CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that SNEHA BHAGCHANDANI student of B.Tech IV

th
year VII
th
semester of Electrical Engineering of Govt. Engineering College Ajmer has successfully
completed her Summer Training under the project Study and Construction of
Temperature Controlling Elements and Circuit! "C# and Temperature Controller !
under my supervision #r$ DEE"A% G&"TA at "efence #esearch And "evelopment
$rgani%ation& "efence 'a(oratory& )odhpur.
She has fulfilled the tenure successfully from '(
t)
#ay!!!'(
t)
*une +,,- *ith enthusiasm&
sincerity and regularity. She *as good at understanding the concepts and sho*n efficient
mutual understanding during her training. I *ish her (est of luc+ for her future.
S,E-A B-AGC-A,"A,I "ate
Scientist .C. // )une /001
"efence 'a(oratory
)odhpur 2#aj.3
AC%N./0EDGE#ENT
It gives me immense pleasure in presenting my training report. I *ould li+e to ta+e this
opportunity to e4press my deepest gratitude to the people& *ho has contri(uted their valua(le
time for helping me to successfully complete this training.
5ith great pleasure and ac+no*ledgement I e4tend my deep gratitude to Dr$ Narendra
%umar 1Director2 "efence 'a(oratory& )odhpur for providing me an opportunity to
accomplish training at this esteemed organi%ation.
It is my profound to e4press my deep sense of gratitude to #r$ "$%$ %)atri 1Scientist 3G42
H.D 5 DEST6 #r$ Ra7indra %umar Aggar8al 1Scientist 3F426 #r$ Ro)itas) %umar
1Scientist 3C426 #r$ Bo99in #ondal 1Scientist 3C426 #r$ #ano: #is)ra 1Scientist 3B426
#r$ "ramod S)arrma 1STA 3C426 #rs$ Sunita "uro)it 1STA 3B426 #r$ *itendra %umar
1STA 3B426 #r$ S)ree and #r$ %is)an at "efence 'a(oratory& )odhpur for their precious
guidance& constructive encouragement and support throughout the training tenure.
I am than+ful to #r$ Deepa; Gupta1Scientist 3C42 "iploma in Electronics& 6ost "iploma in
computer applications& Engineering in electrical and Engineering in Electronics& 7.E. in
Electrical Control Systems& also having e4perience of more than 89 years in the industry. -e
has provided me necessary guidance a(out instruments and gave me directions to proceed my
training and helped me lot in enhancing my s+ills.
I am e4tremely grateful to #rs$ Ra:9ala C)aud)ary for her continuous cooperation during
my *hole training session.
:inally& I *ould also li+e to than+ my college *ho has directly or indirectly helped me for
providing this opportunity to nurture my professional s+ills at "efence 'a(oratory& )odhpur.
/
ABSTRACT
As a part of curriculum prescri(ed for B. Tech degree of Engineering I have ta+en my
practical summer training. The period of training *as from 7ay 8;& /001 to )une 8;& /001.
The training report has (een divided into / modules. :irst module concerns *ith the study
and e4periments performed on (oth ")ase C)ange #aterials 1"C#2 and Solar Radiation
C)am9er$ These phase change materials are used to lo*er the operating temperature of
electronic devices and<or circuits. 5hereas Solar #adiation Cham(er is that e=uipment in
*hich e4periments are conducted on 6C7.
Second part of the training project report& deals *ith the Construction of a Temperature
Controller. This circuit control temperature (y controlling a fan fitted such that if
temperature of room<cham(er increases (eyond a set limit it *ill automatically turn on the
fan. Thus& temperature of that vicinity can (e regulated.
>
AB.&T DEFENCE 0AB.RAT.R<
*.DH"&R
"efence 'a(oratory& )odhpur *as esta(lished on 8?th 7ay& 8191. "') is located at the
gate*ay of Thar "esert of #ajasthan. It enhances the operational efficiency of troops in
desert *arfare and logistics support. The aim of the la( is to underta+en research studies in
the follo*ing areas@
8 Camouflage A 'o* $(serva(le "evices
/ ,uclear #adiation 7anagement A Applications
> "esert Environmental Science A Technologies
:IGB#E 8
In addition to #A" activities in the a(ove field& the la( conducts several training programs to
the (enefit of Services and Civil population& e.g. industrial radiography& ,BC& radiation
safety aspects& *ater desalination& =uality& monitoring and desert meteorology. The la( has
also (een identified as a material development la(.
The o(jective of "EST or -7G 2-eat 7anagement Group3 is the removal of un*anted heat
from sources such as semiconductors *ithout negatively affecting the performance or
relia(ility of adjacent components. Thermal management addresses heat removal (y
considering the am(ient temperature 2and temperature gradients3 throughout the entire
product from an overall system perspective. Thermal removal solutions cover a *ide range of
options.
The simplest form of heat removal is the movement of am(ient air over the device. In any
enclosure& adding strategically placed vents *ill enhance air movement. The cooling of a
critical device can (e improved (y placing it in the coolest location in the enclosure. 5hen
these simple thermal solutions cannot remove enough heat to maintain component relia(ility&
the system designer must loo+ to more sophisticated measures& such as heat sin+s& fans& heat
pipes& or even li=uidCcooled plates. Thermal modeling using computational fluid dynamics
2C:"3 helps demonstrate the effectiveness of a particular solution.
D
The thermal management process can (e separated into three major phases@
8. -eat transfer *ithin a semiconductor or module 2such as a "C<"C converter3 pac+age.
/. -eat transfer from the pac+age to a heat dissipater.
>. -eat transfer from the heat dissipater to the am(ient environment
:or designers& a (road selection of materials is availa(le to manage and control heat in a *ide
range of applications.
"EST department is still doing research *or+ on developing such a material *hich can
a(sor( that much e4tra heat. 6haseCchange thermal interface materials have (een an
important thermal management lin+. They don.t dissipate heat. They provide an efficient
thermal conductive path for the heat to flo* from the heatCgenerating source to a heatC
dissipating device. These materials& *hen placed (et*een the surface of the heat generating
component and a heat spreader& provide a path of minimum thermal resistance (et*een these
t*o surfaces. The ultimate goal of an interface material is to produce a minimum temperature
differential (et*een the component surface and the heat spreader surface. -eat transfer from
the heat dissipater to the am(ient environment. 7oreover& as this material26C73 is capa(le of
a(sor(ing heat it can also (e used in (un+ers to prevent the army men inside (un+er from the
temperature of outside environment (y +eeping the (un+er cool.
,o* in various communicating systems as *ell as devices such as *al+y tal+y *hich are
(eing used in (attlefields for transfer of messages they use various electronic e=uipment in
their manufacturing& these electronic e=uipments fail to deliver desired output at e4treme
temperature as they are rated for lo*er temperatures. To overcome this analysis of (ehavior
of 6C7 is carried A this heat factor can ( eradicated from performance of such devices (y
doing coating of 6C7 on them.
6C7 a(sor(s the heat generated up to large e4tent A helps in proper *or+ing. It a(sor(s heat
A li=uefies it A *hen under cool conditions it gets (ac+ to solid state. Thus 6C7 helps in
+eeping conditions favoura(le for *or+ing of electronic devices.
9
CHA"TER '
INTR.D&CTI.N
-eat is considered one of the (iggest enemies of electronics& causing components to fail. As
India generally purchases all its military e=uipments from #ussia *hich are prepared
according to their conditions 2*hich are cooler than ours3. And *hen *e plant these
components in field *here surrounding temperature ranges (et*een D/ to 90oC. So& this
creates a pro(lem regarding the failure of various electronic e=uipments such as po*er
transistors at our surrounding temperatures. -ence it (ecomes =uite essential to protect them
from overheating. To overcome this pro(lem& "EST department is still doing research *or+
on developing such a material *hich can a(sor( that much e4tra heat. 7oreover& as this
material 26C73 is capa(le of a(sor(ing heat it can also (e used in (un+ers to prevent the
army men inside (un+er from the temperature of outside environment (y +eeping the (un+er
cool.
,o* in various communicating systems as *ell as devices such as *al+y tal+y *hich are
(eing used in (attlefields for transfer of messages they use various electronic e=uipment in
their manufacturing& these electronic e=uipments fail to deliver desired output at e4treme
temperature as they are rated for lo*er temperatures. To overcome this analysis of (ehavior
of 6C7 is carried A this heat factor can ( eradicated from performance of such devices (y
doing coating of 6C7 on them.
6haseCchange thermal interface materials have (een an important thermal management lin+.
They don.t dissipate heat. They provide an efficient thermal conductive path for the heat to
flo* from the heatCgenerating source to a heatCdissipating device. These materials& *hen
placed (et*een the surface of the heat generating component and a heat spreader& provide a
path of minimum thermal resistance (et*een these t*o surfaces. The ultimate goal of an
interface material is to produce a minimum temperature differential (et*een the component
surface and the heat spreader surface. -eat transfer from the heat dissipater to the am(ient
environment.
6C7 a(sor(s the heat generated up to large e4tent A helps in proper *or+ing. It a(sor(s heat
A li=uefies it A *hen under cool conditions it gets (ac+ to solid state. Thus 6C7 helps in
+eeping conditions favora(le for *or+ing of electronic devices.
These ne* technologies need to (e tested at high am(ient temperatures as that of field. Thus
for this a special e=uipment is used i.e. Solar #adiation Cham(er.
?
CHA"TER +
S.0AR RADIATI.N CHA#BER
+$' INTR.D&CTI.N!
Climatic cham(er is used to stimulate temperature over a range of C>0Ec to 8/0
E
C humidity
from 80F to 10F as *ell as solar radiation. Cham(er has dou(le *all construction of ?!
thic+ fi(er glass *ool (et*een the inner and the outer *alls.
Inner of the cham(er is fa(ricated *ith mirror finished stainless steel and outer is C#CS *ith
Electrostatic po*der coating. A dou(le lined silicon gas+et is provided one on the door and
other on the flange of the cham(er. It has (een provided *ith a glass *indo* and a light for
chec+ing state of e4periment (eing performed inside the cham(er. :or gentle and uniform
temperature in *or+space 8no of 8<9 -6 fan motor *ith a 1..GD.9.. *idth SS impeller is
used. This cham(er also provided *ith *et and dry heaters to control humidity inside the
cham(er so that the specimen could (e tested in same environmental condition as that of
field. Entire cham(er is controlled using a State $: Art Eurotherm controller. Indicator cum
controller is a programma(le profile dual loop controller. This means that controller can (e
manually operated or can (e interfaced *ith a system. Its interfacing facilitates automatic
temperature control as preset (y user and moreover readings can (e automatically got storedH
thus eliminating need of an attendant. The sensor for temperature is a class 6tC800.
The refrigeration system is a single stage ecoCfriendly system *ith air cooled condensing
unit. Thus entire cham(er is designed to give uniform and Itrou(le free operation.
The 7etal -alogen lamp is used having radiation intensity of 8005<m
/
*ith a range of /;0 to
>000 mm from a distance of ?0 cms to stimulate solar radiation. This lamp.s radiation is very
much figurative to sun.s radiation in field. -ence this cham(er provides us *ith all the test
conditions that can prevail in field to test the operation of our specimen.
J
+$+ Specification
8. Item @ Climatic Test Cham(er.
7odel ,o. @ C7EICS6'
SI.,o. @ C7EI<?9></00DC09
/. 5or+space @ 9?0 K J90 K J90 mm25 K " K -3
>. Inner 7aterial @ Stainless Steel AISI >0D
D. Temperature #ange @ C>0C to L8/0C
Accuracy and #esolution @ M8C < 0.8C.
-umidity #ange @ J9F to10F #-
Accuracy @ M>F #-
9. Temperature Control @ By Eurotherm 7a+e 7odel /?0D
5ith iTools Soft*are
?. Compressor @C#D/ @8no
7a+e@ Nirlos+er
S# ,$C CBAC8>D>D
J. #efrigeration @ #CD0Da.
;. -eater @ / N5 *ith safety thermostat.
1. 6o*er re=uirement @ >;0VCDD0V AC & 90-% &D *ire& Three phase
*ith neutral L earth
;
+$= 0ist of Components &sed In t)e C)am9er
8. Cham(er :an motor @ 8<9 -6& single phase @ 8no
/>0V AC& 0.; amps
7a+e@ sem
/. Air -eater @ 0.9 N5 -eater @ D nos
>. Controller @ 7icroprocessor (ased @ 8 no
Eurotherm& ma+e /?0D
"ual 'oop 6rogramma(le
5ith iTools Soft*are
D. Blo*er @ 1! K D.9! dia SS Impeller @ 8 no
9. Compressor I @ 7odelC C#D/ @8 no
S# noC CBA8>D>D
> ph& DD0 V AC
7a+eC Copeland
?. Condenser :an 7otor @ :-6& 8D00 #67 @ 8 no
/>0 V AC& 8 6hase&
7a+eC EB7 ,A#"I
J. Evaporator @ /0! K 8D! K 8Jro*s @ 8 no
;. #efrigerant gas @ #CD0DA @ 9 g
1. Solenoid Valves @ ><;! :laire @ / nos
O! @ 8 no
7a+eC "anfoss
80. Auto $il #eturn @ $BBC8 @ 8 no
7a+eC "anfoss
88. -6<'6 @ 7a+e "anfoss @ 8 no
8/. Accumulator @ / ton @ 8 no
8>. 'i=uid "rier @ ><;! :laire @ 8 no
7a+e "anfoss
1
+$> ?IE/ .F S.0AR RADIATI.N CHA#BER
:ront Vie* of S#C *ith Glass 5indo* A 'ight To Chec+ E4periment
Control "anel of SCR Interior of SCR 1E@periment of
"C# filled Heat Sin;2
80
:IGB#E /
:IGB#E > :IGB#E D
+$A S<STE#!
Air Circulation System@C
8no of 8<9 -6 fan motor *ith impeller is used to maintain the uniform temperature in
*or+space.
7otor is placed outside and is connected to the impeller (y means of suita(le coupling.
-eating System@C
/.0 +5 heaters are provided in the conditioning space for conventional heat generation in the
cham(er .heaters (are placed in such a *ays that direct radiation doesn.t occur to the
specimen
Control System@C
Eurotherm ma+e model /?0D "ual 'oop Temperature is used to control and indicate the
temperature in EC. The controller has (iCdirectional interface option using #SC/>/.Computer
uses iT$$'S soft*are to communicate (y converting signals (ac+ to #SC/>/.

Cooling System@ C
Single stage refrigeration system is provided for stimulating the central lo* temperature in
*or+space.#CD0DA refrigerant is used in system *hich *ould cool the *or+space. Entire
system is controlled using a solenoid valves thus providing the accuracy re=uired. System
consists of Air cooled condensing unit. The monitoring process can (e done using gauges.
88
CHA"TER =
"HASE CHANGE #ATERIA0S
=$' /)at are "C#sB
6C7 material is a su(stance *ith high heats of fusion so they can a(sor( a lot of energy
(efore melting or solidifying. A 6C7 temperature remains constant during the phase change&
*hich is useful for +eeping the su(ject at a uniform temperature. 6C7s are classified as
latent heat storage 2'-S3 units. In other *ords the simplest& cheapest& and most effective
phase change material is *ater<ice. Bnfortunately& the free%ing temperature of *ater is fi4ed
at 0 PC& *hich ma+es it unsuita(le for the majority of energy storage applications. Therefore
a num(er of different materials have (een identified and development to offer products that
free%e and melt li+e *ater<ice& (ut at temperatures from the cryogenic range to several
hundred degrees centigrade.3
=$+ Ho8 "C#s 8or;B
6hase Change 7aterials 26C7s3 are products that store and release thermal energy during the
process of melting A free%ing 2changing from one phase to another3. 5hen such a material
free%es& it releases large amounts of energy in the form of latent heat of fusion& or energy of
crystalli%ation. Conversely& *hen the material is melted& an e=ual amount of energy is
a(sor(ed from the immediate environment as it changes from solid to li=uid.
6C7s latent heat storage can (e achieved through solidCsolid& solidCli=uid& solidCgas and
li=uidCgas phase change. -o*ever& the only phase change used for 6C7s is the solidCli=uid
change. 'i=uidCgas phase changes are not practical for use as thermal storage due to the large
volumes or high pressures re=uired to store the materials *hen in their gas phase. 'i=uidCgas
transitions do have a higher heat of transformation than solidCli=uid transitions. SolidCsolid
phase changes are typically very slo* and have a rather lo* heat of transformation.
Initially& the solidCli=uid 6C7s (ehave li+e sensi(le heat storage 2S-S3 materialsH their
temperature rises as they a(sor( heat. Bnli+e conventional S-S& ho*ever& *hen 6C7s reach
the temperature at *hich they change phase 2their melting temperature3 they a(sor( large
amounts of heat at an almost constant temperature. The 6C7 continues to a(sor( heat
*ithout a significant raise in temperature until all the material is transformed to the li=uid
phase. 5hen the am(ient temperature around a li=uid material falls& the 6C7 solidifies&
releasing its stored latent heat. A large num(er of 6C7s are availa(le in any re=uired
temperature range from C9 up to810
o
C. 5ithin the human comfort range of /0P to >0PC&
some 6C7s are very effective. They store 9 to 8D times more heat per unit volume than
conventional storage materials such as *ater& masonry& or roc+.
:igure sho*n (elo* illustrates ho* 6C7 maintain a constant temperature. This ma+es it
most significance in designing of heat sin+s. 7oreover it has lo* density to *eight ratio
8/
*hich ma+es it all the more useful for handy electronic devices such as launcher c+t of roc+et
launcher
:IGB#E 9
5hy 6C7s are (etter than Conventional methodsQ
As stated earlier protection to "evices planted on :ield is vital for their proper *or+ing and
reduces changes of failure due to (urn out of devices (ecause of high temperature. Thus
design and selection of the heat sin+ are crucial to the overall thermoelectric system
operation. :or proper thermoelectric management& all critical devices re=uire a heat sin+ and
can (e destroyed if operated *ithout one. In this selection criteria cost& performance and
application plays a vital role.
In summary& the selected thermal management solution for a specific application *ill (e
determined (y the cost and performance re=uirements of that particular application.
7anufacturing and assem(ly re=uirements also influence selection. Economic justification
*ill al*ays (e a +ey consideration. :igure summari%es the effectiveness of various cooling
solutions. :igure sho*n is a monograph sho*ing the progression of cooling solutions from
natural convection to li=uid cooling and the reduction in (oth thermal resistance and heat sin+
volume resulting from this progression. Thus it can (e concluded that 6C7s (est serve the
purpose.
8>
:IGB#E ?
=$= C0ASSIFICATI.N .F "C#s
6C7s can (e (roadly categori%ed on the (asis of@C
C$76$SITI$,
A66'ICATI$,
$n the (asis of C.#".SITI.N they are further classified as
8. Eutectics&
/. Salt hydrates& and
>. $rganic materials
>.>.8 $rganic 6C7s@
$rganic 6hase Change 7aterials 26C7s3 can (e 6araffin 2C
n
-
/nL/
3 and :atty acids
2C-
>
2C-
/
3
/n
C$$-3 2Aliphatic or $ther $rganics3. $rganic materials used as 6C7s tend to
(e polymers *ith long chain molecules composed primarily of car(on and hydrogen. They
tend to e4hi(it high orders of crystalline temperature *hen free%ing and mostly change phase
a(ove 0PC. Bsers rarely specify the use of $rganic 6C7s. 'atest can offer $rganic 6C7s in
lo* temperature range. $rganic 6C7s are e4pensive and they have average 'atent -eat per
unit volume and lo* density. 7ost items in organic 6C7 range are com(usti(le in nature.
They also have a *ider range of 7elting 6oint. E4amples of materials used as positive
temperature organic 6C7s include *a4es& oils& fatty acids and polyglycols.
>.>.8.8 Advantages !
8. Availa(ility in a large temperature range
/. :ree%e *ithout much super cooling
>. A(ility to melt congruently
D. Self nucleating properties
9. Compati(ility *ith conventional material of construction
?. ,o segregation
J. Chemically sta(le
;. -igh heat of fusion
1. Safe and nonCreactive
80. #ecycla(le
>.>.8./ "isadvantages
8. 'o* thermal conductivity in their solid state. -igh heat transfer rates are re=uired
during the free%ing cycle.
/. Volumetric latent heat storage capacity is lo*.
>. :lamma(le. This can (e easily alleviated (y a proper container.
8D
D. "ue to cost consideration only technical grade paraffin may (e used *hich are
essentially paraffin mi4ture and are completely refined of oil&
>.>./ Inorganic 6C7@C
Inorganic 6hase Change 7aterials 26C7s3 are generally -ydrated Salt (ased materials Salt
hydrates 27
n
-
/
$3. Salt hydrates are specific salts that are a(le to incorporate *ater of
crystalli%ation during their free%ing process and tend to change phase a(ove
0PC. Academicians are li+ely to misguide you into using pure hydrated salts li+e Sodium
Sulphate "ecahydrate and so on. -ydrated salts have a num(er of hydrates and an anhydrous
form leading to stratification of material and loss of 'atent -eat recovery *ith time.
-ydrated salts also have a su(Ccooling tendency. $ld generation 6C7 manufacturers
managed to add performanceCenhancing agents. These additives do help in delaying the
degradation of 6C7s for say 800 cycles or therea(out. -o*ever& they do not address the
(asic reasons due to *hich su(Ccooling and degradation happens. Earlier researchers
emphasi%ed that it is (eneficial to use impure grades of (ase material as it promotes the
nucleation and prevents su(Ccooling. -o*ever& impurities also promoted nucleation of
undesira(le hydrates leading to stratification. E4perts on crystallography have managed to
identify the 6referred Crystal ,ucleation! method. It consists of a Cold :inger! that
nucleates and promotes the gro*th of desired crystals and "eto4ification! or Selective
Elimination! *here(y any impurity that promotes the gro*th of undesira(le crystals is
removed. The current methods of 6hase Change 7aterial 26C73 manufacturing are li+e the
ne* generation Com(ination "rugs!.
>.>./.8 Advantages@C
8. -igh volumetric latent heat storage capacity
/. 'o* cost and easy availa(ility
>. Sharp melting point
D. -igh thermal conductivity
9. -igh heat of fusion
?. 'o* volume change
J. ,on flamma(le.
>.>././ "ISA"VA,TAGES@C
8. Change of volume is very high.
/. Super cooling is major pro(lem in solidCli=uid transition.
>. ,ucleating agents are needed and they often (ecome inoperative after repeated
cycling.
89
CHA"TER >
E&TECTIS!
Eutectics tend to (e solutions of salts in *ater that have a phase change temperature (elo* 0
PC. They in general are $rganicCorganic& organicCinorganic& inorganicCinorganic compounds.
5hen salts are added to *ater they depress the free%ing point of the *ater 2this is *hy
gritting or salting roads and path*ays melts sno* on them3. Adding more salt generally
depresses the free%ing temperature further& (ut these solutions do not free%e cleanly and at a
precise temperature& instead they tend to form slush.
-o*ever& if you add a particular salt at a particular concentration the resulting solution
free%es and melts cleanly at a constant temperature& releasing and storing large amounts of
energy as it does so. This temperature is called the eutectic point and the composition is
called a eutectic solution.
,o*Ca Rdays 7etal Eutectics are also used as they mar+ significance over organic or
inorganic mi4tures of salts. These contain mi4tures of metals and hence are named so.
Ad7antages !
8. Eutectics have sharp melting point similar to pure su(stance
/. Volumetric storage density is slightly a(ove organic compounds
Disad7antages!
1. $nly limited data is availa(le on thermoCphysical properties as the use of these
materials are very ne* to thermal storage application.
5hereas on (asis of A""0ICATI.N they are further classified as@C
6ositive 6C7s
,egative 6C7s
>$' "ositi7e Temperature "C#s!
These 6C7s a(sor( 'atent heat of fusion and change their state. Thus& it maintains lo*er
temperature (y a(sor(ing heat of the o(ject to (e cooled. :e* e4amples have (een listed
(elo*@C
Chilled :ood Transport
"rin+ Cooling
"rin+ Vending
7edicine A Vaccine Transport
Air Conditioning
8?
Building 6assive Cooling
5ater -eating
Solar -eating
Boiler 5aste -eat Storage
-eat #ejection Systems
Telecommunication Shelter Cooling
CoCGeneration Systems
-eat 6umps
>$+ Negati7e Temperature "C#s
Temperature Controlled 6ac+aging
:ro%en :ood Transportation
Ice Cream Vending
7edicine A Vaccine Transport
:ood Stall Cooling
Automotive Cooling Applications
7arine #efrigeration
Cold Store Bac+Cup
Transport #efrigeration
Selected 0ist of Hydrated SaltCEutectic 9ase ")ase C)ange #aterials 1"C#s2 sorted 9y
#elting "oint Temperature$
#elting
"oint
o
C
Grade of 6C7Bseful #ange 'atent -eat
2'.-.3
N)<Ng
'.-. in
Bseful
#ange
N)<Ng
Specific
Gravity
#emar+s
C90
o
C :ree%er Salt C?0 to CD0
o
C >/9 >19 8.>
C/>
o
C :ree%er Salt C>0 to C89
o
C >>0 >;0 8./
C8?
o
C :ree%er Salt C/9 to C09
o
C >>0 >;0 8.0/
00
o
C 6recision C80 to C00
o
C >>9 >;0 8
0D
o
C 6reservation 00 to 80
o
C 809 8>9 8.D
0J
o
C 6reservation 0/ to8/
o
C >00 >>0 8.D 6remium Grade.
Nno*C-o*
$ffered.
80
o
C 6reservation 09 to 89
o
C 8J0 /00 8.D
8J
89
o
C 6reservation 80 to /0
o
C 8J9 /80 8.D
8;
o
C Solar 89 to /8
o
C 8J9 /80 8.9 :ree "ayC,ight
Cooling A
-eating. Cool
:urniture& Cool
Vests etc.
/8
o
C Solar 8; to /D
o
C 8J9 /80 8.9
/D
o
C Solar 8; to >0
o
C 8J9 /80 8.9
/J
o
C Solar // to >/
o
C 8J9 /80 8.9
/1
o
C ACCBac+up // to >?
o
C S8J9 S/80 8.9
To Give Bac+Cup
to AC A Comfort
Telecom Shelter


>/
o
C ACCBac+up // to >?
o
C /80 /90 8.D
>?
o
C Electronic >0to 90
o
C /?0 >00 8.D Electronic
Comfort
Telecom Shelter
D0
o
C Electronic >0 to 90
o
C //0 /?0 8.D
D9
o
C -eating D0 to 99
o
C //0 /?0 8.D Solar -eater
-ot 6ads. -eat
Sin+s
D;
o
C -eating D0 to 9;
o
C //0 /?0 8.D
9;
o
C -eating D0 to 9;
o
C //0 /?0 8.D
?;
o
C Electronics D0 to J0
o
C //0 /;0 8.;
Electronic Sin+s J0
o
C Electronics D0 to J9
o
C />0 /10 8.;
J;
o
C Electronics D0 to ;0
o
C /D0 >00 8.;
6hase Change 7aterials 26C7s3 A -eatCTreatment Salts availa(le upto 8800
o
C
The Tello* 7ar+ed 6roducts are running items and e4tensively used *orld *ide.
TAB'E 8
D.> Selection Criteria
D.>.8 Thermodynamic properties@C The phase change material should possess
8. 7elting temperature in the desired operating temperature range
/. -igh latent heat of fusion per unit volume
>. -igh specific heat& high density and high thermal conductivity
D. Small Volume changes on phase transformation and small vapor pressure at operating
temperatures to reduce the containment pro(lem
9. Congruent melting
D.>./ Ninetic properties
8. -igh nucleation rate to avoid super cooling of the li=uid phase
8;
/. -igh rate of crystal gro*th& so that the system can meet demands of heat recovery
from the storage system
D.>.> Chemical properties
8. Chemical sta(ility
/. Complete reversi(le free%e<melt cycle
>. ,o degradation after a large num(er of free%e<melt cycle
D. ,onCcorrosiveness& nonCto4ic& nonCflamma(le and nonCe4plosive materials
D.>.D Economic properties
8. 'o* cost
/. 'argeCscale availa(ilities
Technologies "eveloped At " '& )odhpur
Because of uni=ue property of storing 'atent -eat 6C7s can (e used in a num(er of *ays&
such as thermal energy storage *here(y heat or coolness can (e stored from one process or
period in time& and used at a later date or different location. 6C7s are also very useful in
providing thermal (arriers or insulation& for e4ample in temperature controlled transport. At
"')& scientist has (een engrossed in developing ne* technologies using a(ove descri(ed
property of 6C7s. A fe* *hich they have pu(lished are summari%ed as follo*s@C
6C7 Cool 6anel
6assive Cooled Ca(in
6C7 Based Air Cooling "evice
6C7 Based Bnderground Shelter
6C7 Vest And Cap
6C7 )ac+et
Some Commercial Applications of 6C7s are@C
6hase change materials are used in free%ers pac+s& protective clothing and hard hats designed
to +eep people cool in hot environments. $ne of the most important recent (rea+throughs
*ith 6C7s is in the (uilding industry. BAS: have developed a num(er of energy saving
products. Through a physical tric+& (uilding materials can no* store e4tra latent heat. :or
e4ample& a revolutionary ne* *all plaster& incorporating one third phase changing material&
has the same heat storage capacity as a /> cm thic+ (ric+ *all in the critical temperature
range for living comfort of // to /? PC. Additionally& phase changing materials can (e
integrated into (oth solid and li=uid materials.
Concrete is used e4tensively for residential and commercial construction in many places in
the *orld. The large thermal mass of the concrete can often (e an advantage& as concrete
stores energy as heat during the day and releases it during the night& *hich reduces the need
81
for additional cooling or heating. In hot climates& the concrete heat (an+ and release of heat
may not (e *anted. BAS:.s 7icronal 6C7 phase change materials used in the plaster
sheeting descri(ed a(ove& have (een incorporated into aerated cement (loc+s for the first
time. This su(stantially increases the heat storage capacity of its (loc+s& and means
significant savings in the heating and cooling of (uildings. Temperature 6ercentage of heat
loss from an ordinary home 2EECA& /00D3 as sho*n in picture.
:IGB#E J
/0
CHA"TER A
"C# storage )eater! A Typical Commercial Application!
A storage heater for storing heat and for heating a fluid& such as *ater& has an enclosure
defining a cham(er therein. The cham(er has a lo*er portion and an upper portion *ith a
heating element (eing disposed *ithin the enclosure. A tu(e through *hich the fluid flo*s
has an inlet and an outlet& (oth (eing disposed outside of the enclosure& and has a portion
interconnecting the inlet and the outlet that passes through the enclosure. The viscous li=uid
is in thermal communication *ith the heating element& the phase change material pellets& and
the tu(e and transfers heat from the heating element to the pellets and from the pellets to the
tu(e. The viscous fluid has a viscosity so that the frictional pressure drop of the fluid in
contact *ith the phase change material pellets su(stantially reduces vertical thermal
convection in the fluid. As the fluid flo*s through the tu(e heat is transferred from the
viscous li=uid to the fluid flo*ing through the tu(e& there(y heating the fluid.
:e* other applications of phase change materials include& (ut are not limited to@
Thermal energy storage
Conditioning of (uildings& such as UiceCstorageU
Cooling of heat and electrical engines
Cooling@ food& *ine& mil+ products& green houses
7edical applications@ transportation of (lood& operating ta(les& hotCcold therapies
5aste heat recovery
$ffCpea+ po*er utili%ation@ -eating hot *ater and Cooling
-eat pump systems
6assive storage in (ioclimatic (uilding<architecture 2-"6E& paraffin3
Smoothing e4othermic temperature pea+s in chemical reactions
Solar po*er plants
Spacecraft thermal systems
Thermal comfort in vehicles
Thermal protection of electronic devices
Thermal protection of food@ transport& hotel trade& iceCcream etc.
Te4tiles used in clothing
Computer cooling
A$' Fire and safety issues
Some phase change materials are suspended in *ater& and are relatively nonto4ic. $thers are
hydrocar(ons or other flamma(le materials& or are to4ic. As such& 6C7s must (e selected and
/8
applied very carefully& in accordance *ith fire and (uilding codes and sound engineering
practices.
CHA"TER ED"ERI#ENT To Compare Different Types of
"C#s
E$'AI# ! To Study and Compare performance of@C
2i3 6C7 filled metal heat sin+ *ith metal heat sin+
2ii3 7etal Eutectic filled metal heat sin+ *ith metal heat sin+
2iii3 6C7 filled heat sin+ *ith 7etal Eutectic filled heat sin+
E$+ED"ERI#ENTA0 SET&"!
The e4periment setup contains information a(out the various things *hich helped me in my
project and they are as
-eater@C
"uring the e4periment the heat *as produced (y a heat source .it *as given po*er (y a set up
(o4 in *hich manually set voltage and its e=uivalent current is o(tained. The other t*o ends
of the heater are attached to the temperature sensor *hich helps in +eeping the record of temp
of the heater. The heater is made of material *hich a(sor(s less heat. Its temperature range is
almost /90C/?0C
Heat sin;!
It is made of al and various alloys. The (asic property of this is to a(sor( heat produced (y
the heater. Its effect is noted *hen it is placed along *ith the heater& it helps in a(sor(ing heat
from the heater and indirectly increases the time for heater to reach it set valueH as it does t*o
functionsC a(sor(ing heat and simultaneously radiating it (ac+ to the environment in *hich
the system is +ept .
-eat sin+s *hich have 6C7 filled in them according to their volume are also prepared for
second phase of e4periment. 6C7 filled heat sin+s have (etter efficiency as they increase the
heating time of the heater.
Solar Radiation C)am9er!
The cham(er is a multipurpose cham(er and it can (e used for measuring humidity& as *ell as
maintaining the various re=uired am(ient temperatures. It gets its supply from //0V 90 -%
and a > phase supply. It can (e operated manually as *ell as *ith the help of iTools soft*are.
It contains the *hole system inside its *or+space. It is also attached *ith a compressor *hich
is used to +eep the am(ient temperature in control if it e4ceeds the desired limits. it has
generally / heaters inside itC 5et heaters and "ry heatersH *hich +eeps the level of
temperature inside the cham(er high.
iT..0S!
It.s soft*are *hich is outstanding *ith *ide range of functionalities A it is also +no*n as
/?0D microcontroller. It helps in providing the e4act values< position that changed at the
//
(eginning& at the end& or during the course of e4periment. It gives digital reading A also gives
a graphical representation of the target value to (e attained A the positional value at different
time intervals. 5e could also chec+ out the status even at the minutes of the time interval.
6icture sho*ing e4perimental stepCup in
SC#@ Csensor pro(e 2*hite3& heater and
sin+s can (e seen
:IGB#E 1
E$=/.R%ING F "R.CED&RE
/.R%ING!
/>
E4perimental StepCup@C heater sensor
A supply
:IGB#E ;
5or+ing of the E4periments is carried out in > different stages
In the :irst stage& the reading is carried out only of the reference i.e. metal sin+ made up of
aluminum is used. In this& system has a heater *hich is set to a fi4ed *attage and a sin+
*hich is +ept over it. "ue to this part of heat gets a(sor(ed (y sin+ and the purpose of sin+ is
served that to +eep the heater in cooled state for some time and constantly a(sor( heat and
simultaneously radiate it *hich in turn negligi(ly increases the am(ient temperature of the
system.
In second stage& same step e4cept for the difference that tis time instead of just metal sin+
aluminum sin+ filled *ith 6C7 is used. "ue to this more amount of heat get a(sor(ed (y the
sin+& the 6C7 in sin+ gets heated up to a limit rapidly and *hen its melting point is reached it
allo* slo* rise in temperature.
Similar for third stage *here instead of 6C7 filled sin+H 7etal Eutectic filled sin+ is used.
They have advantage over 6C7s that they hold temperature for longer duration as they much
sharper melting point and are less denser than 6C7s.
"R.CED&RE!
8. Clean the *or+space (efore placing the specimen.
/. Neep specimen in *or+space& close the door and loc+ it.
>. S*itch on the mains 7CB and ensure #TB lamps are indicating.
D. S*itch on the controller and the program test profile& run the selected program (y
pressing the #un +ey in the controller or through the soft*are.
9. S*itch on the (lo*er and corresponding compressor& heater& vacuum& e=uali%er.
?. In case of soft*are operated condition& turn on the 6C and select iT$$'S soft*are.
.BSER?ATI.N TAB0E@ C
Comparison of "C# filled )eat sin; 8it) Reference
Time
2in sec3
6C7 L Sin+
-eater Sin+
#eference Sin+
-eater Sin+
Start temp ?8 91.D ?8 91.9
>0 10 ?/.D ;; 9J.J
?0 808 ??.? 808 9;./
10 80; J0./ 80J 91.0
8/0 88/ J/.D 888 91.?
890 88D J/.9 88D ?0./
8;0 889 J/.? 88J ?0.?
/80 88? J/.J 881 ?0.1
/D
/D0 88? J/.; 8/8 ?8.D
/J0 88J J/.1 8/> ?8.?
>00 88J J>.0 8/D ?/.>
>>0 88J J>./ 8/9 ?/.>
>?0 88; J>.D 8/? ?/.D
>10 88; J>.9 8/J ?/.9
D/0 88; J>.; 8/; ?/.;
D90 881 JD.8 8/; ?>.0
D;0 881 JD.D 8/1 ?>.0
980 881 JD.; 8/1 ?>.8
9D0 8/0 J9.> 8>0 ?>.8
?00 8/8 J?.9 8>0 ?>.D
??0 8/> J1.0 8>8 ?J.D
J;0 8/9 ;/.D 8>/ ?J.J
100 8/; ;9.8 8>> ?;./
80/0 8>0 ;J.0 8>> ?;./
8/00 8>8 ;;.D 8>> ?;.?
8>;0 8>8 ;;.; 8>D ?;.J
8900 8>/ ;1.0 8>D ?1.8
8?/0 8>/ ;1.8 8>D ?1./
8;00 8>/ ;1./ 8>D ?1.>
81;0 8>/ ;1.> 8>D ?1.>
/800 8>/ ;1.D 8>D ?1.>
/D00 8>/ ;1.9 8>D ?1.;
/J00 8>> ;1.9 8>D ?1.;
>000 8>> ;1.? 8>D 8J0
Time
2in sec3
7etal Eutectic
-eater Sin+
#eference Sin+
-eater Sin+
>0 ;1 ?8.D 19 ?0.D
/9
TAB'E /
Comparison of #etal Eutectics 8it) Reference
?0 80/ ?9.> 80; ?0.1
10 880 ?;.? 889 ?8.9
8/0 88D J8./ 881 ?/
890 88J J8.; 8// ?/.?
8;0 881 J8.; 8/9 ?>.8
/80 881 J8.; 8/J ?>.?
/D0 8/0 J8.1 8/1 ?D
/J0 8/8 J/ 8>8 ?D.>
>00 8/8 J/ 8>/ ?D.?
>>0 8/8 J/ 8>D ?9
>?0 8/8 J/.8 8>9 ?9./
>10 8// J/./ 8>? ?9.>
D/0 8// J/./ 8>J ?9.9
D90 8// J/.> 8>J ?9.J
D;0 8// J/.D 8>; ?9.;
980 8/> J/.9 8>; ?9.1
9D0 8/> J/.? 8>1 ??.8
?00 8/> J/.J 8D0 ??./
??0 8/> J>.J 8D8 ??.9
J;0 8/D JD.D 8D8 ??.?
100 8/? JJ.8 8D/ ??.;
80/0 8/1 J;.8 8D> ??.;
8/00 8>8 ;8.8 8D> ?J.8
8>/0 8>> ;?.8 8D> ?J.8
8D00 8>> ;J.D 8D> ?J./
8?/0 8>D ;;.8 8D> ?J./
8;00 8>9 ;1.8 8DD ?J.>
/800 8>9 ;1.> 8DD ?J.>
/D00 8>9 ;1.9 8DD ?J.>
/J00 8>9 ;1.? 8DD ?J.>
>000 8>9 ;1.? 8DD ?J.>
/?
>>00 8>9 ;1.9 8DD ?J./
>?00 8>9 ;1.? 8DD ?J.>
>100 8>9 ;1.? 8DD ?J.>
TAB'E >
Comparison of "C# 8it) #etal Eutectics
Time
2in sec3
6C7
-eater Sin+
7ETA' EBTECTIC
-eater Sin+
>0 10 ?/.D ;1 ?8.D
?0 808 ??.? 80/ ?9.>
10 80; J0./ 880 >;.?
8/0 88/ J/.D 88D J8./
890 88D J/.9 88J J8.;
8;0 889 J/.? 881 J8.;
/80 88? J/.J 881 J8.;
/D0 88? J/.; 8/0 J8.1
/J0 88J J/.1 8/8 J/
>00 88J J> 8/8 J/
>>0 88J J>./ 8/8 J/
>?0 88; J>.D 8/8 J/.8
>10 88; J>.9 8// J/./
D/0 88; J>.; 8// J/./
D90 881 JD.8 8// J/.>
D;0 881 JD.D 8// J/.D
980 881 JD.; 8/> J/.9
9D0 8/0 J9.> 8/> J/.?
?00 8/8 J?.9 8/> J/.J
??0 8/> J1 8/> J>.J
J;0 8/9 ;/.D 8/D JD.D
100 8/; ;9.8 8/? JJ.8
/J
80/0 8>0 ;J 8/1 J;.8
8/00 8>8 ;;.D 8>8 ;8.8
8?/0 8>/ ;1.8 8>D ;;.8
8;00 8>/ ;1./ 8>9 ;1.8
/800 8>/ ;1.D 8>9 ;1.>
/D00 8>/ ;1.9 8>9 ;1.9
/J00 8>> ;1.9 8>9 ;1.?
>000 8>> ;1.? 8>9 ;1.?
TAB'E D
RES&0T
It can (e o(served that in first case *hen 6C7 filled sin+ is compared *ith simple aluminum
sin+ *here am(ient temperature has (een fi4ed to ?0
o
C and values of voltage& current& po*er
and starting temperature are JV& 8.?Amp& 88./ A ?8
o
C respectivelyH 6C7 filled can
temperature of heater can (e retained for >10 sec. 80 a range of 88DC8/0
o
C *hereas in case of
metal sin+ it ranges from 88DC8>0
o
C
Similar e4periments has (een carried out on metal Eutectics filled sin+s *here temperature is
retained for ?>0 secH and it ranges from 88JC8/D
o
C. 5hereas that of reference at the same
time ranges from 8//C8D8
o
C
In the Third stage of e4periment 7etal Eutectics are (eing compared *ith 6C7 filled heat
sin+s here also temperature range and duration of holding temperature of metal Eutectics
seem more prominent from that of 6C7s. Statically it can (e seen that 6C7 holds
temperature from 88DC8/0
o
C for >10 sec. *hereas 7etal Eutectic holds from 88JC8/D
o
C for
?>0 sec. 7oreover it can (e o(served that 6C7 changes it state in temperature range of J/.9C
J9.>oC as compared to 7etal Eutectics that changes it state in temperature range of J8.;C
JD.DoC.
Thus it can (e remar+ed that 7etal Eutectics are (etter than 6C7s in case of heat dissipation.
/;
C)apter!Designing of Automatic Temperature Controller For
Fans
G$'AI#@ C To design the HAutomatic Temperature Controller For
FansI
G$+"&R".SE@C
7aintaining and controlling of temperature of e4periments& cham(er& room& chemicals
storing places& places having critical loads li+e supply rooms or in industries is very
important. These circuits or elements are very sensitive to*ards temperature variation and
even small negligence can cause loss of property or at times of lives also. Thus it (ecomes
crucial to maintain temperature of such devices. But at the same time appointing a person to
just +eep trac+ of temperature and maintaining or setting it manually is not possi(le.
This generates the need of automation. These days highly intellectual devices are made for
controlling such crucial loads. These devices can even counteract on various situations on
itself i.e. it can ta+e decision of its o*n.
/1
Thus here to serve the purpose of maintain constant temperature a circuit has (een designed
*hich sets on fan *hen temperature reach (eyond a preset value. It also regulates its speed if
re=uired.
G$="ARTS S"ECIFICATI.NS
#ESIST$#S@C
#8& #D& #8/& #89& #89 A #8? >.>NV
#/ A #8; 8NV
#> A #9 87V
#?& #J& #;& #1& #80 A #88 80NV
#8> //NV
#8D >10V
#8J //0V
V#826reset3 8N V
V#/2potentiometer3 8N V
V#>26reset3 D.JN V
"I$"ES@C
"8 A "/ /V Wener
">& "D& "9& "? A "; l,D00>
"J 9.8V Wener
>0
T#,S:$#7E#@C
/>0VAC T$ 0C8/V& 800mA& 90-%
ICs@C
IC 8 '7>/D
IC / XAJD8
IC > 7$ C>088
T#IAC@ C BT 8>? 7TT
G$>CIRC&IT DIAGRA#!
>8
:IGB#E 1
>/
G$ACIRC&IT DESCRI"TI.N

The Automatic Temperature Controller For Fans is a simple circuit *hich *or+s on the
principle of comparator 2differential amplifier3. The comparator is a device *hich compares
the t*o input voltages provided at its input and gives the output voltage as the amplified
version of the difference of the t*o voltages at its input.
The circuit consists of follo*ing modules@C
Bridge #ectifier
$pCamp as comparator in IC XAJD8
IC '7>/D
$pto coupler
"iodes A #esistances
Triac BT 8>?
Weners
Transformer
Thermistor
BRIDGE RECTIFIER!
Bridge rectifier is a simple circuit consisting of four diodes. Its main purpose in all type of
devices is to rectify the A.C. signal and convert it into ".C. signal. The purpose of using the
(ridge rectifier in the circuit is to maintain the polarity of the circuit i.e. *hatever (e the
polarity at the input side& the output *ill remain in the same polarity. This is placed at the
input of the circuit.
:IGB#E 80
>>
IC XA JD8 2$6CA76 3 AS C$76A#AT$#@C
The comparator is a device *hich compares the t*o input voltages provided at its input and
gives the output voltage as the amplified version of the difference of the t*o voltages at its
input. Its main role in the circuit is to compare the voltages provided at its input and give
appropriate output 2here to opto coupler3. $ne commonly used op amp is the JD8 op amp& an
eight pin integrated circuit 2or chip& or IC3 *hose pinCout is sho*n (elo*.
Sho*ing 6in "iagram of XA JD8 2$6CA763
:IGB#E 88
IC '7>/D@C
'7>/D is used as temperature sensing IC. As sho*n in figuer sho*n (elo* it is has D $6C
A76s in(uilt *hich serve various purpose li+e $6CA76 $6VY"2as in figure3 essentially
*or+s as I to V 2currentCtoCvoltage3 converter and converts temperature variations into
voltage variations. To amplify the change in voltage due to change in temperature&
instrumentation amplifier formed (y opCamps $6VYA& $6VYB and $6VYC is used.
:igure sho*ing internal construction of IC :ig. sho*ing 6in "iagram
:IGB#E8/ :IGB#E 8>
>D
IC 7$C>0882$ptoC coupler3
The 7$C>088 consists of gallium arsenide infrared emitting diodes& optically coupled to
silicon (ilateral s*itch and are designed for applications re=uiring isolated triac triggering&
lo*Rcurrent isolated ac s*itching& high electrical isolation 2to J900 Vac pea+3& high detector
standoff voltage& small si%e& and lo* cost.
DI.DES F RESISTANCES!
The various resistances and diodes are used for the protection purposes. Some resistances are
used to ma+e the voltage drops so as to change the reference voltages at the input of the
comparators. 6resets are miniature versions of the standard varia(le resistor. They are
designed to (e mounted directly onto the circuit (oard and adjusted only *hen the circuit is
(uilt. Varia(le resistors are often called potentiometers$ They are specified (y their
ma4imum resistance& some varia(le resistors are designed to (e mounted directly on the
circuit (oard.
:IGB#E 8D
A Wener "iode is a special +ind of diode *hich permits current to flo* in the for*ard
direction as normal& (ut *ill also allo* it to flo* in the reverse direction *hen the voltage is
a(ove a certain value& the (rea+do*n voltage +no*n as the Wener voltage. The Wener voltage
of a standard diode is high& (ut if a reverse current a(ove that value is allo*ed to pass
through it& the diode is permanently damaged. Wener diodes are designed so that their %ener
voltage is much lo*er C for e4ample just /.D Volts. 5hen a reverse current a(ove the Wener
voltage passes through a Wener diode& there is a controlled breakdown *hich does not
damage the diode. The voltage drop across the Wener diode is e=ual to the Wener voltage of
that diode no matter ho* high the reverse (ias voltage is a(ove the Wener voltage.
:ig .
sho*ing
sym(ol of
Wener
6icture of Wener Transformer
>9
6$TE,TI$7ETE# 6#ESET #ESIST$#S #ESIST$#S
"I$"E
:IGB#E 8?
:IGB#E 8J
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors Z the transformerUs coils or [*indings[. In our circuit />0 to
8/ V transformer is (eing used i.e. it steps do*n />0V AC to 8/V AC.
:IGB#E 8;
T)ermistor!
The ,TC thermistors *hich are discussed herein are composed of metal o4ides. The most
commonly used o4ides are those of manganese& nic+el& co(alt& iron& copper and titanium. The
fa(rication of commercial ,TC thermistors uses (asic ceramics technology Applications
(ased on the voltageCcurrent characteristic generally involve changes in the environmental
conditions or the electrical circuit parameters of a selfCheated thermistor. In turn& these
changes *ill result in a shift of the operating point on any given voltageCcurrent curve or
family of such curves. These applications are further su(divided into four major categories
depending on the type of e4citation that causes the operating point to change.
:IGB#E 81
>?
G$E&NDER0<ING "RINCI"0E F /.R%ING
#AIN "RINCI"0E!
This is (asically a (lind controller sensing temperature change (y virtue of negative
coefficient of thermistor& in turn +eeping trac+ over current *hich is then amplified (y
instrumentation amplifier having a high common mode rejection. Thus& ma+ing it feasi(le to
detect even the minute changes in currentH o(served (y change in temperature as sensed (y
the thermistor. And this trac+ in turn produces triggering pulses for the triac. And this triac
*ill then accordingly regulate speed of fan meant for temperature regulation.
/.R%ING!
Sho*n a circuit through *hich the speed of a fan can (e linearly controlled automatically&
depending on the room temperature. The circuit is highly efficient as it uses thyristors for
po*er control. Alternatively& the same circuit can (e used for automatic temperature
controlled AC po*er control. In this circuit& the temperature sensor used is an ,TC
thermistor& i.e. one having a negative temperature coefficient. The value of thermistor
resistance at /9
o
C is a(out 8 +iloCohm. $pCamp A8 essentially *or+s as I to V 2currentCtoC
voltage3 converter and converts temperature variations into voltage variations. To amplify the
change in voltage due to change in temperature& instrumentation amplifier formed (y opC
amps A/& A> and AD is used. #esistor #/ and diode "/ com(ination is used for generating
reference voltage as *e *ant to amplify only change in voltage due to the change in
temperature. $pCamp XAJD8 2IC/3 *or+s as a comparator. $ne input to the comparator is the
output from the instrumentation amplifier *hile the other input is the stepped do*n& rectified
and suita(ly attenuated sample of AC voltage. This is a negative going pulsating "C voltage.
It *ill (e o(served that *ith increase in temperature& pin / of IC/ goes more and more
negative and hence the *idth of the positive going output pulses 2at pin ?3 increases linearly
*ith the temperature. Thus IC/ functions as a pulse *idth modulator in this circuit. The
output from the comparator is coupled to an optocoupler& *hich in turn controls the AC
po*er delivered to fan 2load3. The circuit has a high sensitivity and the output #7S voltage
2across load3 can (e varied from 8/0V to />0V 2for a temp. range of // to >?oC3& and hence
*ide variations in speed are availa(le. It can (e noted that speed varies linearly and not in
steps. Besides& since an optocoupler is used& the control circuit is fully isolated from po*er
circuit& thus providing added safety. ,ote that for any given temperature the speed of fan 2i.e.
voltage across load3 can (e adjusted to a desired value (y adjusting potentiometers V#8 and
V#/ appropriately. 6otentiometers V#8 should (e initially +ept in its mid position to reali%e
a gain of appro4imately D0 from the instrumentation amplifier. It may (e su(se=uently
trimmed slightly to o(tain linear variation of the fan speed.
>J
C)apter ( C.NC0&SI.N
A good 'earner needs to have not just theoretical (ut practical +no*ledge as *ell and so
every aspirant shall undergo a practical training session after > rd year as a result of *hich I
im(i(ed the +no*ledge a(out learning& enhancing my s+ills& getting familiar *ith the certain
aspects of industry *hich *ere une4plored to me& *hich has changed my approach to thin+
over any scientific research and their development and different physical la*s related to it.
As a trainee under "EST department I *as guided (y our mentor to ac=uire +no*ledge a(out
these techni=ues and construct a controller in order to maintain temperature of a cham(er<
room. "uring the training I familiari%ed myself *ith 6C7 their characteristics and
applications& development of ne* technologies& 6.C.B designing& application of I.C. 2its pin
diagram3& mounting of components using soldering process and *or+ing of Temperature
Controller.
The circuit can (e used at all places starting from domestic to the industrial sectors. The
simplicity in the usage of this circuit helps it to (e used (y a large num(er of people as people
*ith less +no*ledge of hard*are can also use it *ithout facing any pro(lem. The automatic
feature of this controller prevents its user from timely manual adjustment of temperature.
I also learned a(out the engineers. responsi(ility and a(out their hard *or+. This training *as
not only good for personality development (ut also great in terms of imparting practical
+no*ledge.
Thus I conclude that my training *as a nice and (lissful e4perience gained at "#"$&
)odhpur& under a peaceful& +ind and friendly environment.
Reference
$6CA76 and linear integrated circuitC #A7ANA,T.N.GATAN5A"
http< ***.google.com
http< ***.electrosofts.com
*i+i(oo+s
5i+ipedia
7otorola datasheets
6ractical #elia(ity $f Electronics E=uipments and 6roducts
Eurotherms
"#"$ sites
>;
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