Q.1.

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE:
Magnetomotive force is defined as product of
current and turns.
Magnetomotive force= Current * Turn
F= IN
Where I is current through coil and N is the number of turns in coil.M.M.F units are ampere
turns. Turns are dimensionless, it can also be written as ampere.(A) . magnetomotive force
( mmf ) is necessary to establish flux in the magnetic circuit.

MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY:
The ratio of magnetomotive force per unit length of magnetic flux pathis called magnetic flux
intensity.It is givben as



Where l is mean length of magnetic circuit in metres.Magnetic field intensity is also called
magnetic field strength or magnetic force.

PERMEABILITY OF FREE SPACE:
The permeability of free space (a vacuum ) is a physical constant equal to approximately 1.257 x
10 -6 henry per meter . It is symbolized.It is given as


RELUCTANCE:
The opposition offered by magnetic circuit to magnetic flux is called reluctance.It is given as


where
l = length of magnetic path
A= area of cross section normal to flux
Permeability of magnetic material
Relative permeability of magnetic material
Permeability of free space =

PERMEANCE:
Reciprocal of reluctance is is called permeance.Its symbol is A.


MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY:
Magnetic flux is a measure of the strength of a magnetic field over a given area. Magnetic flux is
the product of the average magnetic field times the perpendicular area that it penetrates. It is
given by


Magnetic flux density is is magnetic flux per unit acrossectional area of coreIts units are Tesla.


Q.2 A magnetic circuit is any path taken by magnetic flux. More specifically, it is associated
with the magnetic flux within (usually) silicon steel 'cores' such as those found in transformer,
generators, motors, relays, etc.
An electrical circuit is any closed loop that allows a flow of electrons from a source of current to
deliver energy or perform work and then return to the source. It can as well be defined as a
television transmission circuit with a restricted number of reception stations and no broadcast
facilities.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Similarities
1. It is the closed path for electric current 1. It is the closed path for magnetic flux
2. Its driving force is electromotive force 2. Its driving force is magneto motive force
3. Current is defined as driving force per
resistance
3. Magnetic flux is defined as driving force per
reluctance
4.Its electric field density is ampere/meter square 4.Its magnetic flux density is weber per meter
square
Differences
1. The electric current actually flows in electric
circuit. For the existence of this current energy is
drawn from source continuously. This energy gets
dissipated in resistance in the form of heat.
1. Strictly speaking magnetic flux does not flow
.Energy is needed for establishing required flux. Once
existence of flux created no more energy is needed
maintaining it.
2. Electrical insulator confine current to well
defined paths
2. There are no magnetic insulators. Even in the best
known magnetic insulator air, the flux can be
established.
3.The resistivity of conductors is more or less
constant
3. The permeability of the ferromagnetic materials
varies greatly with magnetic field strength.
4. In electric circuit the battery supplies the power
which is needed to force electrons to loop around.
An example of electric circuit is a bulb connected to
a switch
4. A magnetic circuit in general is a circuit which takes
path of magnetic flux. An example would be generator
or motor turning the shaft due to magnetic flux.


Q.3 Armature coils under north pole have induced voltage inti the page because at tha position
because both coil sides will be cutting flux at maximum rate as their velocity is perpendicular to
flux .But when coil rotates to vertical position coil sides will not cutting the flux and velocity
will be parallel to flux. Brushes will be commutating from one side of split ring to other brushes
short out the coil and no voltage will be induced as coil continues to turn a voltage is again
induced but coil side under north pole is still connected to left brush voltage polarity remains
unchanged Then it agains returns to neutral position.









Q.4 Below figure shows crossecctional view of simple DC motor. Flux goes from north to
south. As shown by straight arrows. The flux due tio current will surround the conductors as
shown by dotted circles At right side of coil current is into the pagr so flux is in clockwise
direction by south pole and on left side of c current is out of the page conductors flux will be in
counterclockwise direction. Conductor flux adds to permanent magnet flux. Above right
conductor and subtracts below it.Thus there will be downward force on right side of coil. On left
side of coil the current is out of the page causing counter clockwise flux that results more flux
below the conductor. This means there will be upward force on left side of coil. The force on two
sides of coil will rotate the coil.





Q.5 Induce force depends upon magnetic flux and current. We can change direction of force by
changing magnetic flux into or out of the page or by changing direction of current
Q.6 Induce voltage depends upon magnetic flux and induced emf .Polarity of induced voltage
can be changed by changing the direction of induced emf or by changing magnetic flux into or
out of the page
Q.7 The most suitable material for armature core is cast iron cast steel because it provides low
reluctance path to flux.
Q.8 As back emf controls the current so we need back emf in armature of motor as ti responsible
for controlling amount of current coming from armature of mototr.Without back emf the
armature of the motor would simply always send out maximum power, which would easily
overload lower or even medium powered appliances.
Q.9 Armature core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses in the machine.Eddy currents are
dependent on path they follow within core currents and frequency has no dependence on that
path. As the laminations of armature core of dc machine are thin and are insulated from each
other so this action reduces eddy currents in dc machine.
Q.10 B-H CURVE

B-H curve is a hysteresis loop. A graphical curve showing the relation between magnetic flux B
and magnetomotive force H for a magnetic material. Also known as magnetization curve.
If we apply alternating current to the ferromagnetic material flux in the
core was zero before but when we apply current and when it increases flux in the core follows a
path oa. At point a all domains will be aligned and any additional increase in magnetizing
force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the point of
magnetic saturation. When current decreases flux follows a path abcd. The point ab indicates
that magnetic flux is left in the core though magnetomotive force is zero. This is the point of
retentively and point of level of residual flux in the material.A large magnetomotive force left
flux in the core The point a is the magnetic saturation in positive direction In other words we
can say that Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their alignment.
The point bc indicates that to reduce flux to zero we apply magnetomotive force in reverse
direction which called coercive force. This point is the point of coerctivity. In other words The
reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the
material is zero When current is increased in the reverse direction core follows a path defa.At
point d the core will be magnetically saturated in opposite direction. Similarly at point e is the
point of residual flux in opposite direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return
B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is
required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f"
back to the saturation point where it with complete the loop.
Q.11 ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS






Electrical and mechanical systems are joined together by coupling field. Energy is transformed
from one form to another via coupling field. As systems are not ideal there are losses at every
stage.
In case of motor electric current interacts with magnetic field to cause electromagnetic
torque ( ) which drives some load (e.g pump) . They load provides mechanical torque ( )
which opposes electromagnetic torque. In case of generator mechanical torque is applied to turn
the conductors though magnetic field and generate electric current .The mechanical torque is
opposed by electromagnetic torque that results from interaction of current with magnetic field. In
both cases both have opposite direction and if machine is running at constant speed both will
have equal magnitudes.
Q.12 Five electromagnetic principles are as follows:
1. An electromotive force will produce a current that is proportional to the conductivity
of the path. This is commonly known as Ohms law.
2. An electric current constitutes magneto motive force and produces magnetic flux proportional
to permeability of the path. This is often referred as ohms law for magnetic circuits.
3. A magnetic field exert force on current carrying conductors .This is the basis for motor action.
4. A conductor moving through magnetic fled will have induced emf in it. Similarly if magnetic
flux passing through coil changes with time an EMF will be induced in the coil .This is
Faradays law which basis for generator action.
5. The polarity of EMF induced in coil will cause a current that will oppose any change in
magnetic flux. This is a corollary to Faradays law called Lenzs law.
Q.13 Left hand rule is important because it determines direction of force and Right hand rule is important
because it determines direction of velocity.
LHR tells that if index finger shows direction of magnetic flux middle finger
shows direction of direction of current then thumb points out direction of force


RHR tells us that if the index finger shows direction of magnetic flux middle finger shows direction of
induced EMF then thumb points out direction of velocity
Q.14 A DC machine is permanent magnet machine. It is similar to AC machine but we use here split rings
instead of slip rings. Each coil is connected one half of split ring and two brushes ride on the spill ring. To
operate machine on DC it is necessary to convert from DC to AC for motor operation or from AC to dc
for generator operation. Split ring is also called commutator which has the function of converting b/w AC
in armature and DC at machine terminals. Action of changing connections b/w brushes and coil sides is
called commutation..


Q.15 ANGULAR POSITION :
It is the angle at which it is oriented measured from some
arbitrary reference point. It is measured in radians or degrees.
ANGULAR VELOCITY:
It is the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to
time. It is measured in radians per second.


ANGULAR ACCELARATION:
It is the rate of change of angular velocity with respect
to time. It is measured in radians per square second.


WORK:
In terms of of linear motion it is tgh applicvation of force through a distance.It is
expressed in joules


In terms of rotational motion work is the application of torque through an angle.

POWER :
It is the rate of doing work. It is measured in Joules per second.



Q.16 INDUCED VOLTAGE ON CONDUCTOR MOVING IN MAGNETIC
FIELD

If a wire with proper orientation moves in magnetic fielda voltage is induced in it.It is given by


where
v = velocity of wire
B= magnetic flux density vector
l = length of conductor in magnetic field
The direction of induced voltage is given by left hand rule. If index finger points out direction of
magnetic field middle finger points out direction of induced emf the thumb points out direction
of velocity. In this figure emf is induced from top to bottom magnetic field is into the page the
thumb points out direction of velocity toward right. Direction of velocity can be changed by
changing field out of page or by changing induced emf rfrom top to bottom

PRODUCTION OF INDUCED FORCE ON A WIRE:
A magnetic field induces force on current carrying wire in its surroundings. This force is given
by

where
i = magnitude of current in wire,
l = length of wire with direction l defined in direction of current flow,
B = magnetic flux density vector
The direction of force is giveny by right hand rule where if index finger points out direction of
vector current middle finger shows dirction of magnetic flux density the thumb points out
direction of force.in this figure magnetic field is into the page current flows from top to bottom
then thumb points out force on left.Force can act towards right if we chabge magnetic field out of
page or if we change current from bottom to top.Force is given by


Where is the angle between wire and flux density vector.
17 .LINEAR MACHINE AS MOTOR :
If we apply external load to bar opposite to direction of bars motion this force will result a net
force in direction opposite to direction of motion because bar was at steady
speed before that.Now this force will slow the bar which cause reduction of induced voltage and
and current flow in bar increases.along with induced force

Induced force rises unless it becomes equal and opposite to load force.Hence bar travels in
steady state but at lower speed.There will be no induced force in direction of motion and powe
will be converted from electrical to mechanical form to keep bar moving.

An amount of electric power is consumed in bar and replaced by mechanical power


(b) LINEAR MACHINE AS GENERATOR:
In this case we apply external force in direction of motion.This force will cause bar to accelerate
in direction of motion and velocity of bar increases which reduces the current the wire.

Induced voltage increases along with the induced force .In this case bar will be moving at higher
speed than before. As a result battery will be charging

Now machine will be acting as generator converting mechanical power to electrical power.
Induced force wills become equal and opposite to applied force.


Amount of mechanical ower will consumed in bar will be replaced by electric power
19. STARTING OF LINEAR DC MACHINE:
When we close the switch current flows thrin the bar given by Kirchhoff voltage law

induced voltage will be zero as bar was at rest. As current flows though wire in presence of
magnetic field a force will be produced on the wire. To the right side which given by F=ilb.As a
result bar will accelerate towards right. But when velocity of bar increases voltage appears across
the bar which reduces current flowing the induced voltage is given by e=vBl.When induced
voltage becomes equal to battery voltage bar will move with constant steady speed where net
force on bar will be zero.







21. Internal generated voltage in real dc machines depend on these factors.
1. The flux in the machine
2. The speed of rotation
3. A constant representing construction of machine.
22. The induced torque on any DC machine depend on these factors.
1. The flux in the machine
2. The current in the machine
3. A constant representing construction of machine.
23. A wire should be carrying a current to produce force on it through magnetic fields.
24. When a wire moves in magnetic field voltage will be induced on that wire though magnetic
fields.
25. The phenomenon in which the value of a physical property lags behind changes in the effect
causing it. Ferromagnetic materials are made up of domains. A domain is a region inside of a
material where groups of magnetic moments naturally align in the same direction. He there are
no external magnetic field domains will be randomly aligned but when we apply external
magnetic field the domains will reorient themselves and will align with external magnetic field.
When all domains are aligned in same direction the whole object will becomes a magnet. An
interesting phenomena occurs when we remove that external magnetic field. When we remove
external magnetic fields domains still remain aligned in same direction as they were with
external magnetic field. They do not randomize. This tendency to stay aligned is called
hysteresis.
26. Along with the voltage induce in armature conductors there are also voltages induced in
armature core which produce circulating currents in armature core. These currents are called
eddy currents and power loss due to these currents is called eddy current losses.(fig. 1.37)


Eddy currents can be reduced by making core resistance high. By making
laminations insulated with each other with coating of varnish. The insulating coating has a high
resistance, so very little current flows from one lamination to the other. Moreover lamination is
very thins so its resistance is quite large, when we laminate the core resistance increases which
reduces eddy currents and eddy current losses. (fig.1.38)
27. Field winding is a winding present at the stator of the motor and is used to produce the
magnetic field and the Armature winding is the winding present in the rotor and is used to rotate
the shaft of the motor.