D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.

uk 1
MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

OUTCOME 4 MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION

TUTORIAL 1 SIMPLE MACHINES




Simple machines: lifting devices e.g. lever systems, inclined plane, screw jack, pulley blocks,
Weston differential pulley block, simple and compound gear trains, wheel and axle, differential
wheel and axle; mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, law of a machine, force, torque and
power transmitted, overhauling, limiting efficiency


Belt drives: flat and v-section; velocity ratio, angles of lap, limiting tight and slack side
tensions, maximum power transmitted for given conditions

Linkage mechanisms: plane mechanisms eg slider-crank, four-bar linkage and quick return
mechanisms; determination of magnitude and nature of output velocity for given input
conditions

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.


Describe the principles of lifting machines.
Define Velocity Ratio.
Define Mechanical Advantage.
Explain the efficiency of a machine and the factor affecting it.
Explain the law of a machine.
Explain the limiting efficiency.
Describe a range of lifting machine including:
Levers
Screw Jacks
Pulleys
Differential Axles
Weston Differential Pulley
Geared Systems
Winches

Calculate the force required to slide a block on an inclined plane.
Relate the inclined plane to screw threads.
Calculate the torque needed to rotate a turnbuckle.
Explain Mechanical Power
Make calculations involving Mechanical power.





It is assumed that the student is already familiar with friction theory.



1. GENERAL INFORMATION FOR LIFTING MACHINES

A lifting machine is any machine designed to enable a load (F
L
) to be raised by a much smaller
effort (F
E
). The ratio is called the Mechanical Advantage or Force Ratio. M.A. = F
L
/F
E

The distance moved by the load is X
L
and the distance moved by the effort is X
E
. The ratio of the
two is called the Velocity Ratio or Movement Ratio. V.R. = X
E
/ X
L

If we plot a graph of Effort against Load for an ideal frictionless machine we get a straight line
through the origin as shown. The gradient of the straight line is F
E
/F
L
= 1/M.A.

The law of energy conservation tells us that if there is no energy lost, the work done by the effort
must equal the work done by the load so it follows that : F
E
X
E
= F
L
X
L

In a real machine, there is friction and energy is lost. The effort has to overcome the dead load of
the lifting machine so some effort F
S
is required before any external load is applied. If F
L
is the
external load and this is plotted against effort, we get a graph as shown labelled actual.

EFFICIENCY Symbol (eta)

= Work done by the load/Work done by the Effort

= F
L
X
L
/F
E
X
E


= M.A./V.R

This is the same formula for ideal and actual machines so long as we use the actual load and effort.

When the external load is zero the Effort is F
s
and the Mechanical Advantage is zero so it follows
that the efficiency is zero.

At large loads the Mechanical Advantage tends to become constant and the efficiency reaches a
limiting value.

In between these extremes the efficiency varies and the plot is a curve as shown.

Figure 1

The law of the straight line is F
E
= F
S
+ F
L
x gradient
F
E
= F
S
+ F
L
x B/A
F
E
= F
S
+ F
L
M.A.
F
E
= F
S
+ F
L
(V.R. )
D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 2


WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

The table shows the values of load and corresponding effort for a lifting machine with a velocity
ratio of 140. Plot the graph and also plot the efficiency.

Load F
L
(N) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Effort F
E
(N) 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 25.5 28.5 31.5 34

SOLUTION

Calculate the efficiency at each point using % = (M.A./V.R) x 100% = (M.A./40) x 100%

For example when F
L
= 400 N M.A. = 400/17 = 23.53 % = (23.54/40) x 100 = 59%

Load F
L
(N) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Effort F
E
(N) 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 25.5 28.5 31.5 34
% 0 31.3 45.5 53.6 59 62.5 65.2 68.6 70.2 71.4 73.5


Figure 2




SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A lifting machine has a velocity ratio of 5. The Effort required to raise a load of 5 KN is 2 kN.
Calculate the mechanical advantage and the efficiency. (Answer 2.5 and 50%)

2. A Lifting machine has a velocity ratio of 8. Given the efficiency is 30% when the load is 580 N,
calculate the effort required. (Answer 242 N)


Next we will look at particular lifting devices.



D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 3
2. LEVERS

A lever is one of the simplest lifting devices but it is limited to small movements. It is very efficient
however and it is found in many mechanisms. A crow bar is an example of a lever used to lift heavy
objects a small distance. The lever principle is used in cutting tools such as pliers, wire cutters, bolt
cutters and branch loppers.

Figure 3

The ratio of the movements is strictly related to the lengths A and B so the velocity ratio is
V.R. = X
E
/ X
L
= A/B


WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

The load on a lever is 2 kN and acts 20 mm from the fulcrum. The effort is 200 mm from the
fulcrum. Assuming 100% efficiency, calculate the effort.

SOLUTION

= M.A./V.R = 1.0 (100%) hence M.A. = V.R

V.R = A/B = 200/20 = 10
M.A. = 10 = F
L
/F
E
= 2000/ F
E

F
E
= 2000/10 = 200 N



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

1. A lever has a total length of 1.2 m with the pivot 0.2 m from one end. Assuming 100%
efficiency, calculate:

(i) The velocity Ratio. (6)
(ii) The Mechanical Advantage. (6)
(iii) The effort required to move a load of 2000 N. (333.3 N)
(iv) The distance moved by the end of the handle when the load is raised 50 mm. (8.33 N)



D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 4
3. SCREW JACKS

Screw jacks work on the principle that the nut forms
the lifting platform or point and the screw is rotated
with a lever. Every complete revolution of the
screw raises the load by the pitch of the thread.

The Effort is applied at radius R to produce a torque
F
E
R. They are commonly used as car jacks in
various forms such as the scissors screw jack. There
is a lot of friction in screw threads so they are not
very efficient. In order to understand this you need
to study friction on inclined planes.


Figure 4

The distance moved by the effort when the screw is turned once = 2R
The distance moved by the load = pitch = p The velocity ratio = 2R / p


WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

A screw jack has a thread with a pitch of 5 mm. It must raise a load of 6000 N by turning the
thread with a handle 500 mm long. The efficiency is 20% and the effort required to overcome
the dead weight and friction with no external load is 20 N. Calculate the effort required.

SOLUTION

The velocity ratio =2R / p = 2 x 500/5 = 628.3
We need to use the law of the machine in this case.

F
E
= F
S
+ F
L
( V.R. )

F
E
= 20 + 6000 (628.3 x 0.2) = 67.7 N



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. A screw jack has a thread with a pitch of 6 mm. It must raise a load of 2 kN by turning the
thread with a handle 250 mm long. The effort is 25 N Calculate the efficiency. (30.6 %)

D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 5
4. PULLEYS

A pulley is two sets of wheels as shown. The rope starts from
the axle of one set and goes around the pulleys wheels before
coming off to the point where the effort is applied.

Each rope between the two sets of wheels gets shorter by the
same amount so if there are N ropes, the distance moved by the
effort is N times more than the distance moved by the load so
the velocity ratio is N.

V.R. = Number of ropes connecting the blocks.

If the end of the rope is attached as shown the V.R. will always
be an even number. The number of pulley wheels in each block
will be half this. For example two wheels in each block will
give 4 ropes. If the rope is attached to the bottom block instead,
the V.R. will always be on odd number with one extra wheel in
the top block.
Figure 5



WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

A pulley as shown is 50% efficient. Calculate the effort required to lift 12 KN if there are 6
lengths of rope between the blocks. If the dead weight of the pulleys and hook is 500 N what
would the effort be then?

SOLUTION

V.R. = 6
M.A. = x V.R. = 50% x 6 = 3
Effort = 12/3 = 4 kN

With the dead weight taken into consideration the total load is 12.5 kN
Effort = 12.5/3 = 4.18 kN






SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

1. A pulley system similar to that shown above has 5 ropes. The load is 850 N and the effort is
300 N.

Calculate
(i) The velocity Ratio. (5)
(ii) The Mechanical Advantage. (2.83)
(iii) The efficiency. (57%)

D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 6
5. DIFFERENTIAL AXLE

The diagram shows a typical arrangement of the differential axle.
The load is suspended on a rope and one end if the rope unwinds
from the small diameter D
3
and the other end winds in about the
larger diameter D
2
. The effort is applied by another rope wrapped
around a wheel diameter D
1
on the same axle.

When the effort is pulled so that the axle turns one revolution the
effort moves one circumference D
1
X
E
= D
1
The rope on the differential gets shorter by D
2
on the one side and
longer by D
3
on the other. The change in length is the difference
and the load is raised by half this amount.
2
D D
X
3 2
L

=
The velocity ratio is V.R. =
3 2
1
3 2
1
L
E
D D
2D
D D
D 2
X
X

=
The efficiency of this system is normally high. Figure 6


WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

A differential axle as shown above has two diameters 100 mm and 150 mm. The wheel is 200
mm diameter. The load is 80 N and the effort is 13 N.
Calculate
(i) The velocity ratio
(ii) The Mechanical Advantage.
(ii) The efficiency.

SOLUTION

V.R. = 8
100 150
200 x 2
D D
2D
X
X
3 2
1
L
E
=

=
M.A. = 15 . 6
13
80
F
F
E
L
= =
= % 77 100 x
8
6.15
V.R.
M.A.
= =



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 5

1. A differential axle as shown above has two diameters 75 mm and 100 mm. It is expected that
the efficiency will be 80% when raising a load of 500 N and the effort must be 25 N.

Calculate
(i) The Mechanical Advantage (20)
(ii) The Velocity Ratio (25)
(iii) The diameter of the wheel. (312.5 mm)

D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 7
6. WESTON DIFFERENTIAL PULLEY

This is the basis of modern chain hoists and uses the same
principle as the differential axle. When the effort is pulled so
that the wheel rotates one revolution, the distance moved is one
circumference D
1
X
E
= D
1

The rope on the differential gets shorter by D
2
on the one side
and longer by D
1
on the other. The change in length is the
difference and the load is raised by half this amount.
2
D D
X
2 1
L

= The velocity ratio is
V.R. =
D2 D
2D
D D
D 2
X
X
1
1
2 1
1
L
E

=
Although the diagram shows a rope, in reality a chain is used
and the wheel and axle has flats that interlock with the links so
that the chain does not slip. The two free ends shown are in fact
joined so that a continuous loop is formed. It is not practical to
diameters and a better measure is the number of flats on each
(similar to using the number of gear teeth instead of diameter).
V.R. =
(2) on Flats - (1) on Flats
(1) on Flats x 2
=
Figure 7


WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6

A Weston differential pulley has a wheel with 12 Flats on it and an axle with 10 Flats. The load
is 1200 N and the effort is 150 N.
Calculate
(i) The velocity ratio
(ii) The Mechanical Advantage.
(ii) The efficiency.

SOLUTION

D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 8
V.R. = 12
8 0 1
12 x 2
=

M.A. = 8
150
1200
F
F
E
L
= =
= % 7 . 66 100 x
12
8
V.R.
M.A.
= =



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 6

1. A Weston differential pulley as shown above has a wheel with 15 flats. It is expected that the
efficiency will be 53.33 % when raising a load of 1000 N and the effort must be 125 N.
Calculate
(i) The Mechanical Advantage (8)
(ii) The Velocity Ratio (15)
(iii) The flats on the axle. (13)

7. GEARS

The simplest gear is the simple gear train shown. The speed ratio of the wheels is exactly the same
as the ratio as the diameters and also the ratio of the number of teeth in each. The small wheel
always goes around faster than the large wheel.

In order to get larger ratios compound gears are used which are really two or more sets of wheels
each driving the next.


Figure 8

There are many other types of gears such as the worm gear and bevel gear which allows the axis of
the wheels to be changed. To use a gear box in a lifting machine requires that a pulley be placed on
the shaft that will raise the load. A good example is that of winch in which a motor with a high
speed and low torque is geared down to turn the drum at a low speed with a large torque. The
diagram shows a typical winch that has a reduction gear box built inside the drum.

Figure 9

D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 9

WORKED EXAMPLE No.7
D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 10


A simple winch is shown in the diagram.
The small gear is turned by a handle 300 mm long.
This rotates the larger gear.
A drum on the same shaft as the large gear rotates and winds
in a rope and raises the load.
The gears have 50 teeth and 300 teeth respectively.
The drum is 100 mm diameter. The efficiency is 30%

Calculate the
(i) Velocity Ratio
(ii) Mechanical Advantage
(iii) Effort required to raise 800 kg

SOLUTION
Figure 10

Let the handle rotate one revolution. The distance moved by the effort is the circumference of a
circle 300 mm radius.

X
E
=2 x 300 = 600 mm

The gear ratio is the ratio of the teeth so the gear ratio is 300/50 = 6. This means that the large
wheel and drum rotates 1/6 of a revolution. The distance moved by the load is hence 1/6 of the
circumference of the drum.

X
L
=2 x 50/6 = 16 .67 mm
The velocity ratio is hence X
E
/X
L
= 600 /16 .67 = 36

The Mechanical Advantage is M.A. = x V.R. = 0.3 x 36 = 10.8

Load = 800 x 9.81 = 7848 N
Effort = 7848/10.8 = 726.7 N



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 7

1. A simple winch as shown previously has a drum 100 mm diameter and a gear ring with 125
teeth is attached to it. The gear meshes with a small gear with 25 teeth. This gear is attached to
a handle 300 mm long. The efficiency is expected to be 30% when a load of 1200 N is raised.
Calculate
(i) The Velocity Ratio (30)
(ii) The Mechanical Advantage (9)
(iii) The Effort. (133.3 N)
(iv) The torque produced by the effort. (40 Nm)

D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 11
8. TORQUE and POWER TRANSMISSION

When a force moves work is done and the rate of doing work is the mechanical power. This power
is transmitted through the machine from the effort to the load with some being lost on the way
through friction.

Mechanical power is defined as work done per second. Work done is defined as force times
distance moved. Hence
Power = P = Fx/t
F is the force
x is distance moved.
t is the time taken.

Since distance moved/time taken is the velocity of the force (x/t = v) we may write

P = F v where v is the velocity.

When a force rotates at radius R it travels one circumference in the time of one revolution. Hence
the distance moved in one revolution is x = 2R

If the speed is N rev/second then the time of one revolution is 1/N seconds. The mechanical power
is hence
P = F 2R/(1/N) = 2NFR

Since FR is the torque produced by the force this reduces to
P = 2NT

In the context of handles, gears and winches we may define Torque = Force x Radius

If the speed is in rev/min then S.P. = 2NT/60



WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8

The drive shaft which connects a motor to the drum of a winch transmits 45 kW of power at
2000 rev/min. This is geared down to the winch drum 100 mm diameter and the drum revolves
at 120 rev/min. The system is 30% efficient.
Calculate the:
(i) Torque in the motor shaft.
(ii) Torque on the drum.
(iii) The speed at which the load is moving.
(iv) The load

SOLUTION

T = 60P/2N = 60 x 45000/(2 x 2000) = 215 Nm on the motor shaft.
The power available at the drum is 30% x 45 kW = 13.5 kW
T = 60P/2N = 60 x 13500/(2 x 120) = 1074 Nm on the drum.
Mechanical Power = Force x velocity
Velocity = ND/60 = x 120 x 0.1/60 = 0.628 m/s
Power = load x velocity Load = 13500/0.628 = 21486 N
Check T = Load x Radius = 21486 x 0.05 = 1074 Nm



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.8

The diagram shows a simple winch. The motor drives the small gear and the large gear rotates
the drum and raises the load.

The load is 3 kN and it is raised at 0.5 m/s. The system is 25% efficient.
Calculate the following.

(i) The torque acting on the drum. (120 Nm)
(ii) The power produced by the load. (1500 W)
(iii) The speed of the drum. (119.4 rev/min)
(iv) The power produced by the motor. (6000 W)
(v) The speed of the motor. (596.8 rev/min)


Figure 11


D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 12
9. FRICTION ON INCLINED THREADS

The inclusion of inclined planes in the syllabus makes this outcome rather large. It is doubtful that it
is intended that all the following should be included but it is meaningless to study inclined planes
without going into friction and this does not appear in the syllabus so it must be assumed that it has
been already studied.

This theory applies to screw threads as a nut turning on a screw is the same problem.

You should already know that the coefficient of friction is defined as = F/R where F is the force
parallel to the surface and R is the force normal to the surface.

Consider a block on an inclined plane at angle
to the horizontal. The weight acts vertically
downwards. This must be resolved into two
components parallel and perpendicular to the
plane.
Resolving R = W cos and F
1
= W sin
If no other force is involved then the block will
slide down the plane if F
1
is greater than the
friction force. In this case F
1
> R or F
1
>
Wcos
Figure 12

The block will just slide when F
1
= Wcos so it follows that = Wsin / Wcos = Tan and this
is a way of finding and is called the friction angle.


WORKED EXAMPLE No.9

A block rests on an plane and the angle is increased until it just slides. This angle is 13
o
.
Determine the coefficient of friction.

SOLUTION

= Tan = Tan 13
o
= 0.231



Now consider the case of a block sliding under the action of a horizontal force such that the block
slides up the plane. We must resolve the weight and the force parallel and perpendicular to the plane
as shown.

Figure 13

The total force acting parallel to the plane is F
1
F
2
and the total reaction is R = R
1
+ R
2

The block will just slide up the plane if F
1
F
2
= (R
1
+ R
2
)
D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 13


WORKED EXAMPLE No. 10

A block rests on a plane at 12
o
to the horizontal. The weight is 80 N and the coefficient of
friction is 0.4. Calculate the force that will just make it slide up the plane.

SOLUTION

R
1
= F sin 12
o
R
2
= W cos 12
o
F
1
= F cos 12
o
F
2
= W sin 12
o
R = (R
1
+ R
2
) = F sin 12
o
+ W cos 12
o

F = F
1
F
2
= F cos 12
o
W sin 12
o

= F/R = (F cos 12
o
W sin 12
o
)/( F sin 12
o
+ W cos 12
o
)
0.4 = (0.978F 16.63)/( 0.2079F + 78.25)
47.93 = 0.895 F F = 53.56 N


It can be shown that the following formula also works for this problem.
F/W = tan ( + ) where is the friction angle (found from = tan ) and is the angle of the
plane. In the worked example we would have used:
= tan
-1
(0.4) = 21.8
o
F = W tan ( + ) = 80 tan(21.8 + 12) = 53.56
o

10. APPLICATION TO SCREW THREAD

The motion of two mating threads is the same as the previous problem. The vertical load is the
thrust acting axially on the nut (e.g. the load on a screw jack). The angle of the plane is given by:
Tan = pitch/circumference = p/D


WORKED EXAMPLE No.7

The diagram shows a turnbuckle. The threads have a pitch of 3 mm and a mean diameter of 12
mm. The coefficient of friction is 0.2. Calculate the torque needed to turn it when the force in
the ropes is 4 kN.

Figure 14
SOLUTION

The pitch is 3 mm and the circumference is 12 so the angle of the plane is = tan
-1
(3/12) =
4.55
o
The friction angle is = tan
-1
0.2 = 11.31
o
The axial force is the force equivalent to the weight
W. The torque T is the product of the force F and radius at which it acts which is the radius of
the thread (6 mm).
F = W tan ( + ) = 4000 tan(15.86
o
) = 1136 N
T = F x radius = 1136 x 0.006 = 6.8 Nm
Since there are two ends on a turnbuckle with opposite threads, the same torque is required at
both ends so to tighten the turnbuckle requires 2 x 6.8 = 13.6 Nm

D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 14
D.J.Dunn freestudy.co.uk 15

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 9

1. Calculate the horizontal force required to make a block weighing 60 N slide up a ramp inclined
at 20
o
to the ground given = 0.2 (Answer 36.4 N)

2. The pitch of a thread on a screw jack is 6.38 mm and the mean diameter is 30 mm. Calculate the
torque needed to raise a load 500 N. (Answer 4.5 Nm)

3. A block weighing 600 N rests on an inclined plane at 12
o
to the horizontal. The coefficient of
friction is 0.41. Show that the formula to slide the box down the plane is F = W tan ( - ).
Calculate the horizontal force required to slide it DOWN the plane. (Answer 109 N)

4. A turnbuckle is used to adjust the tension in a wire to 600 N. Each end has a single start square
thread with a mean diameter of 10 mm and pitch of 2 mm. The coefficient of friction is 0.2.
(Answer 1.6 Nm)