak is lost in the ioe that ischar$es the ca!acitor.
6ou can use any *+(s an try to kee! the total volta$e-ro! in each strin$ e=ual. +ach strin$ is
actually ,orkin$ on (C. &tBs not constant (C but varyin$ (C. &n fact is it Lero current for 192 cycle
then nothin$ until the volta$e rises above the total characteristic volta$e of all the *+(s, then a
$raual increase in current over the remainer of the cycle, then a $raual ecrease to Lero over the
fallin$ !ortion of the cycle, then nothin$ for 192 cycle. Because the *+(s turn on an off, you may
observe some flickerin$ an thatBs ,hy the t,o strin$s shoul be !lace to$ether.
SINGLE LE! on 2B0)
2 sin$le *+( can be illuminate by usin$ a 100n or 220n ca!acitor ,ith a ratin$ of 400v. <hese
ca!acitors are calle GN2G an are esi$ne to be connecte to the mains.
<he *+( ,ill be 240v above earth if the active
an neutral are s,a!!e an this re!resents
a shock of over -40v if anythin$ is e'!ose.
<he !o,er ioe in the first ia$ram is
esi$ne to ischar$e the 0.22u urin$ one
half of the cycle so that the ca!acitor ,ill
char$e urin$ the other half-cycle an eliver
ener$y to the *+(. <he 1k resistor limits the
!eak in-rush current ,hen the circuit is first
turne on an the mains ha!!ens to be at a
!eak.
<,o *+(s can be riven from the same
circuit as one *+( ,ill be illuminate urin$
the first half cycle an the other *+( ,ill be
riven urin$ the secon half of the cycle.

*+(s can also be connecte to the mains via
a !o,er ioe an current-limitin$ resistor.
But the ,atta$e lost 4ro!!e5 in the resistor
is about 2.. ,atts an a - ,att resistor ,ill be
neee to illuminate a @0m7 ,hite *+(.
<his is an enormous ,aste of ener$y an a
ca!acitor-fe su!!ly sho,n above is the best
solution.
7hen .0 to A0 ,hite *+(s are connecte in
series, a resistor can be use. For .0 ,hite
*+(s, use a 4k@ 2,att resistor to !rovie
10m2 avera$e current.
For 100 ,hite *+(s, use a 2k2 1,att resistor
to !rovie 10m2 avera$e current.
<he circuit ,ill not ,ork ,ith more than F.
*+(s as the characteristic volta$e-ro!
across the combination ,ill be more than the
!eak of the su!!ly 4-40v5.

DC CONNECTION
<o !revent Gflickerin$B or Gstrobin$,G the *+(s
must be riven ,ith (C. <his re=uires a
B1&(?+. 42 bri$e is use in this circuit
ho,ever the secret to !revent flickerin$ is the
aition of the electrolytic an the circuit can
be riven by a sin$le ioe in half-,ave.5
<he 0.22u ,ill eliver 1.m2 ,hen one *+( is
connecte to the out!ut. 2s aitional *+(s
are connecte, the current $raually reuces
to Lero ,ith 100 *+(s.
40 *+(s ,ill be !rovie ,ith:
-4. - 14. C 200v C 2009-4. ' 1. C A.)m2
LE!s on 120)
:ere is a very clever C/ES<2E<-
CD11+E< volta$e-oublin$
esi$n.
&t !rouces u! to -00v on a 120v
su!!ly an the current is -0m2.
4see belo, for the reason ,hy the
current is -0m2 for about 40
*+(s5
<he amaLin$ thin$ is, you can !ut
any number of *+(s on the out!ut,
u! to A0 ,hite *+(s. 7hen A0
*+(s are ae, the current ,ill
reuce to only a fe, milliam!s.
:o, oes the circuit ,ork;
7e ,ill e'!lain ho, the circuit ,orks in - ste!s.
Ste! 1: <he 1u char$es to the !eak volta$e of 1.0v ,hen the active line is 1.0v hi$her
than the neutral:
Ste! 2: 7hen the active line is 1.0v */7+1 than the neutral, the secon ca!acitor
char$es as sho,n in the follo,in$ ia$ram:
Ste! -: <he *+(s are connecte to these ca!acitors an the resultin$ volta$e is about
-00v.
<he characteristic volta$e of about -.)v for a ,hite *+( ,ill reuce the volta$e an
thatBs ,hy the -00v is only a theoretical ma'imum.
/n each half-cycle, the ener$y from a 1u is fe to the strin$ of *+(s an it ,ill eliver an
avera$e of about @0m2 ,hen only 1 *+( is in the chain.
<his makes it a FD** 72>+ ca!acitor-fe su!!ly an because it is a ca!acitor-fe
su!!ly, it is a constant-current su!!ly. <he current ,ill $raually ecrease as the number
of *+(s increase because the current thou$h the ca!acitor e!ens on the volta$e on
each sie of the ca!acitor. 2s the number of *+(s increase, the volta$e on the *+(-sie
of the ca!acitor increases, reucin$ the actual volta$e across the ca!acitor.
<he current ,ill ecrease by about 1m2 for each ae *+(.
(OW TO &IEW T(E *7AINS*
<he mains is chan$in$ irection .0 or )0 times !er secon an this is calle 2C
42lternatin$ Current5. &nstea of seein$ the mains as Gchan$in$ irection,G it is more
convenient to consier the Eeutral as al,ays at +21<: 3/<+E<&2* an the 2ctive is
1.0v hi$her than GearthG then 1.0v lo,er than earth.
Eo, you can unerstan the ia$rams above.
%LAS(ING LE! on 2B0) :< %ranE ac-,er
<his circuit flashes a sin$le *+( on 240v. <he circuit ,ill also ,ork on 120v by reucin$ the
4@0k to 220k. <he base of the transistor is not connecte.
%,as-in3 LE! on 2B0)
(OW T(E CIRC"IT WORKS
<he E3E transistor is ,ire the ,ron$ ,ay roun in the circuit, ,ith a !ositive volta$e on the
emitter, an the base lea is left o!en. <he volta$e on the ca!acitor $raually rises to
a!!ro'imately Fv. 2t this !oint the transistor suenly starts conuctin$ an ischar$es the
ca!acitor to eliver ener$y to the *+( an !rouce a sin$le flash. +ach transistor behaves
ifferently an itBs ,orth tryin$ a variety of transistors in this circuit.
7hen o!erate ,ith an in)erted )o,ta3e bet,een the emitter an the collector, the transistor
has a characteristic curve ,ith a ne$ative slo!e. <he base-emitter "unction e'hibits an
avalanche breako,n effect at a!!ro'imately Fv. 2t this volta$e the hi$h electric fiel stren$th
in the thin reverse-biase "unction re$ion causes the char$e carriers to move so fast that they
islo$e other char$e-carriers from the crystal lattice. 2s a result the number of char$e-
carriers rises very =uickly. <his is the same as ,hat ha!!ens in a Fv Lener ioe, but a Lener
ioe has a !ositive internal resistance. <hereBs another factor involve ,ith an inverte
transistor. :ere the emitter an collector s,itch roles, but ue to the essentially symmetrical
structure, the transistor also o!erates in this inverte conition.
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7AINS NIG(T LIG(T
<he circuit illuminates a column of 10 ,hite *+(s. <he 10u !revents flicker an the 1001 also
reuces flicker 4it allo,s the 10u to char$e to a sli$htly hi$her value an this e'tra ener$y is
elivere to the *+(s urin$ each of the lo, !ortions of the 2C cycle.5
<his circuit is classifie as a C/ES<2E< CD11+E< ?+E+12</1 or C/ES<2E< CD11+E<
C&1CD&<.
<his means any com!onent !lace on the out!ut of the circuit ,ill !ass @m2 if the ca!acitor is 100n
on a 240v su!!ly or 4.@ ' @m2 C --m2 if the ca!acitor is 4@0n.
<his also a!!lies to a short-circuit on the out!ut.
&f no loa is connecte, the out!ut volta$e ,ill be 2-0v ' 1.4 C -20v an if the volta$e across the
loa is 100v, the out!ut ,ill be reuce to about 20m2. &f the out!ut volta$e is 200v, the current ,ill
be 10m2 an if the out!ut volta$e is -00v, the current ,ill be 0m2. &n our case the out!ut volta$e
,ill be about -.v an the current ,ill be -0m2.
<his means you cannot a *+(s enlessly. 2 time ,ill come ,hen they ,ill sim!ly not illuminate.
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%LAS(ING RAILROA! LIG(TS
<his circuit flashes t,o re *+(s for a moel rail,ay crossin$.
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LE! !I77ER
<his circuit ,ill a"ust the bri$htness of one or
more *+(s from .0 to F.0.
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!RI&ING A I-COLO"R LE!
Some --leae *+(s !rouce re an $reen. <his
circuit alternately flashes a re9$reen bi-coloure *+(:
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I-$OLAR LE! !RI&ER
Some 2-leae *+(s !rouce re an $reen. <hese
are calle Bi-!olar *+(s. <his circuit alternately flashes
a re9$reen bi-!olar *+(:
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RG LE! !RI&ER
<his is a sim!le river circuit
that rives the - *+(s in an
1?B *+( to !rouce a
number of interestin$
colours. +ven thou$h the
com!onent values are
ientical in the three
oscillators, the sli$ht
ifference in tolerances ,ill
create a ranom is!lay of
colours an it ,ill take a
,hile for the !attern to
re!eat.
<he colours chan$e abru!tly
from one colour to another
as the circuit oes not use
3ulse 7ith #oulation to
!rouce a $raual fain$
from one colour to another.
<his *+( is calle
C/##/E 2E/(+. <his
has been one so it can be
connecte to transistors or
other evices that GS&EO.G
<he secon circuit a
common cathoe *+(.
Eote the ifferent !inout.
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RG LE! %LAS(ER
<his *+( flashes at a fast rate then a slo, rate. &t only re=uires a current-limitin$ resistor of 1001
for 4..v to )v su!!ly or 4@01 for @v to 12v su!!ly.
<his *+( is available from: http!""alan-parekh#vstore#ca"flashing-$%%%mcd-p-&&#html for &% cents plus
postage#

<here are t,o ifferent ty!es of 1?B *+(s. <he RG LE! !ri)er circuit above uses an 1?B *+(
,ith 4 leas an has - coloure chi!s insie an E/<:&E? +*S+.
<he *+( escribe in the vieo has 2 leas an re=uires a ro!!er resistor so that about 20m2
flo,s. <he *+( also contains a microcontroller !roucin$ 37# si$nals. &f you cannot $et the 2-
leae *+(, you can use a 4-leae *+( !lus the circuit belo,. &t is an analo$ue version of the
circuit insie the self-flashin$ *+(, for the slo,-rate:
2s ,ith everythin$ Chinese, the self-flashin$ *+( is too $immicky.
&t is better to !rouce your o,n colour-chan$e via the circuit above. 6ou can alter the rate by
chan$in$ the value of the com!onents an9or remove one or more of the 100uBs. <he circuit for a
common cathoe 1?B *+( is sho,n in the 1?B *+( (river above.
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KNIG(T RI!ER
&n the Kni3-t Rider circuit, the ... is ,ire as an oscillator. &t can be
a"uste to $ive the esire s!ee for the is!lay. <he out!ut of the ... is
irectly connecte to the in!ut of a Pohnson Counter 4C( 401@5. <he in!ut
of the counter is calle the C*/CO line.
<he 10 out!uts Q0 to QF become active, one at a time, on the risin$ e$e of
the ,aveform from the .... +ach out!ut can eliver about 20m2 but a *+(
shoul not be connecte to the out!ut ,ithout a current-limitin$ resistor
4--01 in the circuit above5.
<he first ) out!uts of the chi! are connecte irectly to the ) *+(s an
these GmoveG across the is!lay. <he ne't 4 out!uts move the effect in the
o!!osite irection an the cycle re!eats. <he animation above sho,s ho,
the effect a!!ears on the is!lay.
Dsin$ si' -mm *+(s, the is!lay can be !lace in the front of a moel car
to $ive a very realistic effect. <he same out!uts can be taken to river
transistors to !rouce a lar$er version of the is!lay.

<he Kni3-t Rider circuit is available as a kit for less than
H1..00 !lus !osta$e as
Kitt Scanner.
:ere is a sim!le Oni$ht 1ier circuit
usin$ resistors to rive the *+(s. <his
circuit consumes 22m2 ,hile only
eliverin$ @m2 to each *+(. <he out!uts
are Gfi$htin$G each other via the 1001
resistors 4e'ce!t out!uts Q0 an Q.5.
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TRA%%IC LIG(TS
:ereBs a clever circuit usin$ t,o ...Bs to !rouce a set of traffic li$hts for a moel
layout.
<he animation sho,s the li$htin$ se=uence an this follo,s the 2ustralian-stanar.
<he re *+( has an e=ual on-off !erio an ,hen it is off, the first ... elivers !o,er to
the secon .... <his illuminates the ?reen *+( an then the secon ... chan$es
state to turn off the ?reen *+( an turn on the /ran$e *+( for a short !erio of time
before the first ... chan$es state to turn off the secon ... an turn on the re *+(. 2
su!!ly volta$e of Fv to 12v is neee because the secon ... receives a su!!ly of
about 2v less than rail. <his circuit also sho,s ho, to connect *+(s hi$h an lo, to a
... an also turn off the ... by controllin$ the su!!ly to !in A. Connectin$ the *+(s
hi$h an lo, to !in - ,ill not ,ork an since !in @ is in !hase ,ith !in -, it can be use
to avanta$e in this esi$n.
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B WA# TRA%%IC LIG(TS
<his circuit !rouces traffic li$hts for a G4-,ayG intersection. <he seemin$ly com!le'
,irin$ to illuminate the li$hts is sho,n to be very sim!le.
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!RI&ING 7AN# LE!S
<he ... is ca!able of sinkin$ an sourcin$ u! to 200m2, but it $ets very hot ,hen
oin$ this on a 12v su!!ly.
<he follo,in$ circuit sho,s the ma'imum number of ,hite *+(s that can be realistically
riven from a ... an ,e have limite the total current to about 1-0m2 as each *+( is
esi$ne to !ass about 1@m2 to 22m2 ma'imum. 2 ,hite *+( ro!s a characteristic
-.2v to -.)v an this means only - *+(s can be !lace in series.
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;6;6; C"E
<his circuit rives a -'-'- cube consistin$ of 2@ ,hite *+(s. <he 4020 &C is a
14 sta$e binary counter an ,e have use F out!uts. +ach out!ut rives - ,hite
*+(s in series an ,e have omitte a ro!!er resistor as the chi! can only
eliver a ma'imum of 1.m2 !er out!ut. <he 4020 !rouces .12 ifferent
!atterns before the se=uence re!eats an you have to buil the !ro"ect to see
the effects it !rouces on the -( cube.
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"$F!OWN %A!ING LE!
<hese t,o circuits make a *+( fae on an off. <he first circuit char$es a 100u
an the transistor am!lifies the current enterin$ the 100u an elivers 100 times
this value to the *+( via the collector-emitter !ins. <he circuit nees Fv for
o!eration since !in 2 of the ... etects 29->cc before chan$in$ the state of the
out!ut so ,e only have a ma'imum of ...v via a 2201 resistor to illuminate the
*+(. <he secon circuit re=uires a very hi$h value electrolytic to !rouce the
same effect.

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"$F!OWN %A!ING LE!-2
<he circuit faes the *+( /E an /FF at an e=ual rate. <he 4@0k
char$in$ an 4@k ischar$in$ resistors have been chosen to
create e=ual on an off times.

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IKE T"RNING SIGNAL
<his circuit can be use to inicate left an ri$ht turn on a motor-bike. <,o
ientical circuits ,ill be neee, one for left an one for ri$ht.

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$OLICE LIG(TS
<hese three circuits flash the left *+(s - times then the ri$ht *+(s - times, then re!eats. <he
only ifference is the choice of chi!s.
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LE! !ICE 0it- S,o0 !o0n
<his circuit !rouces a ranom number from 1 to ) on *+(s that are similar to the !i!s on the sie
of a ice. 7hen the t,o </DC: 7&1+S are touche ,ith a fin$er, the *+(s flash very =uickly an
,hen the fin$er is remove, they $raually slo, o,n an come to a sto!. LE! !ice 0it- S,o0
!o0n 1it is available from <alkin$ +lectronics.
<he LE! !ice 0it-
S,o0 !o0n 1it is
available for H1).00
!lus H)..0 !osta$e.
<he kit inclues the !arts an 3C
boar.
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RO"LETTE
<his circuit creates a rotatin$ *+( that starts very fast ,hen a fin$er touches the </DC:
7&1+S. 7hen the fin$er is remove, the rotation slo,s o,n an finally sto!s.
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!ICE TE555-B
<his circuit uses the latest TE###-, !ICE chi! from <alkin$ +lectronics. <his A-!in chi! is available
for H2..0 an rives a @-Se$ment is!lay. <he circuit can be assemble on !roto-ty!e boar. For
more hel! on the list of com!onents, email Colin #itchell: talkin$%t!$.com.au
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LE! %G TE555-5
<his circuit uses the latest TE###- # LE! %G chi! from <alkin$ +lectronics. <his A-!in chi! is
available for H2..0 an rives - *+(s. <he circuit can be assemble on matri' boar.
<he circuit !rouces 12 ifferent se=uences incluin$ flashin$, chasin$, !olice li$hts an flicker.
&t also has a feature ,here you can create your o,n se=uence an it ,ill sho, each time the chi! is
turne on. <he kit of com!onents an matri' boar can be !urchase for H1..00 !lus !osta$e. +mail
Colin #itchell: talkin$%t!$.com.au for more etails.
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SOLAR GAR!EN LIG(T
<his is the circuit in a H2.00 Solar ?aren *i$ht.
<he circuit illuminates a ,hite *+( from a 1.2v rechar$eable cell.
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SOLAR TRACKER
<his circuit is a S/*21 <12CO+1. &t uses $reen *+(s to etect
the sun an an :-Bri$e to rive the motor. 2 $reen *+( !rouces
nearly 1v but only a fraction of a milliam! ,hen sunli$ht is etecte
by the crystal insie the *+( an this creates an imbalance in the
circuit to rive the motor either clock,ise or anticlock,ise. <he
circuit ,ill eliver about -00m2 to the motor.
<he circuit ,as esi$ne by 1e1ok an kits for the So,ar
Trac1er are available from:
htt!:99,,,.rerok.com9electron.htmRtracker <his esi$n is calle:
LE!5S5& Si'/,i2ied LE! ,o0 /o0er trac1er8
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ATTER# 7ONITOR 71I
2 very sim!le battery monitor can be mae ,ith a ual-colour
*+( an a fe, surrounin$ com!onents. <he *+( !rouces
oran$e ,hen the re an $reen *+(s are illuminate.
<he follo,in$ circuit turns on the re *+( belo, 10..v
<he oran$e *+( illuminates bet,een 10..v an 11.)v.
<he $reen *+( illuminates above 11.)v
<he follo,in$ circuit monitors a sin$le *i-&/E cell. <he $reen
*+( illuminates ,hen the volta$e is above -..v an the $oes
out ,hen the volta$e falls belo, -.4v. <he re *+( then
illuminates.
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ATTER# 7ONITOR 71II
<his battery monitor circuit uses - se!arate *+(s.
<he re *+( turns on from )v to belo, 11v.
&t turns off above 11v an
<he oran$e *+( illuminates bet,een 11v an 1-v.
&t turns off above 1-v an
<he $reen *+( illuminates above 1-v
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LOW %"EL IN!ICATOR
<his circuit has been esi$ne from a re=uest by a reaer. :e
,ante a lo, fuel inicator for his motorbike. <he *+(
illuminates ,hen the fuel $au$e is F0 ohms. <he tank is em!ty
at 1-. ohms an full at Lero ohms. <o aa!t the circuit for an
A0 ohm fuel sener, sim!ly reuce the --01 to 1.01. 4<he first
thin$ you have to o is measure the resistance of the sener
,hen the tank is am!ly.5
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LE! +E$$ELIN
<his circuit is a $ame of skill. See full article: *+( 8e!!elin. <he kit is available from
talkin$ electronics for H1...0 !lus !osta$e. +mail HERE for etails.
<he $ame consists of si' *+(s an an inicator *+( that flashes at a rate of about 2
cycles !er secon. 2 !ush button is the G/!erations ControlG an by carefully !ushin$
the button in synchronisation ,ith the flashin$ *+(, the ro, of *+(s ,ill $raually
li$ht u!.
But the sli$htest mistake ,ill immeiately e'tin$uish one, t,o or three *+(s. <he aim
of the $ame is to illuminate the ) *+(s ,ith the least number of !ushes.
7e have sol thousans of these kits. &tBs a $reat challen$e.
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T(E !O7INO E%%ECT
:ereBs a !ro"ect ,ith an interestin$ name. <he ori$inal esi$n ,as bou$ht over 40 years a$o, before the
introuction of the electret micro!hone. <hey use a crystal ear!iece.
7e have substitute it ,ith a !ieLo ia!hra$m an use a =ua o!-am! to !rouce t,o builin$ blocks.
<he first is a hi$h-$ain am!lifier to take the fe, millivolts out!ut of the !ieLo an am!lify it sufficiently to
rive the in!ut of a counter chi!. <his re=uires a ,aveform of at least )v for a Fv su!!ly an ,e nee a
$ain of about )00.
<he other builin$ block is sim!ly a buffer that takes the hi$h-am!litue ,aveform an elivers the
ne$ative e'cursions to a reservoir ca!acitor 4100u electrolytic5. <he char$e on this ca!acitor turns on a
BC..@ transistor an this effectively takes the !o,er !in of the counter-chi! to the !ositive rail via the
collector lea.
<he chi! has internal current limitin$ an some of the out!uts are taken to sets of three *+(s.
<he chi! is actually a counter or ivier an the fre=uency !icke u! by the !ieLo is ivie by 12A an
elivere to one out!ut an ivie by over A,000 by the hi$hest-ivision out!ut to three more *+(s <he
other lines have lo,er ivisions.
<his creates a very im!ressive effect as the *+(s are connecte to !rouce a balance is!lay that
chan$es accorin$ to the beat of the music.
<he volta$e on the three am!lifiers is etermine by the -#- an 1# volta$e-ivier on the first o!-am!.
&t !rouces about 2v. <his makes the out!ut $o :&?: an it takes !in 2 ,ith it until this !in see a fe,
millivolts above !in-. 2t this !oint the out!ut sto!s risin$.
2ny ,aveform 4volta$e5 !rouce by the !ieLo that is lo,er than the volta$e on !in - ,ill make the out!ut
$o :&?: an this is ho, ,e $et a lar$e ,aveform.
<his si$nal is !asse to the secon o!-am! an because the volta$e on !in ) is elaye sli$htly by the
100n ca!acitor, is also !rouces a $ain.
7hen no si$nal is !icke u! by the !ieLo, !in @ is a!!ro' 2v an !in 10 is about 4..v. Because !in F is
lo,er than !in 10, the out!ut !in A is about @.@v 41.-v belo, the su!!ly rail5 as this is as hi$h as the
out!ut ,ill $o - it oes not $o full rail-to-rail.
<he *+( connecte to the out!ut removes 1.@v, !lus 0.)v bet,een base an emitter an this means the
transistor is not turne on.
2ny colour *+(s can be use an a mi'ture ,ill $ive a ifferent effect.

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10 LE! C(ASER
:ereBs an interestin$ circuit that creates a clock
!ulse for a 401@ from a flashin$ *+(. <he flashin$
*+( takes almost no current bet,een flashes an
thus the clock line is lo, via the 1k to 22k resistor.
7hen the *+( flashes, the volta$e on the clock line
is about 2v --v belo, the rail volta$e 4e!enin$ on
the value of the resistor5 an this is sufficient for the
chi! to see a :&?:.
'circuit designed on (-)%-*%)%+
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E'er3enc< $(ONE-LINE LIG(T
:ereBs a !ro"ect that uses the !hone line to illuminate a
set of ,hite *+(s.
<he circuit elivers a current of 4..m2 as any current
above 10m2 ,ill be etecte by the e'chan$e as the
han-set off the hook.
Be ,arne: <his ty!e of circuit is not allo,e as it uses
the ener$y from the !hone line 4calle Gleechin$G5 an
may !revent the !hone from ,orkin$.
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EH"AL RIG(TNESS
2 2-leae ual colour *+( can be connecte to the out!uts of
a microcontroller an the bri$htness can be e=ualiLe by usin$
the circuits sho,n.
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%LICKERING LE!
2 Flickerin$ *+( is available from eBay an some electronics sho!s.
&t can be connecte to a su!!ly from 2v to )v an nees an e'ternal
resistor ,hen the su!!ly is above -v. <he *+( has an internal circuit
to create the flickerin$ effect an limit the current. 7e su$$est
ain$ a 1.01 resistor ,hen the su!!ly is above -v an u! to )v.
2bove )v, the current-limit resistor shoul be increase to 2201 for
Fv an --01 for 12v.
6ou can connect the flickerin$ *+( to an orinary *+( an both ,ill
flicker. :ere are some arran$ements:
<he 3ulse-7ith #oulation to activate the flickerin$ can be
observe on an oscillosco!e by connectin$ the !robe across the
*+(. &t is a very com!le' ,aveform. &t is a!!ro' 1v in am!litue an
a!!ro' 1. ' 1k:L !ulses to create each !ortion of the on-time,
somethin$ like this:
<he !ulses vary in ,ith to create a bri$hter illumination.
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RG %LAS(ING LE!
<here are many ifferent flickerin$ an flashin$
*+(s on the market via eBay.
<hey contain a microsco!ic microcontroller chi!
an current limitin$ resistor. #any of them ,ork
on a volta$e from -v to )v an you can hear
the oscillator turnin$ /E an /FF to !rouce
the ifferent effects by builin$ the follo,in$
circuit:
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CONSTANT-C"RRENT 5?05 !RI&ES 1 WATT LE!
<he circuit can be reuce to 2 com!onents:
<he @A0. can be converte into a content-current evice by connectin$ a resistor as
sho,n above.
7e ,ill take the o!eration of the circuit in slo,-motion to see ho, it ,orks.
2s the 12v rises from 0v, the @A0. starts to ,ork an ,hen the in!ut volta$e is 4v, the
out!ut is 1v as a minimum of -v is lost across the @A0.. <he volta$e rises further an
,hen the out!ut is .v, current flo,s throu$h the 1.1 resistor an illuminates the *+(.
<he *+( starts to illuminate at -.4v an the volta$e across the 1.1 at the moment is
1.)v an the out!ut current ,ill be 100m2. <he in!ut volta$e kee!s risin$ an no, the
out!ut volta$e is @v. <he current throu$h the *+( increases an no, the volta$e
across the *+( is -..v. <he volta$e across the 1.1 is -..v an the current is 2-0m2.
<he in!ut volta$e kee!s risin$ an the out!ut volta$e is no, A.)v <he current throu$h
the *+( increases an the volta$e across the *+( is no, -.)v. <he volta$e across the
1.1 is .v an the current is --0m2. <he in!ut volta$e kee!s risin$ but a etector
insie the @A0. etects the out!ut volta$e is e'actly .v above the common an the
out!ut volta$e oes not rise any more. <he in!ut volta$e can rise above 1-v, 14v . . . .
2.v or more but the out!ut volta$e ,ill not rise.
&f the out!ut volta$e rises, more current ,ill be elivere to the *+( an the volta$e
across the 1.1 ,ill increase. <he @A0. ,ill not allo, this to ha!!en.
<he *+( ,ill have -.)v across it. <he 1.1 ,ill have .v across it an the out!ut ,ill be
A.)v. <he in!ut volta$e ,ill have to be at least 12.)v for the @A0. to o!erate.
"SING L7;15
<he --<erminal 1e$ulator can be *#-1@. <his is similar to @A0. e'ce!t the volta$e
bet,een the C/# an /D< is 1.2.v instea of .v. 7hen usin$ an *#-1@ re$ulator,
less ,atta$e ,ill be lost in the resistor an more heat ,ill be $enerate via the
re$ulator, ,hen com!are ,ith a a @A0. ho,ever the total ,atta$e lost ,ill b the same
in both cases.
Since the *+( an re$ulator are in series, the *+( can be !lace before the re$ulator:
(rivin$ a sin$le 1,att *+( from 12v is very inefficient.
<he volta$e across the *+( ,ill be about -.)v. <he remainin$ A.4v must be ro!!e
across the *#-1@ an 412 resistor. <he 412 must have 1.2.v across it for the *#-1@
to o!erate an the *#-1@ has @.1.v across it.
<he minimum volta$e across a *#-1@ is about -v an this volta$e is re=uire to
o!erate the circuitry insie the re$ulator.
<his means t,o 1,att *+(s can be !lace on a 12v su!!ly an the re$ulator ,ill run
cooler ,hile the circuit ,ill !rouce t,ice the li$ht-out!ut for no aitional current.
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1-WATT LE! - )er< 3ood desi3n
Circuit ta1es 50'A on LOW :ri3-tness
and 120'A on (IG( ri3-tness
<his circuit has been s!ecially esi$ne for a )v
rechar$eable battery or . ' 1.2v EiCa cells. !o not use
an< ot-er )o,ta3e8
&t has many features:
<he !ulse-o!eration to the t,o 1-,att *+(s elivers a
hi$h current for a short !erio of time an this im!roves
the bri$htness.
<he circuit can rive t,o 1-,att *+(s ,ith e'tremely
$oo bri$htness an this makes it more efficient than
any other esi$n.
<he circuit is a t,o-transistor hi$h-fre=uency oscillator
an it ,orks like this:
<he B(1-F is turne /E via the base, throu$h the ,hite
*+( an t,o si$nal ioes an it am!lifies this current to
a!!ear thou$h the collector-emitter circuit. <his current
flo,s thou$h the 1-,att *+( to turn it /E an also
throu$h the -0-turn ,inin$ of the inuctor. 2t the same
time the current throu$h the 101 creates a volta$e-ro!
an ,hen this volta$e rises to 0.).v, the BC.4@
transistor starts to turn /E. <his robs the base of the
B(1-F of Gturn-on volta$eG an the current throu$h the
inuctor ceases to be e'!anin$ flu', but stationary flu'.
<he 1n ca!acitor ,as initially !ushin$ a$ainst the volta$e-rise on the base of the BC.4@ but it no, has a reverse-
effect of allo,in$ the BC.4@ to turn /E.
<his turns off the B(1-F a little more an the current throu$h the inuctor reuces.
<his creates a colla!sin$ flu' that !rouces a volta$e across the coil in the o!!osite irection. <his volta$e !asses
via the 1n to turn the BC.4@ /E an the B(1-F is fully turne /FF.
<he inuctor effectively becomes a miniature battery ,ith ne$ative on the lo,er *+( an !ositive at the anoe of
the Dltra Fast ioe. <he volta$e !rouce by the inuctor flo,s throu$h the DF ioe an both 1-,att *+(s to
$ive them a s!ike of hi$h current. <he circuit o!erates at a!!ro' .00k:L an this ,ill e!en on the inuctance of
the inuctor.
<he circuit has about A.0 efficiency ue to the absence of a current-limitin$ resistor, an shuts off at 4v, thus
!reventin$ ee!-ischar$e of the rechar$eable cells or )v battery.
<he clever !art of the circuit is the ,hite *+( an t,o ioes. <hese form a Lener reference to turn the circuit off at
4v. <he 10k resistor hel!s too.
<he circuit takes @0m2 on lo, bri$htness an 120m2 on :&?: bri$htness via the bri$htness-s,itch.
<he *+(s actually $et 200m2 !ulses of current an this !rouces the hi$h bri$htness.
T-e Inductor
<he coil or inuctor is not critical. 6ou can use a broken antenna ro from an 2# raio 4or a flat antenna slab5 or
an inuctor from a com!uter !o,er su!!ly. *ook for an inuctor ,ith a fe, turns of thick ,ire 4at least -05 an you
,onBt have to re-,in it.
:ere are t,o inuctors from sur!lus outlets:
htt!:99,,,.$olmine-elec-!roucts.com9!roinfo.as!;numberC?1).21B
- .0 cents
htt!:99,,,.allelectronics.com9make-a-store9item9C1--4.9-4.-D:-</1/&(2*-&E(DC</191.html - 40cents
:ere are the sur!lus inuctors:
<he cost of sur!lus is from 10 cents to .0 cents, but you are sure to fin somethin$ from a com!uter !o,er su!!ly.

3ick an inuctor that is about )mm to 10mm iameter an 10mm to 1.mm hi$h. *ar$er inuctor ,ill not o any
ama$e. <hey sim!ly have more ferrite material to store the ener$y an ,ill not be saturate. &t is the circuit that
elivers the ener$y to the inuctor an then the inuctor releases it to the *+(s via the hi$h s!ee ioe.
I7$RO&E7ENT
By usin$ the follo,in$ iea, the current reuces to F0m2 an @0m2 an the illumination over a ,orkbench is much
better than a sin$le hi$h-!o,er *+(. &t is much bri$hter an much nicer to ,ork uner.
Connect fifteen .mm *+(s in !arallel 4& use 20,000mc *+(s5 by solerin$ them to a ouble-sie stri! of 3C
boar, 10mm ,ie an -00mm lon$. S!ace them at about 20mm. & kno, you shoulnBt connect *+(s in !arallel,
but the conce!t ,orks very ,ell in this case. &f some of the *+(s have a characteristic hi$h volta$e an o not
illuminate very bri$htly, sim!ly re!lace them an use them later for another stri!.
6ou can re!lace one or both the 1-,att *+(s ,ith a *+( Stri!, as sho,n belo,:
No current-,i'it resistor8 8 8 0-< isn>t t-e LE! da'a3ed@
:ereBs ,hy the *+( isnBt ama$e:
7hen the B(1-F transistor turns /E, current flo,s throu$h the *+(s an the inuctor. <his current $raually
increases ue to the $raual turnin$-on of the transistor an it is also increasin$ throu$h the inuctor. <he inuctor
also has an effect of slo,in$-o,n the Gin-rushG of current ue to the e'!anin$ flu' cuttin$ the turns of the coil, so
there is a Gouble-effectG on avoiin$ a hi$h initial current. <hatBs ,hy there is little chance of ama$in$ the *+(s.
7hen it reaches ).m2, it !rouces a volta$e of .0). ' 10 C ).0m> across the 101 resistor, but the 1n is !ushin$
a$ainst this increase an it may have to rise to 1.0m2 to turn on the BC.4@. *+(s can ,ithstan 4 times the
normal current for very short !erios of time an thatBs ,hat ha!!ens in this case. <he B(1-F is then turne off by
the volta$e !rouce by the inuctor ue to the colla!sin$ ma$netic flu' an a s!ike of hi$h current is !asse to
the *+(s via the hi$h s!ee ioe. (urin$ each cycle, the *+(s receive t,o !ulses of hi$h current an this
!rouces a very hi$h bri$htness ,ith the least amount of ener$y from the su!!ly. 2ll the com!onents run GcolG
an even the 1-,att *+(s are harly ,arm.
C-ar3in3 and !isc-ar3in3
<his !ro"ect is esi$ne to use all your ol EiCa cells an mobile !hone batteries.
&t oesnBt matter if you mi' u! siLes an ty!e as the circuit takes a lo, current an shuts off ,hen the volta$e is
a!!ro' 4v for a )v !ack.
&f you mi' u! )00m2-:r cells ,ith 1).0m2-:r, 2,000m2-:r an 2,400m2-:r, the lo,est ca!acity cell ,ill
etermine the o!eratin$ time.
<he ca!acity of a cells is calle GC.G
Eormally, a cell is char$e at the 14 hour-rate.
<he char$in$ current is 100 of the ca!acity. For a )00m2-:r cell, this is )0m2. &n 10 hours it ,ill be fully char$e,
but char$in$ is not 1000 efficient an so ,e allo, another 2 to 4 hours.
For a 2,400m2-:r cell, it is 240m2. &f you char$e them faster than 14-hr rate, they ,ill $et :/< an if they $et very
hot, they may leak or even e'!loe. But this !ro"ect is esi$ne to be char$e via a solar !anel usin$ 100m2 to
200m2 cells, so nothin$ ,ill be ama$e.
&eally a battery is ischar$e at C910 rate. <his means the battery ,ill last 10 hours an for a )00m2-:r cell, this
is )0m2. &f you ischar$e it at the GC-rate,G it ,ill theoretically last 1 hour an the current ,ill be )00m2. But at
)00m2, the cells may only last 4. minutes. &f you ischar$e is at C9. rate, it ,ill last . hours.
/ur !ro"ect takes 120m2 so no cell ,ill be too-stresse. 2 )00m2-:r cell ,ill last about 4-. hours, ,hile the other
cells ,ill last u! to 24 hours. <ry to kee! the ca!acity of each cell in a Gbattery-!ackG e=ual.
to &ne'
IKE %LAS(ER
<his circuit ,ill flash a ,hite *+( 4or 2,- 4 *+(s in
!arallel5 at 2.@:L, suitable for the rear li$ht on a
bike.
to &ne'
IKE %LAS(ER - A'aEin3A
<his bike flasher uses a sin$le transistor to flash t,o ,hite *+(s from a sin$le cell. 2n it has no
core for the transformer - "ust 2&1M
2ll .ou,e T-ie2 circuits you have seen, use a ferrite ro or toroi 4ou$hnut5 core an the turns
are ,oun on the ferrite material. But this circuit !roves the colla!sin$ ma$netic flu' !rouces an
increase volta$e, even ,hen the core is 2&1. <he fact is this: 7hen a ma$netic file colla!ses
=uickly, it !rouces a hi$her volta$e in the o!!osite irection an in this case the ma$netic fiel
surrounin$ the coil is sufficient to !rouce the ener$y ,e nee.
7in -0 turns on 10mm 4192G ia5 !en or scre,river an then another -0 turns on to!. Buil the
first circuit an connect the ,ires. 6ou can use 1 or t,o *+(s. &f the circuit oes not ,ork, s,a!
the ,ires $oin$ to the base.
Eo, a the 10u electrolytic an 100k resistor 4remove the 1k.5. <he circuit ,ill no, flash. 6ou
must use 2 *+(s for the flashin$ circuit.
IKE %LAS(ER - A7A+INGA
T(E I7$RO&E! IKE %LAS(ER CIRC"IT
<he ori$inal -0 turns S -0 turns coil is sho,n on the ri$ht. <he circuit took 20m2 to illuminate t,o
*+(s.
<he secret to $ettin$ the ma'imum ener$y from the coil 4to flash the *+(s5 is the ma'imum
amount of air in the centre of the coil. 2ir cannot transfer a hi$h ma$netic flu' so ,e !rovie a
lar$e area 4volume5 of lo, flu' to !rovie the ener$y. <he lar$er 420mm5 coil reuce the current
from 20m2 to 11m2 for the same bri$htness. <his coul be im!rove further but the coil $ets too
bi$. <he t,o -0-turn ,inin$s must be ke!t to$ether because the flu' from the main ,inin$ must
cut the feeback ,inin$ to turn /E the transistor (AR!.
7hen the transistor starts to turn on via the 100k, it creates ma$netic flu' in the main ,inin$ that
cuts the feeback ,inin$ an a !ositive volta$e comes out the en connecte to the base an a
ne$ative volta$e comes out the en connecte to the 100k an 10u. <his turns the transistor /E
more an it continues to turn /E until fully turne /E. 2t this !oint the ma$netic flu' is not
e'!anin$ an the volta$e oes not a!!ear in the feeback ,inin$.
(urin$ this time the 10u has char$e an the volta$e on the ne$ative lea has ro!!e to a lo,er
volta$e than before. <his effectively turns off the transistor an the current in the main ,inin$
ceases abru!tly. <he ma$netic flu' colla!ses an !rouces a volta$e in the o!!osite irection
that is hi$her than the su!!ly an this is ,hy the t,o *+(s illuminate. <his also !uts a volta$e
throu$h the feeback ,inin$ that kee!s the transistor /FF. 7hen the ma$netic flu' has
colla!se, the volta$e on the ne$ative lea of the 10u is so lo, that the transistor oes not turn
on. <he 100k ischar$es the 10u an the volta$e on the base rises to start the ne't cycle.
6ou can see the 100k an 1k. resistors an all the other !arts in a Gbirs nestG to allo, easy
e'!erimentin$.
Note: Chan$in$ the turns to 40t for the main ,inin$ an 20t for the feeback 4kee!in$ the turns
ti$htly ,oun to$ether by ,inin$ ,ire aroun them5 reuce the current to A-Fm2.
to &ne'
"CK CON&ERTER 2or ;0att LE!
<his circuit rives a -,att *+(. 6ou have to be careful not to ama$e the
*+( ,hen settin$ u! the circuit. 2 a 101 to the su!!ly rail an hol it in
your fin$ers. #ake sure it oes not $et too hot an monitor the volta$e
across the resistor. +ach 1v re!resents 100m2. <he circuit ,ill ,ork an
nothin$ ,ill be ama$e. &f the resistor Gburns your fin$ersG you have a
short circuit.
<he BC..@ multivibrator has a Gmark-to-s!ace ratioG etermine by the
22n an --k, com!are to the 100n an 4@k, !roucin$ about -:1 <he
B()@F is turne /E for about -00 of the time. <his !rouces a very bri$ht
out!ut, an takes about 1@0m2 for -00 of the time. 6ou cannot measure
this current ,ith a meter as it reas the !eak value an the reain$ ,ill be
totally false. <he only ,ay to vie, the ,aveform is on a C1/, an calculate
the current.
<he 100-turn inuctor allo,s the B()@F turn turn /E fully an Gse!aratesG
the volta$e on the emitter of the BC)@F from the volta$e on the to! of the
-,att *+(.
7hen the B()@F turns /E, the emitter rises to about 10v. But the to! of
the *+( NE&ER rises above -.)v. <he inuctor GbuffersG or Gse!aratesG
these t,o volta$es by !roucin$ a volta$e across the ,inin$ e=ual to ).4v
an thatBs ,hy the *+( is not ama$e.
7hen the transistor turns off 4for )00 of the time5, the ma$netic flu'
!rouce by the current in the inuctor colla!ses an !rouces a volta$e in
the o!!osite irection. <his means the inuctor no, becomes a miniature
battery an for a very short !erio of time it !rouces ener$y to illuminate
the *+(. <he to! of the inuctor becomes ne$ative an the bottom is
!ositive. <he current flo,s throu$h the *+( an throu$h the Dltra :i$h-
S!ee 1E4004 ioe to com!lete the circuit. <hus the circuit takes
avanta$e of the ener$y in the inuctor.
2 .001 !ot is !lace across the *+( an a volta$e is !icke off the !ot to
turn on a BC.4@ transistor. <his transistor GrobsG some of the Gturn-onG for
the B()@F transistor to reuce the bri$htness of the *+(.
Because the circuit is rivin$ the *+( ,ith !ulses, very hi$h bri$htness is
obtaine ,ith a lo, current.
/ur eyes etect !eak bri$htness an you can com!are the !erformance of
this circuit ,ith a (C riven *+(.

to &ne'
CONSTANT C"RRENT !RI&ES TWO ;WATT LE!s
<his constant current circuit is esi$ne to rive t,o --,att *u'eon
*+(s. <he *+(s re=uire 1,000m2 412m!5 an have a
characteristic volta$e-ro! across them of about -.Av.
2!!ro'imately 4v is ro!!e across the *#-1@< re$ulator an
1.2.v across the current-limitin$ resistors, so the in!ut volta$e
4su!!ly5 has to be 12.A.v. 2 12v battery $enerally elivers 12.)v.
<he *# -1@< --terminal re$ulator ,ill nee to be heatsinke.
<his circuit is esi$ne for the *# series of re$ulator as they have
a volta$e ifferential of 1.2.v bet,een Ga"G an GoutG terminals.

to &ne'
!I77ING A 10WATT LE!
<he follo,in$ circuit is a re=uest from a reaer. :e
,ante to im a 10 ,att *+( from a 4.2v *ithium &on cell.
<he current ,ill be about - am!s an a !o,er #/SF+<
is neee to eliver this current.
<he characteristic volta$e across the *+( is about -.-v
to -.)v an this leaves very little volta$e for the control
circuit. <he resistance of the #/SF+< is about 0.0.
ohms an very little volta$e is lost here.
<he 0.22 ohm 41 ,att5 resistor ,ill ro! about
).0millivolts.
<he *+( ,ill not be overloae or ama$e by this
circuit. 7hen the !ot is a"uste from full bri$htness, the
#/SF+< ,ill issi!ate a lot of ener$y an ,ill $et very
hot if not !ro!erly heatsinke.
6ou can buy t,o -200m2hr *i-ion cells for H4.00
4!oste5 on eBay. Some su!!liers ,ant H1..00 !er cell.
6ou ,ill nee 4 cells in !arallel to kee! the current from
each cell belo, 1 am! an this ,ill allo, the circuit to
o!erate for about 2 hours.

&f -r ban is $ol, (ivie by 10
&f -r ban is silver, (ivie by 100
4to $et 0.22ohms etc5

7ot co%yright -+-)--:)E 0olin 9itchell