Glue recipe

Ingredients
Simple Glue Ingredients

1/2 cup flour

1/3 cup water
Paper Mache Glue Ingredients

1 cup flour

1/3 cup sugar

1-1/2 cup water with 1 tsp white vinegar mixed
in
Cornstarch Paste Ingredients

1-1/2 cups cold water

2 tablespoons cornstarch

2 tablespoons corn syrup

1 teaspoon white vinegar
Simple No-Cook Flour Paste

1 cup flour

1/2 cup water

1/8 teaspoon salt
Glue sticks are solid adhesives in twist or push-up tubes. The user can apply glue by holding the open
tube, thus keeping their fingers clean. Because of their ease of use, and their economic value, glue sticks
are a popular school and office supply.
Applications
Glue sticks are designed to glue paper and card together, and are not as strong as some liquid based
variants. They can be used for craft and design, office use and at school. There are now permanent,
washable, acid-free, non-toxic, solvent free, and dyed (e.g. to see where the glue is being applied easier)
varieties.
Brands
In 1969 the German company Henkel invented the glue stick after studying the "twist-up ease" and
convenience of lipstick applicators. The product was released under the Pritt Stick brand. By 1971 the
Pritt Stick was being sold in 38 countries, by 2001 in 121.
[1]
The first solvent free multipurpose glue stick
that could be used for other materials (e.g. wood, glass and some plastics) was the "PowerPritt", which
was put on the market in 2003. There is also a "Pritt X", launched in 2010.
Glue sticks are made by many brands and each may have different features to it. Various brands, like
Nebul, Scotch, UHU, Kores, Giotto, Snopake, U-Stick make glue sticks. Generic brands manufacture glue
sticks as well, utilising the twist action.
Sizes
Glue sticks can come in many sizes, the most common being 8g, 25g and 40g.
Composition
The composition of a Pritt Stick is as follows:
[2]

Name
EC
number
CAS
number
%
content
Risk Statements
CAPROLACTAM- 203-313-2 105-60-2 1 - 5%
Xn;R20/22
Xi;R36/37/38
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
SOLUTION ...%
231-765-0 7722-84-1 < 1% O;R8 C;R34
SODIUM HYDROXIDE 215-185-5 1310-73-2 < 1% C;R35
Glue Stick Review | Plastics Hot Melt Sticks
Plastics Hot Melt Sticks by Infinity Melt
Sku: HMS-501
Plastic is one of the hardest surfaces to bond to but we have found a hot melt glue stick that will
bond polyethylene, PVC and PET. This hot melt is commonly used for PE boxes and display
units. It has an open time of 28 seconds and a set time of 17 seconds. We have had numerous
customers find success in their applications with these sticks and have even put the product to the
test in the Hotmelt.com lab.
Description:
These Plastic Hot Melt Sticks are a cloudy white in color and come in 1/2" sticks. These glue
sticks can be dispensed by any 1/2" standard temperature glue gun. This hot melt is perfect for
bonding PP, PE, PET, and PCV and also bonds porous materials.

Bonding Materials:Plastics also known as synthetic resins made from a wide range of organic
polymers that are can be molded into a shape when soft. Our test of these Plastic Hot Melt Sticks
used PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), High Density PE (Polyethylene) and PET (Polyethylene
terephthalate).
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride): is a thermoplastic that is made up of 43% carbon and 57%
chlorine. PVC has excellent fire resistance and has self-extinguishing properties. This
plastic is used for garden hoses, electrical wire insulation, vinyl flooring, roof gutter,
vinyl flooring, children's doll, wrapping film, etc.
High Density PE (Polyethylene): this thermoplastic material is the most commonly used
bottle caps, containers, Tyvek, plastic bags, water pipes, plastic lumber, etc.
PET (Polyethylene terephthalate): this thermoplastic offers a good barrier against
oxygen and carbon dioxide. This material is often used for bottled water, trays for oven
use, oven foils, fleece, etc.
Results: We definitely stand by these Plastic Hot Melt Sticks by Infinity Melt. During our test we allowed
the hot melt to set for one minute before trying to separate anything. It worked best in our test bonding
PET to PET. We could not pull the two pieces apart nor twist them apart even with the small amount of
hot melt we applied. The PVC and PE has similar results, we found that they did not the pull apart by
hand with a small amount, but when twisted broke apart. We decided do a retrial on the PVC and PE
with a larger amount of hot melt applied. The 2nd trial proved more successful in the twist test and the
thicker plastics actually began to flex before the hot melt gave way. The Plastics Hot Melt Sticks were
successful except when extreme force was applied and the pieces twisted in opposite directions. We do
feel that had we cover the area of plastic entirely in hot melt it would have been extremely difficult or
impossible to twist apart by hand.
Key Requirements for Hot Melt Glue Stick Production
Although many specifications are listed on the technical data sheet (TDS), the diameter of glue
sticks is the most important specification for a successful glue gun application. Most glue guns
are designed to accept glue sticks with certain diameters. Although a tolerance is permitted for
the glue sticks, e.g. 11-12 mm, a consistent diameter is always desired for long term processing.
Glue sticks with a larger diameter may not fit properly and may not be smoothly inserted into the
gun. Conversely, a smaller diameter will be too loose upon triggering the stick. An accurate
diameter of glue stick will provide a consistent adhesive output without damaging the glue gun.
An inconsistent output, or bead size, can also result in poor bond strength.
All the polymeric materials impart a certain degree of shrinkage upon cooling from high
temperatures to low temperatures. When hot melt adhesives are made in a mixer at elevated
temperatures, the polymeric molecular chains are fully extended and orientated. Upon cooling at
the holding tank before extrusion, the polymeric molecular chains can relax and coil back to a
certain extent. When the adhesive is extruded through a fixed sized Teflon tube, the diameter of
the glue stick is basically fixed. When the adhesive leaves the Teflon tube, it is immediately
immersed and quenched in an icy water bath. The diameter of adhesive shrinks slightly due to
thermal contraction. To compensate for this size change, the diameter of the Teflon tube should
be slightly larger than the targeting size depending on the degree of shrinkage of glue sticks.
Certainly, the percent of shrinkage of each hot melt formulation is not the same due to their
difference in molecular structures, weight ratios of polymer/tackifier, and viscoelasticity.
Theoretically, more viscoelastic content and more tackifiers in the adhesive formulation will
require more time for molecular chains to relax back to the random coil state. The residual stress
stored in the adhesive matrix will gradually cause some dimension change. Indeed, it is very
difficult to maintain the same diameter for different formulations based on a standard process
condition. Fortunately, size deviation resulting from molecular motion is not as significant as
that caused by process condition.
The distinct diameter variation on glue sticks is mainly caused by the cooling-stretching process
in the water bath after the molten adhesive is extruded out from the Teflon tube. An inconsistent
pumping rate for adhesive output, and pulling line speed for adhesive stick, will significantly
cause the diameter change of glue sticks. In order to precisely control the diameter of glue sticks,
a very accurate volumetric gear pump is required. Additionally, the pulling speed for glue sticks
before guillotine cutting should be perfectly consistent according the output rate of the
volumetric gear pump.
To formulate hot melt adhesives that possess desired processability and adhesion performance is
not a difficult job. However, to make glue sticks with very precise and consistent diameters
requires a sophisticated production and stick forming system plus substantial trial and error
efforts.
Hot-melt adhesive
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Glue Gun" redirects here. For the band, see Glue Gun (band).


A hot glue gun loaded with a glue stick
Hot melt adhesive (HMA), also known as hot glue, is a form of thermoplastic adhesive that is
commonly supplied in solid cylindrical sticks of various diameters, designed to be melted in an
electric hot glue gun. The gun uses a continuous-duty heating element to melt the plastic glue,
which may be pushed through the gun by a mechanical trigger mechanism, or directly by the
user. The glue squeezed out of the heated nozzle is initially hot enough to burn and blister skin.
The glue is tacky when hot, and solidifies in a few seconds to one minute. Hot melt adhesives
can also be applied by dipping or spraying.
In industrial use, hot melt adhesives provide several advantages over solvent-based adhesives.
Volatile organic compounds are reduced or eliminated, and the drying or curing step is
eliminated. Hot melt adhesives have long shelf life and usually can be disposed of without
special precautions. Some of the disadvantages involve thermal load of the substrate, limiting use
to substrates not sensitive to higher temperatures, and loss of bond strength at higher
temperatures, up to complete melting of the adhesive. This can be reduced by using a reactive
adhesive that after solidifying undergoes further curing e.g., by moisture (e.g., reactive urethanes
and silicones), or is cured by ultraviolet radiation. Some HMAs may not be resistant to chemical
attacks and weathering. HMAs do not lose thickness during solidifying; solvent-based adhesives
may lose up to 50-70% of layer thickness during drying.
[1]

Contents
1 Glue Stick Diameters
2 Hot melt specific properties
3 General Adhesive properties
4 Materials used
5 Glue gun specifications and usage
6 Applications
7 References
8 External links
Glue Stick Diameters
1/4 inch (6.3 mm)
5/16 inch (7.9 mm)(sold as .27 [6.9 mm] to .28 inch [7.1 mm])
7/16 inch (11 mm) (sold as .43 or 11 mm)
.44 inch (11 mm)
.45 inch (11 mm)
.50 or 1/2 inch (13 mm)
.625 or 5/8 inch (16 mm)
1 inch slug (25 mm)
1 3/4 inch slug (44 mm)
Diameters .50 inch and smaller are typically used for home and craft. The smaller diameter allow
for more rapid heating. Note that many of the smaller sizes are similar. An incorrect size will
strip in trigger fed guns rather than advancing correctly. The label "Standard" on glue stick
packaging is only a marketing term, not a legal or industry regulated dimensional guarantee.
Diameters above .50 inch are usually used in industrial settings to decrease the stick feed rate for
a given volume of material. Rapid heating is not a concern as the process will continue long
enough that a longer start time is of little concern over repeatedly having to load new material.
Note that for Paintless Dent Removal, a seeming industrial process, sub 1/2 inch sticks are used,
no doubt for the more rapid heating time.
Hot melt specific properties
Melt viscosity: one of the most noticeable properties. Influences the spread of applied adhesive,
and the wetting of the surfaces. Temperature-dependent, higher temperature lowers viscosity.
Melt flow index: a value roughly inversely proportional to the molecular weight of the base
polymer. High melt flow index adhesives are easy to apply but have poor mechanical properties
due to shorter polymer chains. Low melt flow index adhesives have better properties but are
more difficult to apply.
Pot life stability: the degree of stability in molten state, the tendency to decompose and char.
Important for industrial processing where the adhesive is molten for prolonged periods before
deposition.
Bond-formation temperature: minimum temperature below which sufficient wetting of
substrates do not occur
General Adhesive properties
Open time: the working time to make a bond, where the surface still retains sufficient tack, can
range from seconds for fast-setting HMAs to infinity for pressure-sensitive adhesives
Set time: time to form a bond of acceptable strength
Tack: the degree of surface stickiness of the adhesive; influences the strength of the bond
between wetted surfaces.
Surface energy: which influences wetting of different kind of surfaces.
Materials used
Hot melt glues usually consist of one base material with various additives. The composition is
usually formulated to have a glass transition temperature (onset of brittleness) below the lowest
service temperature and a suitably high melt temperature as well. The degree of crystallization
should be as high as possible but within limits of allowed shrinkage. The melt viscosity and the
crystallization rate (and corresponding open time) can be tailored for the application. Faster
crystallization rate usually implies higher bond strength. To reach the properties of
semicrystalline polymers, amorphous polymers would require molecular weights too high and,
therefore, unreasonably high melt viscosity; the use of amorphous polymers in hot melt
adhesives is usually only as modifiers. Some polymers can form hydrogen bonds between the
chains, forming pseudo-cross-links strengthening the polymer.
[2]

The nature of the polymer and tackifier additive influences the nature of mutual molecular
interaction and interaction with the substrate; e.g., the EVA together with terpene-phenol resin
(TPR) tackifiers display acid-base interactions between the carbonyl groups of vinyl acetate and
hydroxyl groups of TPR, complexes are formed between phenolic rings of TPR and hydroxyl
groups on the surface of aluminium substrates, and interactions between carbonyl groups and
silanol groups on surfaces of glass substrates are formed.
[3]
Polar groups, hydroxyls and amine
groups can form acid-base and hydrogen bonds with polar groups on substrates like paper or
wood or natural fibers. Nonpolar polyolefin chains interact well with nonpolar substrates. Good
wetting of the substrate is essential for forming a satisfying bond between the adhesive and the
substrate. More polar compositions tend to have better adhesion due to their higher surface
energy. Amorphous adhesives deform easily, tending to dissipate most of mechanical strain
within their structure, passing only small loads on the adhesive-substrate interface; even a
relatively weak nonpolar-nonpolar surface interaction can form a fairly strong bond prone
primarily to a cohesive failure. The distribution of molecular weights and degree of crystallinity
influences the width of melting temperature range. Polymers with crystalline nature tend to be
more rigid and have higher cohesive strength than the corresponding amorphous ones, but also
transfer more strain to the adhesive-substrate interface. Higher molecular weight of the polymer
chains provides higher tensile strength and heat resistance. Presence of unsaturated bonds makes
the adhesive more susceptible to autoxidation and UV degradation and necessitates use of
antioxidants and stabilizers.
The adhesives are usually clear or translucent, colorless, straw-colored, tan, or amber. Pigmented
versions are also made. Materials containing polar groups, aromatic systems, and double and
triple bonds tend to appear darker than non-polar fully saturated substances; when a water-clear
appearance is desired, suitable polymers and additives, e.g. hydrogenated tackifying resins, have
to be used.
[4]

Increase of bond strength and service temperature can be achieved by formation of cross-links in
the polymer after solidification. This can be achieved by using polymers undergoing curing with
residual moisture (e.g., reactive polyurethanes, silicones), exposition to ultraviolet radiation,
electron irradiation, or by other methods.
Resistance to water and solvents is critical in some applications. For example, in textile industry,
resistance to dry cleaning solvents may be required. Permeability to gases and water vapor may
or may not be desirable. Non-toxicity of both the base materials and additives and absence of
odors is important for food packaging.
Mass-consumption disposable products such as diapers necessitate development of
biodegradable HMAs. Research is being performed on e.g., lactic acid polyesters,
[5]

polycaprolactone with soy protein,
[6]
etc.
Some of the possible base materials are:
[7]

Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers, low-performance, the low-cost and most common
material for the glue sticks (e.g., the light amber colored Thermogrip GS51, GS52, and GS53).
[8]

They provide sufficient strength between 30 and 50 C but are limited below 6080 C and have
low creep resistance under load. The vinyl acetate monomer content is about 1829 percent by
weight of the polymer. High amounts of tackifiers and waxes are often used; an example
composition is 3040% of EVA copolymer (provides strength and toughness), 3040% of
tackifier resin (improves wetting and tack), 2030% of wax (usually paraffin-based; reduces
viscosity, alters setting speed, reduces cost), and 0.51% of stabilizers.
[9]
Fillers can be added for
special applications. Can be formulated for service temperatures ranging from 40 to +80 C,
and for both short and long open times and a wide range of melt viscosities. High stability at
elevated temperatures and resistance to ultraviolet radiation, which can be further enhanced
with suitable stabilizers. High vinylacetate content can serve for formulating a hot-melt
pressure-sensitive adhesive (HMPSA). EVA formulations are compatible with paraffin. EVA was
the base for the original hot melt composition. The composition of the copolymer influences its
properties; increased content of ethylene promotes adhesion to nonpolar substrates such as
polyethylene, while increased content of vinyl acetate promotes adhesion to polar substrates
such as paper. Higher ethylene content also increases mechanical strength, block resistance, and
paraffin solubility. Higher vinyl acetate content provides higher flexibility, adhesion, hot tack,
and better low-temperature performance. Adhesive grade EVA usually contains 14-35% vinyl
acetate. Lower molecular weight chains provide lower melt viscosity, better wetting, and better
adhesion to porous surfaces. Higher molecular weights provide better cohesion at elevated
temperatures and better low-temperature behavior.
[10]
Increased ratio of vinyl acetate lowers
the crystallinity of the material, improves optical clarity, flexibility and toughness, and worsens
resistance to solvents. EVA can be crosslinked by, e.g., peroxides, yielding a thermosetting
material.
[11]
EVAs can be compounded with aromatic hydrocarbon resins.
[12]
Grafting butadiene
to EVA improves its adhesion.
[13]
Its dielectric properties are poor due to high content of polar
groups, the dielectric loss is moderately high. Polypropylene HMAs are a better choice for high-
frequency electronics.
[14]
EVAs are optically clearer and more gas and vapor permeable than
polyolefins. Nearly half of EVA HMAs is used in packaging applications. Cryogenic grinding of
EVAs can provide small, water-dispersible particles for heat-seal applications. EVA can degrade
primarily by loss of acetic acid and formation of a double bond in the chain, and by oxidative
degradation.
[15]
EVA can be compounded into a wide range of HMAs, from soft pressure-
sensitive adhesives to rigid structural adhesives for furniture construction.
o Ethylene-acrylate copolymers have lower glass transition temperature and higher
adhesion even to difficult substrates than EVA. Better thermal resistance, increased
adhesion to metals and glass. Suitable for low temperature use. Ethylene-vinylacetate-
maleic anhydride and ethylene-acrylate-maleic anhydride terpolymers offer very high
performance.
[16]
Examples are ethylene n-butyl acrylate (EnBA), ethylene-acrylic acid
(EAA) and ethylene-ethyl acetate (EEA).
Polyolefins (PO) (polyethylene (usually LDPE but also HDPE; HDPE has higher melting point and
better temperature resistance), atactic polypropylene (PP or APP), polybutene-1, oxidized
polyethylene, etc.), low-performance, for difficult-to-bond plastics. Very good adhesion to
polypropylene, good moisture barrier, chemical resistance against polar solvents and solutions
of acids, bases, and alcohols. Longer open time in comparison with EVA and polyamides.
[17]

Polyolefins have low surface energy and provide good wetting of most metals and polymers.
Polyolefins made by metallocene catalyzed synthesis have narrow distribution of molecular
weight and correspondingly narrow melting temperature range. Due to the relatively high
crystallinity, polyethylene-based glues tend to be opaque and, depending on additives, white or
yellowish. Polyethylene hot melts have high pot life stability, are not prone to charring, and are
suitable for moderate temperature ranges and on porous non-flexible substrates. Nitrogen or
carbon dioxide can be introduced into the melt, forming a foam which increases spreading and
open time and decreases transfer of heat to the substrate, allowing use of more heat-sensitive
substrates; polyethylene-based HMAs are usually used. Foamable HMAs are available on the
market since 1981. Amorphous polypropylene HMAs have good dielectric properties, making
them suitable for use at high frequencies. PE and APP are usually used on their own or with just
a small amount of tackifiers (usually hydrocarbons) and waxes (usually paraffins or
microcrystalline waxes, for lower cost, improved anti-blocking, and altered open time and
softening temperature). The molecular weight of the polymer is usually lower. Lower molecular
weights provide better low-temperature performance and higher flexibility, higher molecular
weights increase the seal strength, hot tack, and melt viscosity.
[18]

o Polybutene-1 and its copolymers are soft and flexible, tough, partially crystalline, and
slowly crystallizing with long open times. The low temperature of recrystallization allows
for stress release during formation of the bond. Good bonding to nonpolar surfaces,
worse bonding to polar ones. Good for rubber substrates. Can be formulated as
pressure-sensitive.
[19]

o Amorphous polyolefin (APO/APAO) polymers are compatible with many solvents,
tackifiers, waxes, and polymers; they find wide use in many adhesive applications. APO
hot melts have good fuel and acid resistance, moderate heat resistance, are tacky, soft
and flexible, have good adhesion and longer open times than crystalline polyolefins.
APOs tend to have lower melt viscosity, better adhesion, longer open times and slow set
times than comparable EVAs. Some APOs can be used alone, but often they are
compounded with tackifiers, waxes, and plasticizers (e.g., mineral oil, poly-butene oil).
Examples of APOs include amorphous (atactic) propylene (APP), amorphous
propylene/ethylene (APE), amorphous propylene/butene (APB), amorphous
propylene/hexene (APH), amorphous propylene/ethylene/butene. APP is harder than
APE, which is harder than APB, which is harder than APH, in accordance with decreasing
crystallinity. APOs show relatively low cohesion, the entangled polymer chains have
fairly high degree of freedom of movement. Under mechanical load, most of the strain is
dissipated by elongation and disentanglement of polymer chains, and only a small
fraction reaches the adhesive-substrate interface. Cohesive failure is therefore a more
common failure mode of APOs.
[20]

Polyamides and polyesters, high-performance
o Polyamides (PA), high-performance, for severe environments; high-temperature glues;
typically applied at over 200 C, but can degrade and char during processing. In molten
state can somewhat degrade by atmospheric oxygen. High application temperature.
High range of service temperatures, generally showing adequate bonding from -40 to
70C; some compositions allow operation to 185C if they do not have to carry load.
Resistant to plasticizers, therefore suitable for gluing polyvinyl chloride; only polyamides
derived from secondary diamines however provide a satisfying bond.
[21]
Resistant to oils
and gasoline. Good adhesion to many substrates such as metal, wood, vinyl, ABS, and
treated polyethylene and polypropylene. Some formulations are UL-approved for
electrical applications requiring reduced flammability. Three groups are employed, with
low, intermediate, and high molecular weight; the low MW ones are low-temperature
melting and easy to apply, but have lower tensile strength, lower tensile-shear strength,
and lower elongation than the high-MW ones. The high-MW ones require sophisticated
extruders and are used as high-performance structural adhesives. The presence of
hydrogen bonds between the polymer chains gives polyamides a high strength at even
low molecular weights, in comparison with other polymers. Hydrogen bonds also
provide retention of most of the adhesive strength up almost to the melting point;
however they also make the material more susceptible to permeation of moisture in
comparison with polyesters. Can be formulated as soft and tacky or as hard and rigid.
Niche applications, together with polyesters taking less than 10% of total volume of hot
melt adhesives market. Absorption of moisture may lead to foaming during application
as water evaporates during melting, leaving voids in the adhesive layer which degrade
mechanical strength. Polyamide HMAs are usually composed of a dimer acid with often
two or more different diamines. The dimer acid usually presents 60-80% of the total
polyamide mass, and provides amorphous nonpolar character. Linear aliphatic amines
such as ethylene diamine and hexamethylene diamine, provide hardness and strength.
Longer chain amines such as dimer amine, reduce the amount of hydrogen bonds per
volume of material, resulting in lower stiffness. Polyether diamines provide good low-
temperature flexibility. Piperazine and similar diamines also reduce the number of
hydrogen bonds. Only polyamides based on piperazine and similar secondary amines
form satisfactory bond with polyvinyl chloride; primary amines form stronger hydrogen
bonds within the adhesive, secondary amines can act only as proton acceptors, don't
form hydrogen bonds within the polyamide, and are therefore free to form weaker
bonds with vinyl, probably with the hydrogen atom adjacent to the chlorine.
[21]

o Polyesters, similar to the ones used for synthetic fibers. High application temperature.
Synthetized from a diol and a dicarboxylic acid. The length of the diol chain has major
influence to the material's properties; with increasing diol chain length the melting point
increases, the crystallization rate increases, and the degree of crystallization decreases.
Both the diol and acid influence the melting point. In comparison with similar
polyamides, due to absence of hydrogen bonds, polyesters have lower strength and
melting point, but are much more resistant to moisture, though still susceptible. In
other parameters, and in applications where these factors do not play a role, polyesters
and polyamides are very similar. Polyesters are often used for bonding fabrics. They can
be used on their own, or blended with large amounts of additives. They are used where
high tensile strength and high temperature resistance are needed. Most polyester hot
melt adhesives have high degree of crystallinity. Niche applications, together with
polyamides taking less than 10% of total volume of hot melt adhesives market. Water-
dispersible amorphous polymers, modified by addition of sodium sulfonate groups for
dispersability, were however developed for repulpable adhesives.
[22]
Polyesters are
often highly crystalline, leading to narrow melting temperature range, which is
advantageous for high-speed bonding.
Polyurethanes
o Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) offer good adhesion to different surfaces due to
presence of polar groups. Their low glass transition temperature provides flexibility at
low temperatures. They are highly elastic and soft, with wide possible crystallization and
melting point ranges. Polyurethanes consist of long linear chains with flexible, soft
segments (diisocyanate-coupled low-melting polyester or polyether chains) alternating
with rigid segments (diurethane bridges resulting from diisocyanate reacting with a
small-molecule glycol chain extender). The rigid segments form hydrogen bonds with
rigid segments of other molecules. Higher ratio of soft to hard segments provides better
flexibility, elongation, and low-temperature performance, but also lower hardness,
modulus, and abrasion resistance. The bonding temperature is lower than with most
other HMAs, only about 50-70 C, when the adhesive behaves as a soft rubber acting as
a pressure-sensitive adhesive. The surface wetting in this amorphous state is good, and
on cooling the polymer crystallizes, forming a strong flexible bond with high cohesion.
Choice of a proper diisocyanate and polyol combination allows tailoring the
polyurethane properties; they can be used on their own or blended with a plasticizer.
Polyurethanes are compatible with most common plasticizers, and many resins.
[23]

o Polyurethanes (PUR), or reactive urethanes, for high temperatures and high flexibility.
New type of hot melt thermosetting adhesives, introduced in early 1990s. Solidification
can be rapid or extended in range of several minutes; secondary curing with
atmospheric or substrate moisture then continues for several hours, forming cross-links
in the polymer. Excellent resistance to solvents and chemicals. Low application
temperature, suitable for heat-sensitive substrates. Heat-resistant after curing, with
service temperatures generally from -30C to +150C. Ink-solvent resistant. Often used
in bookbinding, automotive, aerospace, filter and plastic bag applications. Susceptible to
UV degradation causing discoloring and degradation of mechanical properties, requires
blending with UV stabilizers and antioxidants.
[24]
Usually based on prepolymers made of
polyols and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) or other diisocyanate, with small
amount of free isocyanate groups; these groups when subjected to moisture react and
cross-link. The uncured solidified "green" strength tends to be low than non-reactive
HMAs, mechanical strength develops with curing. Green strength can be improved by
blending the prepolymer with other polymers.
[25]

Styrene block copolymers (SBC), also called styrene copolymer adhesives and rubber-based
adhesives, have good low-temperature flexibility, high elongation, and high heat resistance.
Frequently used in pressure-sensitive adhesive applications, where the composition retains tack
even when solidified; however non-pressure-sensitive formulations are also used. High heat
resistance, good low-temperature flexibility.
[26]
Lower strength than polyesters. They usually
have A-B-A structure, with an elastic rubber segment between two rigid plastic endblocks. High-
strength film formers as standalone, increase cohesion and viscosity as an additive. Water-
resistant, soluble in some organic solvents; cross-linking improves solvent resistance. Resins
associating with endblocks (cumarone-indene, -methyl styrene, vinyl toluene, aromatic
hydrocarbons, etc.) improve adhesion and alter viscosity. Resins associating to the midblocks
(aliphatic olefins, rosin esters, polyterpenes, terpene phenolics) improve adhesion, processing
and pressure-sensitive properties. Addition of plasticizers reduces cost, improves pressure-
sensitive tack, decrease melt viscosity, decrease hardness, and improve low-temperature
flexibility. The A-B-A structure promotes a phase separation of the polymer, binding together
the endblocks, with the central elastic parts acting as cross-links; SBCs do not require additional
cross-linking.
[27]

o Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS), used in high-strength PSA applications
o Styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS), used in low-viscosity high-tack PSA applications
o Styrene-ethylene/butylene-styrene (SEBS), used in low self-adhering non-woven
applications
o Styrene-ethylene/propylene (SEP)
Polycaprolactone with soy protein, using coconut oil as plasticizer, a biodegradable hot-melt
adhesive investigated at Korea University
Polycarbonates
[28]

Fluoropolymers, with tackifiers and ethylene copolymer with polar groups
[29]

Silicone rubbers, undergo cross-linking after solidification, form durable flexible UV and weather
resistant silicone sealant
[30]

Thermoplastic elastomers
Polypyrrole (PPY), a conductive polymer, for intrinsically conducting hot melt adhesives
(ICHMAs), used for EMI shielding.
[31]
EVA compounded with 0.1-0.5 wt.% PPY are strongly
absorbing in near infrared, allowing use as near-infrared activated adhesives.
[32]

various other copolymers
The usual additives are:
[33]

tackifying resins (e.g., rosins and their derivates, terpenes and modified terpenes, aliphatic,
cycloaliphatic and aromatic resins (C5 aliphatic resins, C9 aromatic resins, and C5/C9
aliphatic/aromatic resins), hydrogenated hydrocarbon resins, and their mixtures, terpene-
phenol resins (TPR, used often with EVAs)), up to about 40%
[34]
Tackifiers tend to have low
molecular weight, and glass transition and softening temperature above room temperature,
providing them with suitable viscoelastic properties. Tackifiers frequently present most of both
weight percentage and cost of the hot-melt adhesive.
waxes, e.g., microcrystalline waxes, fatty amide waxes or oxidized Fischer-Tropsch waxes;
increase the setting rate. One of the key components of formulations, waxes lower the melt
viscosity and can improve bond strength and temperature resistance.
[35]

plasticizers (e.g., benzoates such as 1,4-cyclohexane dimethanol dibenzoate, glyceryl
tribenzoate, or pentaerythritol tetrabenzoate, phthalates, paraffin oils, polyisobutylene,
chlorinated paraffins, etc.)
antioxidants and stabilizers (e.g., hindered phenols, BHT, phosphites, phosphates, hindered
aromatic amines); added in small amounts (<1%), not influencing physical properties. These
compounds protect the material from degradation both during service life, compounding and in
molten state during application. Stabilizers based on functionalized silicones have improved
resistance to extraction and outgassing.
[36]

UV stabilizers protect the material against degradation by ultraviolet radiation
pigments and dyes, glitter
biocides for hindering bacterial growth
flame retardants
antistatic agents
fillers, for reducing cost, adding bulk, improving cohesive strength (forming an aggregate-matrix
composite material) and altering properties; e.g., calcium carbonate, barium sulfate, talc, silica,
carbon black, clays (e.g., kaolin).
Fugitive glues and pressure-sensitive adhesives are available in hot-melt form.
Additives and polymers containing unsaturated bonds are highly prone to autoxidation.
Examples include rosin-based additives. Antioxidants can be used for suppressing this aging
mechanism.
Addition of ferromagnetic particles, hygroscopic water-retaining materials, or other materials can
yield a hot melt adhesive which can be activated by microwave heating.
[37]

Addition of electrically conductive particles can yield conductive hot-melt formulations.
[38]

Glue gun specifications and usage
Glue guns come in low-temperature and high-temperature (hot-melt) versions. Low-temperature
glue guns operate at approximately 120 C (248 F) and are well suited when high temperatures
are undesirable, such as gluing lace and cloth. High-temperature guns operate at approximately
190 C (374 F) and produce a stronger bond. Dual guns have a switch for both low- and high-
temperature use.
In addition to bonding surfaces together, hot-melt glue can be used to fill gaps, but the properties
that allow gap-filling (high viscosity, high toughness, and so on) keep it from forming an
adhesive film as thin and smooth as is possible with other adhesives. (For example, a wood joint
properly made with hide glue may be invisible, marked only by a difference in grain at the seam
line.) Bonds must be made quickly before the glue has time to harden. Usually it must be applied
accurately with the glue gun, as it can not easily be spread, but it is always possible at any time
to melt and spread the glue with a heat gun or a household clothes iron, which helps when
bonding larger areas.
Surprisingly, hot-melt glue can be used to assemble and repair foam models as an alternative to
foam-safe Cyanoacrylate or UHU POR adhesive. Due to the insulating properties of the foam the
hot-melt glue remains sticky for much longer than when used on wood, metal or plastics.
Another development of glue gun technology allows the user to 'spray' an area with a semi-
pressure sensitive hot melt adhesive. Using compressed air to force the adhesive at a controlled
rate through a specially developed glue gun nozzle, a spiral pattern of adhesive is applied. The
tackiness of the adhesive / open time is limited to just a few minutes, after which the adhesive
will lose its tack, so coverage is limited.
Applications

This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by
converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (January 2010)
Hot melt adhesives are used to close corrugated fiberboard boxes and paperboard cartons.
Crafts in the home
Assembly of parts in manufacturing
Assembly and repair of foam model aircraft and toys.
Hot melt adhesive is used for disposable diaper construction where it is used to bond the
nonwoven material with the backsheet and the elastics.
Hot glue is also used to affix parts or wires in electronic devices.
Hot melt adhesive is used for coating label stock material used for self-adhesive labels
Chrysophyllum cainito
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chrysophyllum cainito

Chrysophyllum cainito fruit
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: rosales
Family: Sapotaceae
Genus: Chrysophyllum
Species: C. cainito
Binomial name
Chrysophyllum cainito
L.
Chrysophyllum cainito is a tropical tree of the family Sapotaceae. It is native to the Greater
Antilles and the West Indies. It has spread to the lowlands of Central America and is now is
grown throughout the tropics, including Southeast Asia.
[1]
It grows rapidly and reaches 20 m in
height.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Fruits
3 Gallery
4 In literature
5 References
6 External links
Overview
It has numerous common names including cainito, caimito, star apple, golden leaf tree,
abiaba, pomme du lait, estrella, milk fruit and aguay. It is also known by the synonym Achras
cainito. In Vietnam, it is called v sa (literally: breast-milk). In Malayalam it is called
"Swarnapathry" means '[the tree with] golden leaves'.
The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple oval, entire, 515 cm long; the underside shines with
a golden color when seen from a distance. The tiny flowers are purplish white and have a sweet
fragrant smell. The tree is also hermaphroditic (self-fertile). It produces a strong odor.
Fruits


Fruits are also available in green or red
The fruit is globose and typically measures from 2 to 3 inches in diameter.
[2]
When ripe, it
usually purple-skinned with a faint green area appearing around the calyx. A radiating star
pattern is visible in the pulp. Greenish-white and yellow-fruited cultivars are sometimes
available. The skin is rich in latex, and both it and the rind are not edible. The flattened seeds are
light brown and hard. It is a seasonal fruit bearing tree.
The fruits are delicious as a fresh dessert fruit; it is sweet and best served chilled. Infusions of the
leaves have been used against diabetes and articular rheumatism. The fruit has anti-oxidant
properties.,
[3][4]
The bark is considered a tonic and stimulant, and a bark decoction is used as an
antitussive. The fruit also exists in three colors, dark purple, greenish brown and yellow. The
purple fruit has a denser skin and texture while the greenish brown fruit has a thin skin and a
more liquid pulp; the yellow variety is less common and difficult to find.
A number of closely related species, also called star apples, are grown in Africa, including C.
albidum and C. africanum.
[5]

In Vietnam, the most famous variety is L Rn milk fruit coming from Vnh Kim commune,
Chu Thnh District, Tin Giang Province.
In Sierra Leone the fruit is referred to as "Bobi wata" or breast milk fruit.
Gallery

Cainito fruit cut in half

Freshly plucked Caimitos

Leaves
In literature
The Nobel Prize-winning poet Derek Walcott immortalizes the fruit as a symbol of the
Caribbean itself in his 1979 collection, The Star-Apple Kingdom.
Jackfruit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jackfruit

Jackfruit
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Tribe: Artocarpeae
Genus: Artocarpus
Species: A. heterophyllus
Binomial name
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Lam.
[1][2]

Synonyms
[3][4][5]

Artocarpus brasiliensis
Ortega
A. integer auct. (not to be
confused with A. integer
Spreng.)
A. integrifolius auct.
A. integrifolius L.f.
A. maximus Blanco
A. nanca Noronha (nom
inval.)
A. philippensis Lam.

The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus, also known as jack tree, jakfruit, or sometimes
simply jack or jak)
[6]
is a species of tree in the Artocarpus genus of the mulberry family
(Moraceae). It is native to parts of South and Southeast Asia, and is believed to have originated
in the southwestern rain forests of India, in present-day Kerala,in Tamil Nadu ( in Panruti ),
coastal Karnataka and Maharashtra.
[7]
The jackfruit tree is well suited to tropical lowlands, and
its fruit is the largest tree-borne fruit,
[8]
reaching as much as 80 pounds (36 kg) in weight, 36
inches (90 cm) in length, and 20 inches (50 cm) in diameter.
[9]

The jackfruit tree is a widely cultivated and popular food item in tropical regions of India,
Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the
Philippines. Jackfruit is also found across Africa (e.g., in Cameroon, Uganda, Tanzania,
Madagascar, and Mauritius), as well as throughout Brazil and in Caribbean nations such as
Jamaica. Jackfruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Synonym discussion
3 Cultivation and ecology
4 Aroma
5 Fruit
6 Culinary uses
o 6.1 Culinary uses for ripe fruit
o 6.2 Culinary uses for unripe fruit
7 Nutrition
8 Seeds
9 Wood
10 Commercial availability
11 Production and marketing
12 Cultural significance
13 See also
14 References
15 External links
Etymology


Jackfruit hanging from the trunk
The word "jackfruit" comes from Portuguese jaca, which in turn, is derived from the Malayalam
language term, chakka' ' in Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India it is Tebrong' (Malayalam Chakka
pazham : ).
[10]
When the Portuguese arrived in India at Kozhikode (Calicut) on the
Malabar Coast (Kerala) in 1498, the Malayalam name chakka was recorded by Hendrik van
Rheede (16781703) in the Hortus Malabaricus, vol. iii in Latin. Henry Yule translated the book
in Jordanus Catalani's (f. 13211330) Mirabilia descripta: the wonders of the East.
[11]

The common English name "jackfruit" was used by the physician and naturalist Garcia de Orta in
his 1563 book Colquios dos simples e drogas da India.
[12][13]
Centuries later, botanist Ralph
Randles Stewart suggested it was named after William Jack (17951822), a Scottish botanist
who worked for the East India Company in Bengal, Sumatra, and Malaysia.
[14]
This could not be
true, as the fruit was called a "jack" in English before William Jack was born: for instance, in
Dampier's 1699 book, A New Voyage Round the World.
[15][16]
It is called Kathal ( ) in
Bengali, Katahal in Hindi, Pala-pazham in Tamil (), Panasa in Telugu, Phanas
in Marathi and Gujarati, Halasu () in Kannada, Fenesi in Kiswahili, Nangka in Malay and
Indonesian, Langka in the Philippines, and Ka-noon in Thailand.
Synonym discussion
Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr.
[17]
is currently accepted name, whereas Artocarpus
integrifolius L.f. is synonym. However in Flora of British India, Volume 5 (Page 541), J.D.
Hooker mentions it as Artocarpus integrifolia L.f. Moreover, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. is a
different species.
[18]

Cultivation and ecology


Jackfruit garden in Bangladesh
The jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archeological
findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years
[clarification
needed]
ago. It is also widely cultivated in southeast Asia.
Thailand and Vietnam are major producers of jackfruit, a lot of which are cut, prepared and
canned in a sugary syrup (or frozen in bags/boxes without syrup), and exported overseas,
frequently to North America and Europe.
In other areas, the jackfruit is considered an invasive species as in Brazil's Tijuca Forest National
Park in Rio de Janeiro. The Tijuca is mostly an artificial secondary forest, whose planting began
during the mid-19th century, and jackfruit trees have been a part of the park's flora since its
founding. Recently, the species has expanded excessively; its fruits, which naturally fall to the
ground and open, are eagerly eaten by small mammals such as the common marmoset and coati.
The seeds are dispersed by these animals, which allows the jackfruit to compete for space with
native tree species. Additionally, as the marmoset and coati also prey opportunistically on bird's
eggs and nestlings, the supply of jackfruit as a ready source of food has allowed them to expand
their populations, to the detriment of the local bird populations. Between 2002 and 2007, 55,662
jackfruit saplings were destroyed in the Tijuca Forest area in a deliberate culling effort by the
park's management.
[19]

Aroma
Jackfruit are known for having a distinct aroma. In a study using five jackfruit cultivars, the main
jackfruit volatile compounds that were detected are: ethyl isovalerate, 3-methylbutyl acetate, 1-
butanol, propyl isovalerate, isobutyl isovalerate, 2-methylbutanol, and butyl isovalerate. These
compounds were consistently present in all the five cultivars studied, suggesting that these esters
and alcohols contributed to the sweet and fruity aroma of jackfruit.
[20]

Fruit


Jackfruit Flesh


Opened jackfruit
The flesh of the jackfruit is starchy and fibrous and is a source of dietary fiber. The flavor is
comparable to a combination of apple, pineapple, mango and banana.
[21]
Varieties are
distinguished according to characteristics of the fruit's flesh. In Brazil, three varieties are
recognized: jaca-dura, or the "hard" variety, which has a firm flesh and the largest fruits that can
weigh between 15 and 40 kilograms each, jaca-mole, or the "soft" variety, which bears smaller
fruits with a softer and sweeter flesh, and jaca-manteiga, or the "butter" variety, which bears
sweet fruits whose flesh has a consistency intermediate between the "hard" and "soft"
varieties.
[22]
In Indochina, there are 2 varieties, being the "hard" version (more crunchy, drier and
less sweet but fleshier), and the "soft" version (more soft, moister, much sweeter with a darker
gold-color flesh than the hard variety).
In Kerala, two varieties of jackfruit predominate: varikka () and koozha ().
Varikka has a slightly hard inner flesh when ripe, while the inner flesh of the ripe koozha fruit is
very soft and almost dissolving. A sweet preparation called chakka varattiyathu (jackfruit jam) is
made by seasoning pieces of varikka fruit flesh in jaggery, which can be preserved and used for
many months. Huge jackfruits up to four feet in length with a corresponding girth are sometimes
seen in Kerala.
[citation needed]

In West Bengal the two varieties are called khaja kathal and moja kathal. The fruits are either
eaten alone or as a side to rice / roti / chira / muri. Sometimes the juice is extracted and either
drunk straight or as a side with muri. The extract is sometimes condensed into rubbery
delectables and eaten as candies. The seeds are either boiled or roasted and eaten with salt and
hot chillies. They are also used to make spicy side-dishes with rice or roti.
In Mangalore, Karnataka, the varieties are called bakke and imba. The pulp of the imba jackfruit
is ground and made into a paste, then spread over a mat and allowed to dry in the sun to create a
natural chewy candy.
The young fruit is called polos in Sri Lanka and idichakka or idianchakka in Kerala.
In Indochina, jackfruit is a frequent ingredient in sweets and desserts. In Vietnam, jackfruit is
used to make jackfruit Ch (ch is a sweet dessert soup, similar to the Chinese derivative, bubur
chacha). The Vietnamese also use jackfruit puree as part of pastry fillings, or as a topping on Xi
ngt (sweet version of sticky rice portions).
Culinary uses
Jackfruit is commonly used in South and Southeast Asian cuisines.
[21][21]

Culinary uses for ripe fruit

Extracting the jackfruit arils and separating the seeds from the sweet flesh.

Ginataang langka (jackfruit cooked in coconut milk)

Jackfruit chips

Halo-halo
Ripe jackfruit is naturally sweet with subtle flavoring. It can be used to make a variety of dishes,
including custards, cakes, halo-halo and more. In India, when the Jackfruit is in season, an ice
cream chain store called "Naturals" carries Jackfruit flavored ice cream.
Ripe jackfruit arils are sometimes seeded, fried or freeze-dried and sold as jackfruit chips.
The seeds from ripe fruits are edible, are said to have a milky, sweet taste, and may be boiled,
baked or roasted. When roasted the flavor of the seeds is comparable to chestnuts. Seeds are used
as snacks either by boiling or fire roasted, also used to make desserts. For making the traditional
breakfast dish in southern India: idlis, the fruit is used along with rice as an ingredient and
jackfruit leaves are used as a wrapping for steaming. Jackfruit dosas can be prepared by grinding
jackfruit flesh along with the batter.


Developing jackfruit
Culinary uses for unripe fruit


Green jackfruit and potato curry, Kolkata.
The cuisines of India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand and
Vietnam use cooked young jackfruit.
[21]
In Indonesia, young jackfruit is cooked with coconut
milk as gudeg. In many cultures, jackfruit is boiled and used in curries as a staple food. In
northern Thailand, the boiled young jackfruit is used in the Thai salad called tam kanun. In West
Bengal the unripe green jackfruit called "aechor/ichor" is used as a vegetable to make various
spicy curries, side-dishes and as fillings for cutlets & chops. It is especially sought after by
vegetarians who substitute this for meat and hence is nicknamed as gacch-patha (tree-mutton). In
the Philippines, it is cooked with coconut milk (ginataang langka). In Runion Island, it is
cooked either alone or with animal flesh, such as shrimp or smoked pork. In southern India
unriped Jackfruit slices are deep fried to make chips.In Udipi cuisine Jack fruit is used make
appa and Addae.
Because unripe jackfruit has a meat-like taste, it is used in curry dishes with spices, in
Bihar,Jharkhand, Sri Lankan, Andhran, eastern-Indian (Bengali) and (Odisha) and Keralan
cuisine. The skin of unripe jackfruit must be peeled first, then the remaining whole jackfruit can
be chopped into edible portions and cooked before serving. Young jackfruit has a mild flavor and
distinctive meat-like texture and is compared to poultry. Meatless sandwiches have been
suggested and are popular with both vegetarian and nonvegetarian populations. Unripe jackfruit
is widely known as Panasa Katha in Odisha.
Nutrition
Jackfruit, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 397 kJ (95 kcal)
Carbohydrates
Sugars 19.08 g
Dietary fibre 1.5 g
Fat 0.64 g
Protein 1.72 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
beta-carotene
lutein zeaxanthin
(1%)
5 g
(1%)
61 g
157 g
Thiamine (B1)
(9%)
0.105 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
(5%)
0.055 mg
Niacin (B3)
(6%)
0.92 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
(5%)
0.235 mg
Vitamin B6
(25%)
0.329 mg
Folate (B9)
(6%)
24 g
Vitamin C
(17%)
13.7 mg
Vitamin E
(2%)
0.34 mg
Trace metals
Calcium
(2%)
24 mg
Iron
(2%)
0.23 mg
Magnesium
(8%)
29 mg
Manganese
(2%)
0.043 mg
Phosphorus
(3%)
21 mg
Potassium
(10%)
448 mg
Sodium
(0%)
2 mg
Zinc (1%)
0.13 mg

Link to USDA Database entry
Units
g = micrograms mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using
US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

The edible jackfruit is made of soft, easily-digestible flesh (bulbs); A portion of 100 g of edible
raw jackfruit provides about 95 calories and is a good source of the antioxidant vitamin C,
providing about 13.7 mg.
[23]
Jackfruit seeds are rich in protein. The fruit is also rich in potassium,
calcium, and iron.
[24]

Seeds
In general, the seeds are gathered from the ripe fruit, sun-dried, then stored for use in rainy
season in many parts of South Indian states. They are extracted from fully matured fruits and
washed in water to remove the slimy part. Seeds should be stored immediately in closed
polythene bags for one or two days to prevent them from drying out. Germination is improved by
soaking seeds in clean water for 24 hours. During transplanting, sow seeds in line, 30 cm apart,
in a nursery bed filled with 70% soil mixed with 30% organic matter.
[25]
The seedbed should be
shaded partially from direct sunlight in order to protect emerging seedlings.
Boiled Jackfruit seed is also edible. Seasoned with nothing more than salt, this snack is very
popular in Java.
Physico-chemical properties of African star apple
(Chrysophylum albidum) components

Document Information:
Title: Physico-chemical properties of African star apple (Chrysophylum albidum)
components
Author(s): Olufunmilola Adunni Abiodun, (Department of Food Science and Technology,
Osun State Polytechnic, Iree, Nigeria), A.S. Oladapo, (Department of Food Science
and Technology, Osun State Polytechnic, Iree, Nigeria)
Citation: Olufunmilola Adunni Abiodun, A.S. Oladapo, (2011) "Physico-chemical properties
of African star apple (Chrysophylum albidum) components", Nutrition & Food
Science, Vol. 41 Iss: 1, pp.8 - 11
Keywords: Acidity, Fruits, Moisture, Nigeria, Sugar
Article
type:
Research paper
DOI: 10.1108/00346651111102847 (Permanent URL)
Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the physico-chemical properties
of African star apple (Chrysophylum albidum) components. African star apples are
among the under-utilized fruits in Nigeria therefore, the four succulent components
(peel, pulp, juice and pericarp) of the fruit were analyzed and compared with other
known fruits.
Design/methodology/approach African star apples were purchased and divided
into two portions. The first portion was washed and the juice was expressed
manually into a bottle and covered, while in the second portion, the peel, pulp and
the pericarp (mucilage on the seeds) were separated. The physico-chemical analyses
(moisture, total solid, pH, titratable acidity, total sugar, carotenoids, ascorbic acid
and total soluble solids) were carried out on the four components.
Findings Moisture content ranged from 53.5 per cent in peel to 86.3 per cent in
juice, while the peel had higher total solid and the least was in the juice. The pH of
peel was lower than that of other components. The peel had lower titratable acidity
(1.2 per cent) and sugar (0.9 Brix) while the juice had higher value (5.4 Brix) in
sugar and 15.0?mg/100?g carotenoid. The juice was rich in ascorbic acid
(28.5?mg/100?g) followed by the pulp (25.0?mg/100?g). The pulp had higher total
soluble solids (24.8 per cent) and the least was in the pericarp (9.8 per cent).
Originality/value The physico-chemical properties of the African star apple fruit
gave an indication of the usefulness of this fruit in brewing industry especially for
wine making and jelly or jam manufacture. Processing of this fruit will curb
wastage during its season and make it available in different form.
Chemical Compositions of the Jackfruit Juice (Artocarpus)
Cultivar J33 During Storage
ABSTRACT

Chemical properties such as pH, total acidity, Total Soluble Solid (TSS) and
sugar content changes during ripening of jackfruit cultivar J33 were evaluated
at ambient temperature (27C; 70-80% RH). There are significant changes
pH, total soluble solids, total acidity and sugar content at different ripening
days. In this study, data obtained suggests that the ripening process of
jackfruit cultivar J33 was at its optimum at day 9 after harvest at ambient
temperature. The results will help to make the best use of jackfruit for
different purposes and applications.

INTRODUCTION
Jackfruit belongs to the genus Artocarpus (family Moraceae) which is one of the tropical
fruit. Jackfruit is indigenous to South Western India. Jackfruit have three botanical names,
which are Artocarpus integra Merr., Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. and Artocarpus
heterophyllus Lam, of which the last one is now widely accepted (Manjunath, 1948). The
value of its versatility is enhanced by its availability during the monsoon period when the
supply of other vegetables is small (Singh, 1963). Therefore, it is commonly referred as the
poormans food. Rahman et al. (1995) reported that the weight of jackfruit usually reach
10-25 kg at maturity. Individual fruit weight varying between 2.10 and 20 kg (Mitra and
Mani, 2000; Reddy et al., 2004). However, the large size of jackfruit can be as much as 50
kg (Selvaraj and Pal, 1989). Bhatia et al. (1995) investigated in ripe jackfruit, the bulbs,
seeds and rind form 29, 12 and 59% of the bulk, respectively. The edible bulb contains pH
5.1, 25% carbohydrates and 1% total ash (Nanjundaswamy, 1990). Threaten clusters (44
genotypes) of jackfruit had an average Total Soluble Solid (TSS) ranged from 15.1 to
25.9Brix (Maiti et al., 2002). The objective of this study is to determine the chemical
changes of jackfruit from variety J33 during ripening. These data provide important
information in improving the quality and processing characteristics in jackfruit processing
industry.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of juice: Fresh jackfruits from cultivar J33 were purchased from a commercial
farm in Selangor. The total number of jackfruit that was required for the experiment was
17. The fruits were harvested according to the farmer experience, i.e., fruit approaches
maturity but in unripe stage. Harvested fruit were carefully packed and transported
immediately to the laboratory. Jackfruit J33 were then allowed to ripen at an ambient
temperature (27C; 70-80% RH) until its fully ripe. The experiments were started after
day 3 of storage. The fruits were cleaned and sample was taken from middle section of the
fruit. During day 1 and 2, the fruits flesh is white in color with milky white latex and not
suitable for cutting. Analysis of the fruits was conducted everyday. Fruit bulbs were
removed and deseeded for extracting of juice using a domestic juicer (Power juicer, Smart
Shop
TM
, US). All experiments were conducted at room temperature and carried out in three
replications.
Chemical analysis: The Total Soluble Solid (TSS), expressed as
o
Brix, of jackfruit juice was
determined using a digital refractometer (Model AR-2008, Kruss, Germany). The total
acidity and pH of juices were measured using a digital autotitrator (Model 785 DMP Titrino,
Metrohm, Switzerland). Ten milliliter of sample juice is treated with 40 mL distilled water.
The principal sugars in jackfruit are fructose, glucose and sucrose. The amount of these
sugars were determined by High Pressure liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with a Jasco RI-
1530 detector and a Jasco PU-1580 pump. The column used to analyze the sample was a 10
m uBondapak
TM
-NH2 column (3.9x300 m) with NH
2
polar bonded stationary phase.
Degassed 80% acetonenitrile was used as a mobile phase. All experiments were conducted
at room temperature and the average values of three replications were reported.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total Soluble Solids (TSS): The total soluble solids content ranges from 19.03 to
32.53Brix. Figure 1 shows that the total soluble solids gradually increased (p<0.01) with
fruit ripening until day 8. At day 9, the total soluble solid decreased (p<0.01) to 29.33Brix.
This may due to the fruit is overripe and has some sourness. Sharaf and El-Saadany (1987)
had indicated that the increase in soluble solid content could be attributed to the conversion
of starch to sugars and a later decrease due to the use of these sugars by respiration.
pH: Figure 2 shows pH of jackfruit ranges from 4.70 to 5.72. The pH value was lowest in
the unripe jackfruit which is at day 3 and increase significantly (p<0.01) during the ripening
stages, followed by a significant decrease (p<0.01) at day 9 after harvest. These are
probably related to the value of total soluble solid and total sugars. Overall, the average pH
was in an increasing trend during the early ripening stages. A lower pH in the fruit indicates
a more sour fruit with high acidity.
Total acidity: Acidity in jackfruit J33 shows a range from 0.27 to 0.75%. Reddy et al.
(2004) had reported a similar variation in acidity which is in range of 0.18 to 0.68%. The
high percentage of acidity was found at the early stage of ripening. A significant (p<0.01)
decrease in titratable acidity was observed from day 5 to 8 and shows little change
subsequently at day 9 which is in the overripe stage. The decrease in acidity during storage
might be due to a rapid utilization of acids by respiration (Edmundo et al., 1998). The total
acidity in jackfruit is low at the ripe stage (0.13%) (Bhatia et al., 1995) (Fig. 3).
Sugar content: The sugar profile of jackfruit is an important component of chemical
composition and provides valuable information regarding the authenticity of fruit juices.
Data indicates that the sucrose content was always higher than fructose and glucose. The
fructose content varies between 0.47 to 2.06%. Figure 4 shows the changes of sugar
content in jackfruit juice. The fructose content increased with significant (p<0.01) during
the ripening process from day 3 to 8 and decrease significantly at day 9.