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X
Y
A
B
Bulb


Ideas of Potential Difference
Gravitational potential energy at X is __________ than the
gravitational potential energy at Y.
The apple will fall from _____ to _____ when the apple is released.
This is due to the difference in the gravitational potential energy.
Similarly,
Point A is connected to ________ terminal
Point B is connected to _________ terminal
Electric potential at A is _________ than the electric
potential at B.
Electric current flows from A to B, passing the bulb in the
circuit and ________ _______ the bulb.
This is due to the electric __________ __________ between the two terminals.
As the charges flow from A to B, work is done when electrical energy is transformed to
______ and ________ energy.









1 Volt = 1 joule per coulomb.
The potential difference across two points in a circuit is 1 Volt if 1 Joule of work is done in
moving 1 Coulomb of charge from one point to the other.




7.2
The potential difference, V between two points in a circuit is defined as the work
done when 1 C of charge moves between two points in an electric field.
Potential difference, V = Work done, W or V = Energy,E
Charge, Q Charge,Q

Q
E
Q
W
V
SI unit is Volt (V) = Joule per coulomb

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Device and symbol
ammeter
Cells
voltmeter Switch

connecting wire
Constantan wire //
eureka wire


resistance


bulb

rheostat


Measuring Current and Potential Difference/Voltage
Measurement of electricity Measurement of potential difference/voltage


(a) Electrical circuit



(a) Electrical circuit










(b) Circuit diagram









(b) Circuit diagram






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1. Name the device used to measure electrical
current.


2. (a) What is the SI unit for current?



(b) What is the symbol for the unit of
current?


3. How is an ammeter connected in an
electrical circuit?



4. The positive terminal of an ammeter is
connected to which terminal of the dry cell?


5. What will happen if the positive terminal of
the ammeter is connected to the negative
terminal of the dry cell?




1. Name the device used to measure
potential difference.


2. (a) What is the SI unit for potential
difference?


(b) What is the symbol for the unit of
potential difference?


3. How is an voltmeter connected in an
electrical circuit?



4. The positive terminal of a voltmeter is
connected to which terminal of the dry
cell?



Experiment: To investigate the relationship between current and potential difference for an
ohmic conductor.








(a) (b)
Figure (a) and figure (b) show two electrical circuits. Why do the ammeters show different
readings? Why do the bulbs light up with different intensity?

Do Experiment 2.4 in Practical Book page 35 and make a PEKA report.



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Referring to the figure (a) and (b) complete the following table to plan & conduct an experiment to
find the relationship between current and potential difference.

Aim:



Hypothesis:


Variables





Procedure












Control MV

Measure RV

Repeat
Tabulate
Analyze









Manipulated variable:

Responding variable:

Controlled variables:

Apparatus: Rheostat, constantan wire, switch, connecting wire, batteries,
ammeter, voltmeter


Turn on the switch and adjust the rheostat until the ammeter reads the current, I
= 0.2 A.
Read the value of the potential difference, V, from the voltmeter. Record the
readings.
Repeat the experiment for I = 0.3 A, 0.4 A, 0.5 A, 0.6 A
Tabulate the data.
Plot a graph of V against I.

Repeat the experiment by replacing the constantan wire, which is ohmic
conductor with an electric bulb which is a non-ohmic conductor.

Constantan wire Light bulb
I / A V / V I / A V / V


















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Ohms law states that the electric current, I flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across it if the temperature
and other physical conditions are constant.

Discussion
1. Sketch the graph V vs I and describe the shape of each graph.

ohmic conductor constantant wire non ohmic conductor light bulb














2. What is the relationship between V and I for the ohmnic conductor?
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Find the gradient of the graph for the ohmic conductor.


4. What is the physical quantity represented by the gradient of the graph?
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Why are the two graphs in the experiment different from each other?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
6. What is the function of the rheostat in the circuit?
_________________________________________________________________________
7. What precautions must you take in order to obtain more accurate results?
________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Describe the relationship between current and potential difference
The greater the potential difference or voltage, the greater the current flow.
When the potential difference between two points in a circuit increases, the current flowing
through it increases.
When the potential difference (V) between the points decreases, the current (I) decreases.
The potential difference is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.


State Ohms Law

ancal
cond
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I
V
R
iFrom Ohms Law, V I or

I
V
= constant = gradient

The graph of V against I is straight line through the origin.
The gradient of the graph is constant.

Define Resistance, R





The unit of resistance is _________________
An _____________ ____________ is one which obeys Ohms law, while a conductor which
does not obey Ohms law is known as a _____________ conductor





Factors Affecting Resistance
1. The resistance of a conductor is a measure of the ability of the conductor to (resist / allow)
the flow of an electric current through it.
2. From the formula V = IR, the current I is (directly / inversely) proportional to the resistance,
R.
3. When the value of the resistance, R is large, the current, I flowing in the conductor is
(small / large)


4. What are the factors affecting the resistance of a conductor?
a) .
b) .
c) .
d) .



The resistance (R) of a conductor is defined as the ratio
of the potential difference (V) across the conductor to the
current (I) flowing through it.


I
V
R
Ohms equation = V = IR V = potential difference
I = electric current
R = resistance


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5. Write down the relevant hypothesis for the factors affecting the resistance in the table
below.
Factors Diagram Hypothesis Graph
L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

t
h
e

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
,

l

The longer the length of the
conductor, the __________
its resistance
Resistance is __________
proportional to the length of
a conductor


T
h
e

c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

o
f

t
h
e

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
,

A

The larger the cross -
sectional area, the
____________ the its
resistance
Resistance is __________
proportional to the cross-
sectional area of a conductor




T
h
e

t
y
p
e

o
f

t
h
e

m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

o
f

t
h
e

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r



Different conductors with the
same physical conditions
have ________ resistance

T
h
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
f

t
h
e

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r

The higher the temperature
of a conductor, the
_________ the resistance


6. From the table above, the following can be stated:
Resistance of a conductor, l R and
A
R
1
cross-
Hence, resistance of a conductor,
A
l
R or
A
l
R
where = resistivity of the substance

Do Experiment 2.5 in Practical Book page 37. Make a PEKA report.
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The resistance of a metal increases with temperature
The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with temperature.





Applications of Superconductor
Magnetic-levitation is an application where superconductors perform extremely well.
Transport vehicles such as trains can be made to float on strong superconducting magnets,
virtually eliminating friction between the train and its tracks.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is to determine what is going on inside the human body.
By exposing the body to a strong superconductor-derived magnetic field, hydrogen atoms
that exist in the bodys water and fat molecules are forced to accept energy from the magnetic
field. They then release this energy at a frequency that can be detected and displayed
graphically by a computer.
Electric cable made of superconductors will increase the efficiency of electrical power
transmission as the loss of energy in the form of heat is greatly reduced.



A superconductor is a material whose
resistance becomes zero when its
temperature drops to a certain value
called the critical temperature.

This enables superconductors to
maintain a current with no applied
voltage at that temperature.
Able to sustain large currents
Smaller power loss during transmission
Less heat energy is wasted
Small-sized motors and generators can be used.

Disadvantage of Resistance
Resistance causes some of the
electrical energy to turn into
heat , so some electrical energy
is lost along the way if we are
trying to transmit electricity
from one place to another
through conductor.

Advantage of Resistance
It is resistance that allows us to use
electricity for heat and light. The heat is
generated from electric heaters or the light
that we get from light bulbs is due to the
resistance of the wire. In a light bulb, the
current flowing through a resistance
filament causes it to become hot and then
glow.
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Exercise 1 : Solve problems involving potential difference, current and resistance

1. Tick () the correct answers
True False
(a) Unit of potential difference is J C
-1

(b) J C
-1
volt, V
(c)
The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if 1 joule of
work is required to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point
to another.

(d)
2 volt is two joules of work done to move 2 coulomb of charge
from one to another in an electric field.

(e) Potential difference Voltage

2. If a charge of 5.0 C flows through a wire and the amount of electrical energy converted into
heat is 2.5 J. Calculate the potential differences across the ends of the wire.


3. A light bulb is switched on for a period of time. In that period of time, 5 C of charges passed
through it and 25 J of electrical energy is converted to light and heat energy. What is the
potential difference across the bulb?




4. When the potential difference across a bulb is 20 V,
the current flow is 3 A. How much work done to
transform electrical energy to light and heat energy
in 50 s?




5. What is the value of the resistor in the figure, if the
dry cells supply 2.0 V and the ammeter reading is 0.5
A?

V = IR
6. The graph shows the result of an experiment to
determine the resistance of a wire. The resistance of
the wire is











3 A
A
20 V
Bulb

V/V
I/A
0 5
1.2
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TUTORIAL 7.2

1. Which graphs shows the relationship
between potential difference, V, and
current, I, for a resistor that obeys Ohms
law? (2003)



2. Which circuit can be used to determine
the resistance of a bulb? (2003)


3. The diagram shows a bird perched on a
high voltage cable.

The bird does note experience an electric
shock because . (2005)
A. the potential difference across X and
Y is high
B. the resistance of the cable across X
and Y is very high
C. the body of the bird has a low
resistance
D. the current flowing through its body
is very small

4. Diagram below is a graph shows the
relationship between the potential
difference and the current of four
different conductors, P, Q, R and S.
(2006)


Which conductor has the highest
resistance?
A. P C. R
B. Q D. S

5. Diagram below shows an electric circuit.
The reading of the ammeter is 0.2 A and
the reading of the voltmeter is 2.8 V.

Calculate the electrical energy released
by the bulb in 2 minutes. (2006)
A. 0.56 J
B. 1.12 J
C. 28.00 J
D. 67.20 J
E. 1680.00 J

6. Which of the following factors does not
influence the resistance of a wire? (2007)
A. Length of wire
B. Material of the wire
C. Cross-sectional area of the wire
D. Hardness of the wire
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7. Figure shows the circuit used to
investigate the relationship between
potential difference, V and current, I for a
piece of constantan wire. The graph of V
against I from the experiment is as
shown in the figure below.

















(a) What quantities are kept constant
in this experiment?

_____________________________

(b) State the changes in the gradient of
the graph, if
i) the constantan wire is heated
____________________________

ii) a constantan wire of a smaller
cross-sectional area is used

____________________________
increases, hence the gradient
incr
iii) a shorter constantan wire is used

____________________________

8. Diagram below shows an electric circuit
which is used to investigate the
relationship between electric and
potential difference across a conductor
XY.



(a) What is the function of the voltmeter?

(b) Underline the correct answer in the
bracket to complete the sentence below.

When the electric current increases,
(i) the potential difference (increases,
decreases, remains unchanged)
(ii) the resistance will (increase,
decrease, remain unchanged)

(c) State one physical quantity which is kept
constant in the experiment.

..

9. Figure 6 shows the graph of current
against potential difference across three
conductors P, Q and R.

(a) Among the three conductors, which
one or ones obey Ohms law? Give
reason.

_____________________________
_____________________________
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(b) State Ohms law.

_____________________________
_____________________________

(c) The resistance R of a conductor is
given as:
I
V
R

What is the resistance of X when a
current of 0.4 A flows through it?







3. Figure 4.1(a) shows a filament light bulb
labeled 240 V, 100 W. Figure 4.1(b)
shows a graph of potential difference
against current for two materials, P and
Q. One of the materials will be chosen as
filament in a bulb.


Based on the graph in Figure 4.1(b),
compare the resistance of materials P
and Q. Choose the more suitable
material to be used as filament bulb.
Explain your choice.