KLPs:

1. I learned that geologists role in using the scientific method is incredibly crucial for the understanding
and discovery of earths dynamics. They possess great knowledge of earthquakes and many of natures
wonders that otherwise we could not watch out or prepare for. They have also discovered unique
methods of testing multiple hypotheses at one time.
2. I discovered and learned that there is a connection between volcanoes/mountains and plate
tectonics. This brought to light a whole new perspective on volcanic activity I truly did not know existed.
The shift of earth plates can create as well as erupt volcanoes and set off earthquakes.
3. I was able to learn and make a connection between different rock types and then better understand
exactly why they show up in different locations and how they made it there. I also learned that rocks can
skip stages or phases and become a different rock type in a different order. On a side note, It allowed
me to better understand where to find and look for hydrocarbons and the types of reservoirs these
three different rock types create/ could create.
4. This topic regarding landform development through wind and waves on the coast brought to me a
better understanding of why particular structures are built the way they are. I learned the reasons for
coastal erosion and how different natural forces impact beaches in different ways. With this new view
point, I was also more intrigued to understand how oceanic engineers combat these problems on our
coasts.
5. Here I am able to relate directly to the petroleum industry allowing me to draw knowledge from
multiple classes as well as make connections between these various classes. The learning point here for
me as the ability to understand hydrocarbon storage better from a geologic point of view that better
enhanced my education. I learned how crucial the composition of the ground surrounding
hydrocarbons play into developing the resources as well as the types of environments that facilitate the
production of hydrocarbons prior to being covered in layers.

1. The scientific method is a process composed of many components designed to see a
problem/possible theory, form a hypothesis, test it and come to a conclusions with a solution or validity
of your results. This allows you to prove or disprove something and come up with a backed analysis or
theory that can be tested and replicated by others. Geologist use the scientific method in a unique way
to look for answers to earths questions regarding many different topics, for example the theory of plate
tectonics.
Geologists way of applying the scientific method varies greatly depending on the problem.
While many hypotheses are tested with experiments conducted within a lab, that is not always the case
in geology. To form the question they look at what has happened on earth. Once they observe the
features for their study they move to a hypothesis. Since making observations visually is the most
common within the field, your hypothesis can be deemed possibly correct or incorrect depending on
whether or not the predicated features are present. Geologist can use advanced instruments to
measure numerical properties or create simulations. The ability to create computer models for geologic
studies is crucial. This allows for the advancement and fast forwarding of time and alteration of one
variable at a time to provide the best possible results to analyze. On a side note, most experiments
conducted in the geologic world are working with a handful of hypothesis at one time, not just one.
When the data is found to support one of the hypotheses the geologist can ignore any other options to
minimize bias and expedite testing. The benefit here is the ability to narrow your possibilities and
quickly make progress over the traditional one hypothesis method.
Example 1: Geologist has used the scientific method to better understand the composition of earths
core. Geologists have studied the refraction/ reflection of P and S waves to try and interpret the makeup
of the earths core taking into account the effects of various densities of material the waves could
possible encounter. This also provides them the opportunity to attempt to define the depths and
makeup of the layers below.
Example 2: The scientific method has also been employed by geologist many years ago to discover and
attempt to prove what is today known as the theory of plate tectonics. Geologists have worked on this
theory for many many years split between many various processes. Even though it is still technically
called a theory it is very wide spread accepted. This is due to the incredibly abundant and consistent
amount of evidence collected from earthquakes, folds, gravity, volcanoes, , seafloor spreading, magnetic
stripes, faults, ocean sediments, fossils, and hot spots. Also, the shaping of the continents led
researchers to accept and support the theory of plate tectonics.

2. The Theory of plate tectonics says that earths lithosphere is split into several plates of which
float on/over the mantle moving separately of one another. Also it suggests that seismic activity
originates at plates boundaries such as earthquakes and volcanoes. This can be noted as a combination
of continental drift and seafloor spreading into one comprehensive theory. The action of plate tectonics
is earths reaction to the escaping of internal heat. When geologist studied paleomagnetism
(magnetization of ingenious rock post cooling), it provided evidence of plate tectonics consequently
adding integrity to the theory.
The formation of volcanoes tends to form at subduction zones (convergent boundaries) both on
and off shore as can be seen across the world. Multiple volcanoes tend to form in a line near these
plate boundaries. Not only does plate tectonics play a role in the formation of many volcanoes, but it is
also can provide the necessary movements to cause eruptions throughout the following years. Once
volcanoes have developed, there eruption or flow of lava alters its surroundings by adding new rock
mass hardened from this lava.
You will find that the creation of mountains stems from converging plate boundaries. As new
ocean crust is created at mid-ocean ridges, the old crust must be displaced by some method allowing for
this new mass. When two converging plates collide, the pressure between them pushes mass upwards,
forming vast mountain ranges. The added compression and rock mass over time at the boundaries
continues to build onto the mountain increasing its size and height.
Earthquakes can occur at three main location types of plate boundary where plates are pulled
apart, scraped past each other or where there are boundaries of subduction zones. Typically they occur
at faults that were previously formed. As earth forces continue to push, a buildup of pressure and
energy is created. When these forces overcome friction, the energy is released causing the earthquake.
As you can see in all these different features of earth, the movement of plates is the common
connection between there creation and development.


3. Igneous rocks are a product of cooled magma which is associated with plate tectonics. Magma
can form along divergent mid-oceanic ridges as well new oceanic crust (major component). Also the
more felsic magma is found bordering continental crust at subduction zones. From this you can see that
plate tectonics plays a role in its creation.
Metamorphic rocks come from the forces from plate tectonic. When plates slide past each
other, collide or subduct on one another, you experience increased stresses, friction and folding. This
causes the breaking of rock allowing for cracks and faults where magma can rise and cool. More tectonic
force is going to provide higher pressure and temperatures. From this you can see that plate tectonics
plays a role in its creation.
Sedimentary rock helps to preserves the past environments. They accumulate in tectonic basins
and give facts regarding basin size, depositional systems, and erosion history. All this data gives us the
ability to understand the past of plate tectonic movement.
Circle of Life for rocks: Sediments are lithified into sedimentary rock. Heat and pressure changes
them into metamorphic rock. Once melting occurs followed by the introduction of new magma, both
cool and form igneous rock. At this point erosion and weathering turns it back into sediments starting
the cycle over again. Remember this process can start at any stage.
Another possibility is for the rock types to skip stages and become other things. Igneous can go
through heat and pressure becoming metamorphic or remelt and cool back into another igneous rock.
Metamorphic rock can erode and weather directly into sediments or experience more heat and pressure
to alter itself into another metamorphic state of different grade. Sedimentary rock can melt, cool and
become igneous or erode and weather and become sediments.


Igneous Rocks: These rocks typically are composed of crystals of pyroxene, olivine, and feldspar. Since
igneous rocks are formed from the cooling of lava, they may also display some form of banding.
Other characteristics:
No visible grains- very hard, glassy/dense/hard.
Visible crystalline grains- composed of minerals, large crystals with smaller crystals and random
crystal orientation.
Finally igneous rocks can also be vesicular or be very hard with a streamlined structure.
Location: Usually found in ocean ridges, subduction zones, or even continental crust intersections.
Formation: Igneous rock is formed from the cooling of lava/ magma either rapidly or slowly. Magma
that is slowly cooled forms large grains rich in silicate known as intrusive igneous rock. This is an
indicator that intrusive is formed within the earth. Lava that quickly cools into small grains without gas is
recognized as extrusive igneous rock, this is the result of rock forming on the surface.
Sedimentary Rocks: Two big components of this type consist of a clastic texture as well as some
layering. It is also very common to find preserved fossils and other organic remains.
Other characteristics:
No visible grains- Acid reaction, soft, similar to mud or clay
Layering- soft flat layers, mud/sand/gravel, various crystal sizes.
Visible crystalline grains- fossils, clastic (sand silt gravel), rounded, fragmented, easily broken or
scratched, various sizes, halite or gypsum crystals.
Location: Typically found in river beds, deltas, beaches, sand bars, and flat layers.
Formation: Sedimentary rock is created by the process of litification where sediments are forced
together. There are three ways to lithifiy for this process. Extreme pressure and weight compresses
sediments together into a sedimentary rock. Cementing the sediments together through precipitation is
another method. They can also crystallize into a sedimentary rock.
Metamorphic Rocks: A few various textures of this rock are foliation and fractures. Foliation is the most
common indicator of a metamorphic rock. Typically metamorphic rock consists of garnet, tourmaline,
and mica. Although the following minerals are those only found in metamorphic giving you a definitive
answer serpentine, graphite, galena, or sphalerite.
Other characteristics:
No visible crystalline grains- glassy, brittle, light, opaque black.
Layering- same size crystals, folded layers.
Visible crystalline grains- deformed fossils, foliated long crystals, flat scaly foliated crystals,
metallic, smooth.
Location: Found where uplift or erosion has exposed them.
Formation: Heat, pressure, and/or chemical activity play a role in the formation of metamorphic rock.
Contact metamorphism causes changes in the rock from magma that is nearby. Intense heat and
pressure known as regional metamorphism makes changes as well. Chemical changes stem from
hydrothermal metamorphism where hot liquids circulate through rock fractures.
4. The power of waves and wind are crucial for defining and forming costal landforms both on and
off dry land. The consistent and repetitive action of waves breaking against a shoreline structure such as
a cliff will slowly erode away the surface over time. With this consistent action, over great periods or
time, the shoreline cliff structure will be continually wore away until it is gone. Throughout this process,
pieces of the cliff break off, land in the water, and are worn away with the currents and waves
redistributing the sand. You will notice that as the higher parts of the coastline are eroded away, build
up will occur on the low-lying coastlines.
When you combine the force of wind and waves, rock is worn away and many tons of sand is
moved onto beaches. Surprisingly, wind alone can cause noticeable changes to land structures as well.
Wind forces have the ability to relocate and move sand creating a land structure know as sand dunes.
The finer the sand, the further it can travel, sometimes up to thousands of miles. Also, beaches are built
from the combined effort of sand travel from the force of waves and currents.
Angled waves will transport sand to the shoreline, while receding waves remove sand. This
process is known as longshore drift, it slowly moves sediments down the beach. This process can easily
build or destroy a beach moving large amounts of sand. The way in which water moves on a shore line in
reaction to the angled strike of waves is the longshore current. Its direction of the current varies by day.
5. Three major types of resources that the Earth provides us with that are critical to daily life are Oil,
Natural gas and coal.
Oil:
Similar to the formation of other hydrocarbon based natural resources, forming oil has its own
unique characteristics. As plant and animals die in the ocean, they sink the bottom of the sea bed where
the process begins. These dead components begin to decompose and mix with sand and silt as well as
experience very small bacterias. The bacteria removes particular chemicals leaving mostly hydrogen
and carbon. As time passes, this mass of gelation like material stops decomposing from the lack of
oxygen and is slowly covered with multiple layers of sand and silt. Burying this material to the correct
depths stretches over millions of years requiring many many layers. Throughout burial, the size of the
original mass is compressed with great pressure and eventually exposed to increased heat. To complete
the formation of oil, extreme pressure, consistent temperatures (hot, but not 450 degrees), and certain
minerals (like sulphur), will prove successful in converting hydrocarbons to oil. If the temperature get to
hot (450 degrees) you can lose all potential for petroleum or create a formation of gas provided your
temperature is not consistent (fluctuating).
Natural Gas:
A fossil fuel formed from the decaying plant/animal matter deep in the earth is known as
natural gas. The breakdown of marine zooplankton is the major player in this process. Organic material
that doesnt completely decay will form gas by both methanogenic bacteria (methane production) and
catagenesis ( kerogen converting to hydrocarbons). Depending on the intensity of heat and pressure,
marine sediments buried deep within the earth can form either oil or natural gas. With higher
temperatures and pressures, the formation of natural gas is more prevalent (increased depths =
increased ratio of gas to oil)
Once formed, natural gas attempts to migrate to a new location. Sandstone or limestone tend to
have large enough pores with decent permeability to facilitate storage as well as receive migrated gas.
Being lighter than the surroundings materials, the gas migrates vertically to the surface until it is trapped
by impermeable rock. The formation of methane can be found from either the decomposition of animals
or by bacteria (methanogens) that decompose organic matter. Natural gas tends to be found at great
depths as well as in coal seams.
Coal: Coal is a fossil fuel of which supplys carbon rich energy that forms from the remains of vegetation
buried millions of years ago (1-400 million).
Dead plants/trees/organic matter accumulates in swampy areas, compiling layer after layer.
This process forms peat (soggy decaying organic compound). As time passes, sediment is deposited from
change in lakes and rivers of which buries the soggy peat. When sedimentary rock forms over the peat,
the pressure removes water further advancing the development process of coal. Over the following
years, the ever increasing burial depth supplys an increase in temperature and pressure of which make
the final formation of coal. Todays coal can be as young as one million years or as old as 300-400 million
years old. Coal is accessed through many location types, although underground mining and surface
removal are fairly common methods.