Prof Ed 4 - Evaluation

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PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
2
BASIC CONCEPTS
TEST
a procedure in which a sample of an
individual's behavior is obtained, evaluated
and scored using standardized procedures

MEASUREMENT
a set of rules for assigning numbers to
represent objects, traits, attributes, or
behaviors
BASIC CONCEPTS
ASSESSMENT
any systematic procedures for collecting
information that can be used to make
inferences about the characteristics of people
or objects

EVALUATION
refers to the process of determining the extent
to which instructional objectives are attained
BASIC CONCEPTS
Qualitative Research
data typically in narrative form; gathered by
use of observations and interviews; results
contextual - unique to individual and setting

Quantitative research
data numerical; gathered by quantifying
observations, administering tests and other
instruments; results generalizable attempts
to find laws, generalizations
ASSESSMENT IN INSTRUCTION
Placement assessment
done at the beginning of instruction
Formative assessment
to monitor student progress
Diagnostic assessment
intensive study of learning difficulties
Summative assessment
done at the end of instruction for certifying
mastery or assigning grades
PLACEMENT ASSESSMENT
READINESS
CONCERN
have prerequisite
skills?
PLACEMENT
CONCERN
have achieved
intended
outcomes?
Provide
readiness
experience
s
Proceed
with the
planned
instruction
Proceed
with the
planned
instruction
Advance
students to
a higher
level
NO NO YES YES
FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT
Students achieving
the intended
learning outcomes?
Provide group or
individual
remediation
Provide feedback to
reinforce learning
DIAGNOSTIC
ASSESSMENT
Proceed with the
planned instruction
Proceed with the
planned instruction
YES NO
SUMMATIVE
ASSESSMENT
Students achieved the
intended outcomes of
instruction?
Provide additional
learning experiences
Assign grades or
certify mastery
YES NO
Evaluate the
effectiveness of the
instruction
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Summary of characteristics
TESTING PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
SELECTED
RESPONSE
SUPPLY
RESPONSE
RESTRICTED
PERFORMANC
E
EXTENDED
PERFORMANC
E
LOW REALISM OF TASKS HIGH
LOW COMPLEXITY OF TASKS HIGH
LOW ASSESSMENT TIME NEEDED HIGH
LOW JUDGMENT IN SCORING HIGH
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ASSESSMENT RESULTS
RELIABILITY
refers to the stability or consistency of
assessment results

VALIDITY
refers to the appropriateness and
meaningfulness of the inferences made from
assessment results
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Norm-referenced
to provide relative ranking of students
for survey testing
compares performance to that of others
Criterion-referenced
a description of the learning tasks a student
can and cannot perform
for mastery testing
compares performance to a clearly specified
domain
APPLICATIONS
OF ASSESSMENT
Student Evaluation

Instructional
decisions

Selection, placement,
and classification
decisions

Policy decisions

Counselling and
guidance decisions
- Summative/Formative

- Placement/Diagnostic
- College admission/
determining eligibility

- Evaluating curriculum

- Promoting self-
understanding

VALIDITY AND
RELIABILITY
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
To what extent will the interpretation of
results be appropriate, meaningful and
useful?
To what extent will the results be free from
errors?
MEASUREMENT ERROR
Some degree of measurement error is inherent
in all measurement.

Measurement error limits the extent to which
test results can be generalized and reduces the
confidence we have in test results.

Education professionals should identify sources
of measurement error and minimize their impact.
SOURCES OF
MEASUREMENT ERROR
Content sampling error
If the items on a test are a good sample of the
domain, the amount of measurement error
due to content sampling will be relatively
small.

Time sampling error
reflects random fluctuations in performance
from one situation to another and limits our
ability to generalize test scores across
different situations
SOURCES OF
MEASUREMENT ERROR
systematic error
consistent inflation or deflation of the obtained
score (some items have apparent clues or
some tests have shorter time limits)
random error
inflation or deflation of scores in an
unpredictable manner (fluctuation in memory,
variation in motivation and concentration,
carelessness in marking answers, luck in
guessing)

VALIDITY
the representativeness and relevance of the
assessment results to the measurement of a
specific achievement domain

Validity is threatened when a test measures
either less or more than the construct it is
designed to measure.

Reliability is a necessary but insufficient
condition for validity.
TYPES: EVIDENCE OF VALIDITY
Content-related evidence
How adequately does the sample of
assessment tasks represent the domain of
tasks to be measured?

adequacy of sampling
content relevance

Criterion-related evidence
How accurately does performance on the
assessment predict future performance
(predictive) or estimate present performance
(concurrent) on some other valued measure
(criterion)?

! degree of relationship between two sets of
measures: test scores and criterion to be
estimated or predicted (expressed in
correlation coefficients or expectancy tables
Construct-related evidence
How well can performance on the
assessment be explained in terms of
psychological characteristics?

construct: hypothetical qualities that we
assume to exist in order to explain behavior
an attempt to account for all possible
influences on the score
Consequences of using assessment results
improved motivation? performance? self-
assessment skills?
encourage independent learning? good study
habits?
contribute to transfer of learning? positive
attitude toward schoolwork?
RELIABILITY
the consistency of assessment results from one
measurement to another

obtaining approximately the same results for
tests administered at different times or with a
different sample of equivalent items or rated by
different raters

Reliability provides the consistency needed to
obtain validity
RELIABILITY
R measures provide an estimate of how much
variation to expect under different conditions
reliability coefficient or standard error of
measurement
reliability coefficient: also a correlation
between two sets of measurements from
same procedure

R score tends to be lower when the test is short,
range of scores is limited, testing conditions are
inadequate and scoring is subjective
METHODS OF
ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY
Test-retest method
administer same test twice to a group with a
time interval in between (stability of scores
over time)

Equivalent-forms method (alternate/parallel)
administer two equivalent forms of the test in
close succession (consistency of test scores
over different forms of the test)
METHODS OF
ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY
Test-retest with equivalent forms
administer two equivalent forms of the test
with a time interval in between

Internal-consistency method
administer test once and compute the
consistency of the response within the test
e.g.: split-half method: results of two splits of
the same test are correlated
ITEM ANALYSIS
ITEM ANALYSIS
After-the-fact analysis of results of tests

Purpose: improve tests by revising or
eliminating ineffective items

Process of examining class-wide performance
of individual items

Refers to a varied group of statistics computed
for each item on a test
- item statistics help determine the role
each item plays with respect to the
entire test

ITEM ANALYSIS

1.Item Difficulty
2.Discrimination Index
3. Distracter Analysis
ITEM DIFFICULTY
Proportion of the number of students in the
upper and lower groups who answered an item
correctly

DIFFICULTY INDEX
p = Number of students responding correctly
Total number of students taking the test

Tell very little of the items usefulness in
measuring the tests construct
DIFFICULTY INDEX

DISCRIMINATION INDEX
Comparison of the proportion of the number of
students in the upper group who got an item
correctly to the proportion of students in the
lower group who got an item right.

Comparison of how overall high scorers on the
whole test did on one particular item compared
to overall low scorers.

Dependent on the difficulty of the item

D = P
Upper
- P
Lower

D = Discrimination Index
PU = Proportion of students in upper group
who got item right
PL = Proportion of students in lower group
who got item right

POSITIVE Index Value
- More high scoring students selected correct
answers than low scorers
knowledge resulted in the correct answer
index closer to 1: the stronger the relationship
between overall test performance and
performance on that item
Retain item

NEGATIVE Index Value
- More low scoring students selected correct
answers than high scorers
poor item validity
upper group misled by item ambiguity
Discard item
EVALUATION CODE FOR AN ITEM ANALYSIS
DISTRACTER ANALYSIS
(Analysis of Response Options)
Allows teachers to examine how many students
in the upper and lower groups selected each option
on a multiple-choice item
examines performance of each distracter
Indicates extent to which knowledge is related to
response of student
Measures validity
Working distracters appear attractive to lower
groups
Have as many plausible distracters
Eliminate distracters not chosen
Item Analysis: Exercise 1
Item Analysis: Exercise 2
DEVELOPING
A CLASSROOM TEST
DEVELOPING A
CLASSROOM TEST
Step 1: Identification and statement of
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES with the following
characteristics:
SCOPE
DOMAIN
FORMAT

CHARACTERISTICS OF
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
SCOPE
refers to how broad or specific the objective is.

DOMAIN
cognitive, affective, or psychomotor

FORMAT
behavioral versus non-behavioral
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
(TOS)

ensures congruence between classroom
instruction and test content

BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
(overt behavior)
specify activities that are observable and
measurable

NONBEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
(covert behavior)
specify activities that are unobservable
and not directly measurable
KCAASE
Knowledge, Comprehension, Application,
Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation
BLOOMS TAXONOMY OF
BLOOMS TAXONOMY OF

K Rote memory
Learning facts
C Summarize,
Interpret , Explain
A Use general
rules & principles
to solve new
problems
A Reduction of concepts
into parts and show
the relationship of parts
to the whole
S Creation of new ideas
of results from
existing concepts
E Use general
rules and principles
to solve new problems
RRVOC
Receiving, Responding,
Valuing, Organization,
Characterization by a value
KRATHWOL'S TAXONOMY OF
AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES
R Being aware of and willing to attend to
something (Awareness, willingness to attend)

R Actively participating in an activity or process
(Acquiescence, satisfaction)

V Assigning value or worth to an activity or idea
(Acceptance, preference, commitment)

O Ideas and values become internalized and
organized into one's personal system of values and
beliefs

C Individual values are exemplified in a
characteristic set of behaviors and actions
HARROW'S TAXONOMY OF
PSYCHOMOTOR OBJECTIVES

Reflex Movements

Involuntary actions
(Reflexes)

Inherent movement patterns
(locomotor, manipulative
movements)

Involves interpretation of
sensory input that in turn
guides movements
(kinaesthetic, visual,
auditory)

Basic Fundamental
Movements

Perceptual Abilities
Physical Abilities

Functional physical chars that
serve as the basis for skilled
movements

Complex movements that are
the result of learning

Nonverbal communication
ranging from facial
expressions to expressive
dance

Skilled Movements

Non-discursive
Communication

RB PP SN

Reflex movement, Basic fundamental
Perceptual abilities, Physical abilities
Skilled movements, Non-discursive communication

TYPES OF TEST ITEMS
Selection-type items
present students with a set of possible
responses from which they are to select the
most appropriate answer
multiple choice, true-false, matching,
interpretive exercise

Supply-type
requires students to create and supply their
own answers
short answer, essay (restricted/extended)
What type of test is used here?
Which one of the following item types is an
example of a supply-type test item?

A. Multiple-choice item.
B. True-false item.
C. Matching item.
D. Short-answer item.

MULTIPLE CHOICE
Designed to measure from simple to complex
learning outcomes

Stem: the problem situation or question
may be a question or incomplete statement or
in best-answer form

Alternatives: the options or choices
include the correct answer and distracters
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Single, clearly formulated problem in the stem of
the item

Stem of item written in simple, clear language

Put as much wording as possible in the stem of
the item

State the stem in positive form, whenever
possible

MULTIPLE CHOICE
Emphasize negative wording whenever it is
used in the stem of an item

Make all alternatives grammatically consistent
with the stem of the item and parallel in form

Make the distracters plausible and attractive

Vary the length of the correct answer to
eliminate length as a clue

MULTIPLE CHOICE
Vary the position of the correct answer in
random manner

Make certain each item is independent of
the other items in the test

Use an efficient item format

Follow the normal rules of grammar
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Verbal clues that enable students to select
the correct answer or eliminate a distracter
Alternatives such as all of the above
(use none of the above with caution)

Spot the errors
1. A table of specifications:
a. indicates how a test will improve learning.
b. provides a more balanced sampling of
content.
c. arranges the instructional objectives in order
of importance.
d. specifies the method of scoring to be used
on a test.
Spot the errors
2. The paucity of plausible, but incorrect,
statements that can be related to a central idea
poses a problem when constructing which one
of the following types of test items?
a. Short answer.
b. True-false.
c. Multiple-choice.
d. Essay.

Spot the errors
3. In objective testing, the term objective:
a. refers to the method of identifying learning
outcomes.
b. refers to the method of selecting the test
content.
c. refers to the method of presenting the
problem.
d. refers to the method of scoring the answers.
Spot the errors
4. Which one of the following is not a category in
the revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain?
a. Understand
b. Apply
c. Analyze
d. (distracter needed)
Spot the errors
5. Which of the following is not a desirable practice
when preparing multiple-choice items?
a. Stating the stem in positive form.
b. Using a stem that could function as a short-
answer item.
c. Underlining certain words in the stem for
emphasis.
d. Shortening the stem by lengthening the
alternatives.
Spot the errors
6. The recall of factual information can be
measured best with a:
a. matching item.
b. multiple-choice item.
c. short-answer item.
d. essay question.
Spot the errors
7. Why should negative terms be avoided in
the stem of a multiple-choice item?
a. They may be overlooked.
b. The stem tends to be longer.
c. The construction of alternatives is more
difficult.
d. The scoring is more difficult.
Spot the errors
8. Obtaining a dependable ranking of students is
of major concern when using:
a. norm-referenced summative tests.
b. behavior descriptions.
c. checklists.
d. questionnaires.
Spot the errors
9. One advantage of multiple-choice items
over essay questions is that they:
a. measure more complex outcomes.
b. depend more on recall.
c. require less time to score.
d. provide for a more extensive sampling
of course content.
Spot the errors
10. Which one of the following would you
consult first to locate research articles on
achievement testing?
a. Journal of Educational Psychology
b. Journal of Educational Measurement
c. Journal of Consulting Psychology
d. Review of Educational Research
Spot the errors
11. Which of the following is a category in the
revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain?
a. Critical Thinking.
b. Scientific Thinking.
c. Reasoning Ability.
d. None of the above.
What types of test are here?
T F True-false items are classified as a
supply-type item.
________________________________________

Column A
1. Least used for educational diagnosis
2. Measures great variety of learning outcomes

Column B
A. Multiple-choice item.
B. True-false item.
C. Short-answer item.
TRUE-FALSE ITEMS
Used when there are only two possible
alternatives

Used to measure the ability to identify whether
statements of fact are correct

Variations:
ask to change the false statements
cluster-type true-false format

TRUE-FALSE ITEMS
Include only one central idea

Keep statement short and use simple
vocabulary and sentence structure

Word the statement precisely that it can be
unequivocally be judged true or false

Use negative statements sparingly

Attribute statements of opinion unless used to
distinguish facts from opinion

TRUE-FALSE ITEMS
Extraneous clues to the answer
Disproportionate number of true statements
or false statements
True statements being generally longer than
false ones
Use of absolutes: for FALSEalways, never,
all, none, only; for TRUEusually,
sometimes, may
Discernable pattern of correct answer
Spot the errors
1. The true-false item, which is favored by test
experts, is also called an alternative-response
item.

2. The true-false item is more subject to guessing
but it should be used in place of a multiple-
choice item, if well constructed, when there is a
dearth of distracters that are plausible.

3. Lengthening a test will increase its reliability.
Spot the errors
4. Testing should play a major role in the teaching-
learning process.

5. True-false items are classified as objective
items because students must supply the
answer.

6. A statement of opinion should never be used in
a true-false item.
MATCHING ITEMS
a variation of multiple-choice form

eliminate the repetition of the alternative
answers and present the same items in compact
form

premises: the series of stems

responses: the series of alternative answers
MATCHING ITEMS
Include only homogenous material in each
matching item

Keep list of items short and place the brief
responses on the right

Use larger, or smaller, number of responses
than premises, and permit the responses to be
used more than once

Place responses in alphabetical or numerical
order
MATCHING ITEMS
Specify in the directions the basis for matching
and indicate that each response may be used
once, more than once, or not at all

Put all of the matching item on the same page
SHORT ANSWER ITEMS
also, completion items

require the student to supply the
appropriate words, numbers or symbols to
answer a question or complete a
statement

used for simple recall of knowledge and for
computational problems
SHORT ANSWER ITEMS
State the item so that only a single, brief answer
is possible

Start with a direct question and switch to an
incomplete statement only when greater
conciseness is possible by doing so

Leave only one blank, which should relate to the
main point of the statement

Place blanks at the end of the statement
SHORT ANSWER ITEMS
For numerical answers, indicate the degree of
precision expected and the units in which they
are to be expressed

SHORT ANSWER ITEMS
Extraneous clues to the answer
length of the blank
indefinite articles a/an
Spot the errors
1. In terms of type or response, the ______ item
is most like the _____ item.

2. _______ is likely to increase when a test is
lengthened.

3. The supply-items used to measure the ability to
organize and integrate material is called an
____.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
provide freedom of response: approach, use of
factual information, organization of answer,
emphasis to aspects of the response

used to measure ability to organize, integrate
and express ideas

can be restricted response (through special
directions, use of introductory material, specific
form of answer required) or extended response
(limitations may be limited to time and page
limits)
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Use to measure complex learning outcomes
only

Relate the questions as directly as possible to
the learning outcomes being measured

Formulate questions that present a clear task to
be performed

Provide ample time for answering and suggest a
time limit on each question
SCORING ESSAYS
Evaluate answers in terms of learning outcomes
being measured

Have defined criteria as guide

Evaluate all of the students answers to one
question before proceeding to the next

Evaluate without knowing the identity of the
writer

When possible, have two or more raters
SCORING RUBRIC
structured, unbiased scoring procedures that are
used to enhance the reliability of essay tests

a rating scaleas opposed to a checklistthat
is used with performance assessments

also known as scoring guide, consisting of
specific pre-established performance criteria,
used in evaluating student work on performance
assessments
TYPES OF RUBRICS
Holistic rubric
requires the teacher to score the overall
process or product as a whole, without
judging the component parts separately

a single score is assigned based on the
overall quality of the student's response

TYPES OF RUBRICS
Analytic rubric
the teacher scores separate, individual parts
of the product or performance first, then sums
the individual scores to obtain a total score

usually needs to specify the value assigned to
each characteristic
e.g. 15-point essay item (10 points for
content, 3 points for writing style, 2 points for
grammar)
TEMPLATE FOR HOLISTIC RUBRICS
Score Description
5
Demonstrates complete understanding of the
problem. All requirements of task are included in
response.
4
Demonstrates considerable understanding of the
problem. All requirements of task are included.
3
Demonstrates partial understanding of the
problem. Most requirements of task are included.
2
Demonstrates little understanding of the problem.
Many requirements of task are missing.
1 Demonstrates no understanding of the problem.
0 No response/task not attempted.
TEMPLATE FOR ANALYTIC RUBRICS
Beginning
1
Developing
2
Accomplished
3
Exemplary
4
Score

Criterion #1
Description
reflecting
beginning
level
Description
reflecting
movement
toward mastery
Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level
Description
reflecting
highest level of
performance

Criterion #2
Description
reflecting
beginning
level
Description
reflecting
movement
toward mastery
Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level
Description
reflecting
highest level of
performance

Criterion #3
Description
reflecting
beginning
level
Description
reflecting
movement
toward mastery
Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level
Description
reflecting
highest level of
performance
Criterion #4
Description
reflecting
beginning
level
Description
reflecting
movement
toward mastery
Description
reflecting
achievement of
mastery level
Description
reflecting
highest level of
performance
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
Requires students to complete a process or
produce a product in a context that closely
resembles a real-life situation.
A medical student might be required to
interview a mock patient.

more closely reflect real-life settings and
applications than traditional paper-and-pencil
assessment.
Also referred to as authentic assessment or
alternative assessment.

The primary approach to assessment in
classes such as art, music, PE, etc.

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT:
STRENGTHS
Can measure abilities that are not
accessible using other assessment.

Consistent with modern learning theory

May result in better instruction.

Make learning more meaningful
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT:
WEAKNESSES
Notorious for producing unreliable scores.

Difficult to make generalizations about the
skills and knowledge the student possess.

Time consuming and difficult to construct,
administer, and score.
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING
EFFECTIVE PERFORMNCE
ASSESSMENTS
1. Select an appropriate assessment task.
2. Develop instructions that clearly specify
what students are expected to do.
3. Develop procedures for evaluating students
responses
GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING
PERFORMANCE TASKS
1. Select performance that provide the most direct
assessment of the educational objectives you
want to measure.
2. Select performance tasks that maximize your
ability to generalize the results of the
assessment.
3. Select performance tasks that reflect essential
skill.
PERFORMANCE TASKS
4. Select performance tasks that focus your
evaluation on the process and/or products you
are most interested in.
5. Select performance tasks that provide the desired
degree of realisms.
6. Select performance tasks that measure skills that
are teachable.
7. Select performance tasks that are fair to all
students.
PERFORMANCE TASKS
8. Select performance tasks that can be
assessed given the time and resources
available.
9. Select performance tasks that can be scored
in a reliable manner.
10. Select performance tasks that reflect
educational objectives that cannot be
measured using more traditional measures.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR
1. Make sure that your instructions clearly specify
the types of responses you are expecting.
2. Make sure that your instructions specify any
important parameters of the performance task.
3. Make sure that your instructions clearly specify
the criteria you will use when evaluating the
students responses.
4. Have a colleague read and interpret the
instructions before you administer the
assessment to your students.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR
5. Try out the performance activity with one or a
limited number of students before administering it
to your whole class to ensure that the instructions
are thorough and understandable.

6. Write instructions that students from diverse
cultural and ethnic background will interpret in an
accurate manner.
PORTFOLIOS
specific type of performance
assessment that involves the systematic
collection of a student's work products
over a specified period of time according
to a specific set of guidelines.

particularly good at reflecting student
achievement and growth over time.
PORTFOLIO: STRENGTHS
Particularly good at reflecting student
achievement and growth over time.

May help motivate students and get them more
involved in the learning process.

Enhances students abilities to evaluate their own
performances and products.

Enhances teachers' communication with both
students and parents.
PORTFOLIO: WEAKNESSES
Scoring in a reliable manner is difficult.

Time-consuming and demanding process.
PORTFOLIOS
1. Decide on the purpose of the portfolio.
Enhance learning, assign grades, or combination
Best work, representative product, growth or
learning progress, or evaluation

2. Decide who will select the items to include in the
portfolio
Teacher
Student
Collaboration
PORTFOLIOS
3. Establish procedures for evaluating or scoring portfolio.
Specify the evaluation criteria
Provide specific standards
Decide on a holistic or an analytic approach

4. Promote student involvement in the process.
TEACHING TO THE TEST
Implies efforts by teachers to prepare students
to perform better on standardized achievement
tests.

COMMON SOURCES OF RATING
HALO EFFECT: the tendency of raters to be
influenced by a single positive or negative trait,
unrelated to the trait or skill being assessed, that
affects their rating of the students other
characteristics.

LENIENCY EFFECT: occur because some
teachers tend to give all students good ratings.
SEVERITY ERRORS: occur because some
teachers tend to give all students poor ratings.

CENTRAL TENDENCY ERRORS: occur because
some teachers tend to give all students scores
in the middle range.
PERSONAL BIASES: may corrupt ratings if
teachers have a tendency to let stereotypes
influence their ratings o students performance.

LOGICAL ERRORS: occur when a teachers
assumes that the two characteristics are related
and tends to give similar ratings based on this
assumption.

ORDER EFFECTS: changes in scoring that
emerge during the grading process.

INTERPRETING
ASSESSMENT
RESULTS
Basic mathematics of measurement
Measure of Central Tendency
Measure of Variability
Frequency Distribution
Symmetry and Skewness
Percentiles, Deciles, Quartiles

Meaning of test scores
Norm-referenced
Criterion-referenced

WHAT WE WILL COVER?
117
DO YOU RECALL THESE
STATISTICAL TERMS?
population totality of observations
sample subset of population

parameter numerical value describing
population; Greek letter
statistic describes a characteristic of a
sample; ordinary English letter

To know how accurate
the statistic estimates the parameter,
check the distribution of the data.
DESCRIBING A GROUP
AVERAGE
- A measure of the center of a set of data when
data are arranged in an increasing or
decreasing order of magnitude

or measure of central location
or measure of central tendency

mean
median
mode

WHAT IS THE BEST MEASURE
OF CENTRAL TENDENCY?
Depends on:

- scale of measurement
- shape of distribution

NOMINAL SCALES
Classify people or objects into categories, classes,
or sets.

Gender
Ethnicity
Place of birth

MODE
121
ORDINAL SCALES
Rank people or objects according to the amount of a
characteristic they display or possess

Preference for activity
Graduation class rank
Percentile rank
Numbers used to represent more/less than

MEDIAN
122
INTERVAL SCALES
Rank people or objects like an ordinal scale but on
a scale with equal units; has a constant unit of
measurement with an arbitrary zero.

Fahrenheit and Celsius scales
Intelligence scores
Personality test scores

MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE

123
RATIO SCALES
Have the properties of interval scales plus a true
zero point.

Height/length in inches
Weigh in pounds
Values

MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE
124
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEAN is the arithmetic average of a distribution.

Mean = sum of scores or
Number of scores

125
MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY
When a distribution is skewed,
the influence of unbalanced extreme scores on
the mean tends to undermine its usefulness.

Mean is pulled in the direction of the skew,
Mean lower than the median in a negatively
skewed distributions; higher than the median in
a positively skewed distribution
126
MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEDIAN
- score or potential score that divides a
distribution in half; middle value
- affected by size of sample
- unaffected by extreme scores or outliers

MODE
- most frequently occurring score in a
distribution.
- quickest estimate

127
MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY
Measure of central tendency is NOT adequate
to describe data

need to know how observations are
spread out of the data
need to know how much scores
deviate around the mean or are
bundled up

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
- range
- variance
- standard deviation
- coefficient of variation
129
RANGE is the distance between the smallest and largest
score in a distribution.

VARIANCE is the deviation of an observation from the
mean.

STANDARD DEVIATION is a measure of the average
distance that scores vary from the mean of the
distribution.

130
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
- a measure of relative variation

- used since the standard deviation does
not by itself tells much about variability
of a single data

- can be used to compare variability of two
or more sets of data

- equal to the standard deviation as a
percentage of the mean
How to compute for STANDARD DEVIATION
a. Compute the mean
b. Subtract each score in the distribution from
the mean
c. Sum all the squared difference scores
d. Divide this sum by the number of scores to
derive the average of the squared deviations
from the mean = variance
e. Take the square root of the variance
132
Measures of central tendency and variability are
still not enough to fully identify
important features of the data

In case of large mass of data, characteristics
can be readily assessed by grouping the data
into different classes and then determining the
number of observations that fall in each of the
classes

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
BAR CHART

HISTOGRAM

FREQUENCY POLYGON
FREQUENCY OGIVE

Basic Terms
Frequency distribution table
lists categories of scores along with their
corresponding frequencies.

Frequency for a particular category or class
number of original scores that fall into that class.

Classes or categories refer to the groupings of a
frequency table

136
Basic Terms
Class width
difference between two consecutive lower class
limits or class boundaries

Class limits
smallest or the largest numbers that can actually
belong to different classes

137
Lower class limits are the smallest numbers that can
actually belong to the different classes.

Upper class limits are the largest numbers that can
actually belong to the different classes.

Class marks are the midpoints of the classes

Basic Terms
138
Class boundaries
obtained by increasing the upper class
limits and decreasing the lower class
limits by the same amount so that there
are no gaps between consecutive under
classes.

The amount to be added or subtracted is
the difference between the upper limit of one
class and the lower limit of the following
class.
Basic Terms
139
Frequency Distribution:
RELATED TERMS
Grouped
frequency
distribution
A frequency distribution where scores
are grouped into intervals rather than
listed individual values
Class interval A group of scores in a grouped
frequency distribution.
Upper real limit
The boundary that separates an
interval from the next highest interval.
Lower real limit The boundary that separates
an interval from the next lowest interval.
140
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Data symmetrically distributed on either side of
its midpoint, which is the average value and also
the median and mode.

Tails - areas on either side of the peak

Sometimes called the "bell curve
since the curve drawn from the normal distribution
looks like you are looking at a bell from the side
141
Normal Distribution
142
MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE

143
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
NORMAL CURVE

The normal curve is a symmetrical distribution of
scores with an equal number of scores above and
below the midpoint of the abscissa (horizontal axis
of the curve).

Since the distribution of scores is symmetrical the
mean, median, and mode are all at the same point
on the abscissa.
MEAN = MEDIAN = MODE
144
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
NORMAL CURVE

If we divide the distribution up into standard
deviation units, a known proportion of scores lies
within each portion of the curve.

Statistical tables exist so that we can find the
proportion of scores above and below any part of
the curve, expressed in standard deviation units.

Z-scores scores expressed in standard deviation
units

145
PERCENTAGES OF CASES
UNDER PORTIONS
OF THE NORMAL CURVE

146
UNDER PORTIONS OF THE NORMAL CURVE
_____ % of observations lie within
1 S.D. of the mean

2 S. D. of the mean

3 S. D. of the mean

____ % of scores lie between the mean and 1 S.D.
above the mean.

An equal proportion of scores (____%) lie between
the mean and 1 S.D. below the mean.

Approximately two-thirds (____%) of the scores lie
within 1 S. D. of the mean

148
___ % of the scores lie between one and two
standard deviations above/below the mean

____ % of the scores are within three standard
deviations of the mean.

149
SYMMETRIC DISTRIBUTION
A distribution is SYMMETRIC
if it can be folded along the vertical axis so that
the two sides coincide

Mean = Median
Skewness = 0
TYPES OF ASYMMETRY
If the curve drawn from a distribution is
asymmetric, then the distribution is
not normal.

There are several types of asymmetry:
modality
peakedness (kurtosis)
spread (skewedness).
151
If the curve has more than one peak, it is
multimodal, two peaks, it is bimodal.
152
TYPES OF ASYMMETRY
If the curve is "too peaked" to be normal,
it is leptokurtic.
use mean

If it is "too flat," it is platykurtic .

153
FORMS OF KURTOSIS

154
SKEWNESS
If the curve has one tail that is longer than the
other, it is skewed.

If the longer tail is on the left, it is negatively
skewed (too many scores toward the negative
end).

If the longer tail is on the right, it is positively
skewed.
155

156
Positively skewed
- skewed to the left
- more students got _____ marks

Negatively skewed
- skewed to the right
- more students got _____ marks
158
Z-SCORES
Shows relative rank

Measures how many standard deviation an
observation is above or below the mean
(Example: In school tests, z-scores show
how student performed in one
class/subject relative to another
class/subject)
Z-SCORES
Z-score = 1
Score is one standard deviation above the mean
Z-score = -1
Score is one standard deviation below the mean
Z-score = 0
Score = mean

The normal curve with Z-scores along the abscissa
looks exactly like the normal curve with standard
deviation units along the abscissa.

160
Z-SCORES

161
Z-SCORES

Where X is the raw score, X bar is the mean, and
S is the standard deviation.
162
T-SCORES
T-scores are derived scores with a mean of 50
and a standard deviation of 10.
The average T-score for a group of scorers
would be 50.
T-score of 60 = Z-score of 1.

Each of these scores would be one standard
deviation above the mean and would be equal
to or higher than 84.13% of the scores (50.00%
+ 34.13% = 84.13%)

163
T-SCORES
164
T-SCORES
Where Z is the obtained Z-score
165
FRACTILES or QUANTILES
Other measures of location that describe or
locate the position of pieces of data relative
to the entire set of data.

Values below which a specific fraction or
percentage of observations in a given set
must fall.
PERCENTILES
DECILES
QUARTILES

PERCENTILE RANKS
Percentage or proportion of scores that score
lower than a given score.

Percentile rank of 90 or 90
th
percentile
90% of the scores are lower than your score
and 10% of the scores are higher.

50th percentile = median
50% of the scores are lower than the
median, and 50% of the scores are higher
than the median.
167
PERCENTILE RANKS
Reported as whole numbers
highest percentile = 99
lowest percentile = 1

A score that is one standard deviation
below the mean would have a percentile
rank of ____
168
PERCENTILE RANKS
A score that is two standard deviations
below the mean would have a percentile
rank of ____
(0.13 + 2.14 = 2.27)

A score that is three standard deviations
below the mean would be at the 1st
percentile and one that was three
standard deviations above the mean
would be at the 99th percentile
169
PERCENTILE RANKS
170
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
z-score
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
T-score
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
SAT score
55 70 85 100 115 130 145
Deviation IQ
(SD = 15)
Percentile
1 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 99
Normal Distribution Illustrating the
Relationship among Standard Scores

0.13%
2.14%
13.59%
34.13% 34.13%
13.59%
2.14%
0.13%
-4s -3s -2s -1s Mean +1s +2s +3s +4s
Number of
cases
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS
A quantitative measure of the relationship between two
variables.
Examples:
- Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient
- partial correlation coefficient

A scatterplot is a graph that visually displays the
relationship between two variables.

172
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS
Positive correlation coefficient
indicates that an increase in one variable is
associated with an increase on the other
variable.

Negative correlation coefficient
indicates that an increase in one variable is
associated with a decrease on the other
variable.
173
ASSESSMENT OF
AFFECTIVE LEARNING
BASIC CONCEPTS
Behavior
everything done that can be observed

Personality
pattern of enduring distinctive thoughts,
emotions and behaviors that characterize
ones adaptation to the world

Trait
an enduring personality characteristic that
tends to lead to certain behaviors
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Projective tests
use ambiguous stimulus and asks the
examinee to describe or tell a story about it

Self-report tests
also called objective tests or inventories;
directly ask people whether items describe
them or not

Behavior rating
an inventory that asks an observer to rate the
examinee in a number of dimensions
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective drawings
draw-a-person
house-tree-person
kinetic family drawing
Rorschach Inkblot: what do you see?
Thematic Apperception Test
Sentence-completion
Graphology
INKBLOT

THEMATIC APPERCEPTION
tell
a story about each of
the pictures
events leading to the
situation
characters thoughts,
feelings
the way the situation
turns out

SELF-REPORT TESTS
have a large number of statements and
limited number of answers (Y/N, T/F,
A/DA)

used in the identification of traits

empirically keyed test
uses items seemingly unrelated to the desired
criterion in order to predict its presence in an
individual
GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING
GUIDANCE SERVICES
Individual Inventory System
Information Service
Counselling Service
Placement Service
Follow-up Service
Appraisal/Testing Service
Referral Service
Research And Evaluation
REPUBLIC ACT 9258
Guidance and Counseling Act of 2004

Guidance and Counseling
a profession that involves the use of an
integrated approach to the development of
well-functioning individual primarily by helping
him/her to utilize his /her potentials to the
fullest and plan his/her future in accordance
with his/her abilities, interests and needs
REPUBLIC ACT 9258
Guidance and Counseling: FUNCTIONS
counseling
psychological testing, (as to personality,
career interest, study orientation, mental
ability and aptitude)
research, placement, group process
teaching and practicing of guidance and
counseling subjects, particularly subjects
given in the licensure examinations, and other
human development services
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
Guidance is based on a true concept of the
client.

Guidance is designed to provide assistance to
the person in crisis in solving it through self-
discovery and self-direction.

Guidance is helping the client understand
him/herself.

Guidance is a learning process.

Guidance is preventive rather than curative.
Guidance is fundamentally the responsibility of
parents in the home and of teachers in the
school.

Specific guidance problems in any age level
should be referred to persons trained to deal
with particular areas of adjustments.

Guidance services help the individual to become
increasingly competent in self- direction and
self-help.

Continuous or periodic appraisals should be
made.
Test have their place in guidance.
Every aspect of an individuals complex
personality pattern constitutes a significant
factor into his/her total display of attitude and
behaviors.
Although all human beings are similar in many
ways, individual differences must be recognized.
Guidance should be extended to all, not simply
to the obviously maladjusted.
ASSIGNING
MARKS/RATINGS
FEEDBACK AND EVALUATION
FORMATIVE EVALUATION
evaluative activities aimed at providing
feedback to students (often informal).

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
determination of the worth, value, quality
of an outcome (formal).
FEEDBACK AND EVALUATION
GRADES

formal recognition of a specific level
of mastery.

brief summary statements that fail
to convey rich details about a
student's performance.
REPORTING STUDENT PROGRESS
LETTER GRADES
most popular method of reporting student
progress and are used in the majority of
schools

NUMERICAL GRADES
attempt to succinctly represent student
performance; may provide more precision than
letter grades.

VERBAL DESCRIPTORS
replace letter grades by using excellent,
above average, satisfactory, needs
improvement

PASS-FAIL
given in situations where the learning
objectives are clearly specified but convey
even less information than traditional letter or
numerical grades

SUPPLEMENTAL SYSTEMS

replace or supplement traditional marking
systems by the use of checklist of specific
learning objectives to provide additional
information about the students' strengths and
weaknesses.
FRAME OF REFERENCE
NORM-REFERENCED
or relative grading involves comparing each
student's performance to that of a specific
group. Also referred to as grading on the
curve.

CRITERION-REFERENCED
or absolute grading involves comparing a
student's performance to a specified level of
performance.
INFORMING STUDENTS OF
GRADING SYSTEM
Students have the right to know the procedures
that will be used to determine their grades.

Parents should also be informed in a note or in
person during conferences or visits what is
expected of their children and how they will be
graded.

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