Chemistry C4 C6

Revision Notes

John Clayton
11D







CONTENTS PAGE
C4 Chemical Patterns
2-3: The Alkali Metals (Group One)
Summary of alkali metals, characteristics of Potassium, Sodium and
Lithium, and alkaline compounds made when alkali metals react
with water
3: Chemical Equations
Introduction to balanced equations, how to write a balanced
equations, equation models
4: The Halogens (Group 7)
Characteristics of the Halogens, characteristics of chlorine, bromine
and iodine, patterns of metals and non-metals, usage of halogens
and harmfulness of halogens
5: Ionic Theory and Chemical Structure
How atoms turn into ions and vice-versa (electrolysis), periodic table
showing ionic charge numbers
6: Salts
How salts are different from their elements, characteristics of
sodium chloride and potassium bromide compared to chlorine,
sodium, potassium and bromide, how salts conduct electricity




CHAPTER 1 THE ALKALI METALS (GROUP ONE)
Characteristics of the Alkali Metals -
Alkali metals react with water to make Alkaline Solutions. Alkali metals are soft and can be cut with a knife.
The alkali metals are shiny, but they tarnish quickly
They have a low melting point and they float on water
Reactions between Alkali Metals and Water
Lithium
Lithium + Water = Lithium Hydroxide and Hydrogen
2Li + 2H
2
O = 2LiOH + H
2
When lithium is added to water, the lithium floats, fizzes gently and then sinks, turning into lithium hydroxide. The
solution is now alkaline. It is possible to collect the gas and use a burning splint to prove that its hydrogen.
Sodium
Sodium + Water = Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrogen
2Na + 2H
2
O = 2LiOH + H
2
When sodium is added to water, the subsequent reaction gives out enough energy to melt the sodium, which skates
around on the surface of the water. Sometimes, the sparks from the molten sodium solution ignite the hydrogen
gas, giving off a yellowish flame. In a similar way to lithium, the sodium turns into its hydrocide (NaOH) and
dissolves, making an alkaline solution.
Potassium
Potassium + Water = Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrogen
2K + 2H
2
O = 2KOH + H
2
The reaction is very violent. The hydrogen given off during the reaction immediately ignites, and molten metal may
be thrown from the surface of the water. The result is an alkaline solution of Potassium Hydroxide
Reactions between Alkali Metals and Chlorine
Hot sodium burns with a bright yellow flame. It produces clouds of white Sodium Chloride Crystals (NaCL). This is
table salt. All of the other alkali metals react in a similar way. Lithium produces Lithium Chloride and Potassium
produces potassium chloride. Like every day salt, these compounds are colourless, crystalline solids which dissolve
in water. Because of this, chemists use the term salt to cover all of the compounds of metals with non-metals. So the
chlorides of lithium, sodium and potassium are all salts.
Trends of the Alkali Metals
The alkali metals are all very similar, but they are not identical. There are clear trends in their properties down the
group. These trends cover both physical properties, such as density and melting point, and chemical properties,
such as reactivity with water and chlorine.


Compounds of the Alkali Metals
The compounds of the alkali metals are very different to the elements. The elements are dangerously reactive,
whereas the chlorides of sodium and potassium have a vital role to play in our bodys, mainly with the blood and the
nerves.
Many compounds of the alkali metals are soluble in water. In particular, sodium compounds in particular make up a
number of common everyday chemicals. All homes have sodium chloride for use on food etc. Other important
products include sodium hydroxide (in oven cleaners), sodium hypochlorite (bleach) and sodium
hydrogencarbonate (as the bicarbonate of soda in antacids)
CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
Group one in the periodic table is called the Alkali Metals.
These alkali metals react with water to make a hydroxide of the metal, which are always alkaline solutions.
They are soft, and can be cut with a knife. They are shiny, but they soon tarnish.
The studied alkali metals are lithium, sodium and potassium
The balanced equations for the reactions with water follow the pattern 2Li/Na/K + 2H
2
O = 2LiOH + H
2

The compounds are very different to the elements, as the elements are dangerously reactive whereas the
compounds, such as sodium chloride and potassium chloride have vital functions in our bodies.
Many of the compounds of the alkali metals are soluble in water



CHAPTER TWO CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical Models
In a chemical change, there is no mass change because the number of each type of atom stays the same. The atoms
regroup but no new ones appear and none disappear during the chemical reaction.
Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form molecules of water. The models in the figure below show what happens. In each
water molecule, there is only one oxygen molecule, so one oxygen molecule reacts
with two hydrogen molecules to make two hydrogen molecules. There are equal
numbers of hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms on each side. The term chemical
equation can be used.
Chemical Symbols
Instead of using drawings or photographs of models, chemists use symbols equations to show the numbers and
arrangements of the atoms in the reactants and the products.
When written in symbols, the equation in the figure becomes
2H
2
+ O
2
= 2H
2
O
This equation is balanced because it has the same number of atoms of each type on the left as on the right. The
equation also balances in the literal sense, as the reactants have the same mass as the products.
Formulae
An equation cannot be written unless you first know
All the starting chemicals (the reactants)
Everything that is formed after the reaction (the products)
When writing equations, you must use the correct chemical formula which has been worked out by chemists.
If the element or compound is molecular, you must write the formular for the molecule in the equation. This applies
to most non metals (O
2
, H
2
, Cl
2
) Not all elements and compounds consist of molecules. For All metals, and for the
few non-metals that are not molecular (C, Si), you just write the element.
CHAPTER TWO SUMMARY
In a chemical change, there are no atoms created or destroyed they only combine with other atoms to
make elements or compounds.
In a balanced equation, the same number of atoms on one side must be made up for on the other. This is
done by changing the amounts of reactants added into the reaction (e.g 2Li, or 2 Lithium atoms)
To write an equation, you must know what the starting chemicals and the chemicals formed after the
reaction in order for it to be correct.






CHAPTER THREE THE HALOGENS
Salt Formers
Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are all very reactive non-metals. They are interesting due to their vigorous
chemistry. As elements, they are hazardous because they are so reactive. For the same reason, they are never
found in nature. They occur as compounds with metals
The name halo-gen means salt-former. These elements form salts when they combine with metals. Examples
include everyday salt (sodium chloride), which forms as the minerals halite (NaCl) and fluorite (CaF
2
) found as the
mineral Blue John in the Derbyshire Caves.
Non-Metal Patterns
Non-metals typically have low melting and boiling poinys. Chlorine is a green gas at room temperature, bromine is a
dark-red liquid which easily turns into an orange vapour and iodine is a dark-grey solid which turns into a purple
vapour on gentle warming.
The halogens are molecular, like most other non-metals. They each consist of molecules joined in pairs, for example
Cl
2
. The forces between these molecules are weak, so it is easy to break them, and turn the halogens into gases.
Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Dense, pale-green gas Red liquid with red-brown vapour Grey solid with purple vapour
Smelly and poisonous Smelly and poisonous Smelly and poisonous
Occurs as chlorides, especially
sodium chloride in the sea
Occures as bromides, especially
magnesium bromide in the sea
Occurs as iodides and iodates in
some rocks and in seaweed

Halogen Patterns
All of the halogens can harm living things. They can all kill bacteria. Domestic bleach is a solution of chlorine in
sodium hydroxide sold to disinfect worktops and toilets. In the days before modern antiseptics, a solution of iodine
was used to prevent infection of wounds.
The bleaching effect of the halogens reflects the trend of reactivity down the group. The laboratory test for chlorine
shows that moist indicator paper is quickly bleached. Bromine vapour also bleaches vegetable dyes such as litmus,
but more slowly. Iodine has a slight bleaching effect too, but it stains paper brown which masks the change.
Practical Importance
While the halogens themselves are too hazardous for normal, everyday use, their compounds are of great practical
importance.
The chemical industry turns everyday salt into chlorine, and then uses the chlorine to make plastics such as
polyvinylchloride (PVC) Another use is water treatment to stop the spread of diseases.
Chlorine compounds offer many benefits, but there are also hazards. Some chlorine compounds are so stable that
they persist in the environment. An example is the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the ozone layer.



CHAPTER FOUR - IONIC THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms into Ions
Chemists can use the shell model for electrons in atoms to show how atoms become electrically charged.
The metals on the left hand of the periodic table form ions by losing the few electrons on the outer shell.
This leaves more protons than electrons, and so the ions are positively charged.
The metals on the right hand of the periodic table form ions by collecting electrons from other atoms on
the outer shell. This leaves more electrons than protons, and so the ions are negatively charged.
All of the metals in group one have one electron in the outer shell. This means that, as one electron has
been lost, all of these metals form +1 ions
Alternatively, all of the elements in group seven have seven electrons in the outer shell. This means that, as
one electron is gained, all of these elements form -1 ions.
Electron Configurations of Ions
It can be seen that when sodium and chlorine atoms turn into ions, they end up with the same electron
configuration as the nearest noble as in the periodic table. This is generally true for the simple ions of the
first 20 or so elements in the periodic table.
An explanation of this requires a detailed analysis of all the energy changes when metals react with non metals.
This is studied at further chemistry levels.
Ions into atoms
Electrolysis turns ions back into atoms. Metal Ions are POSITIVELY CHARGED, so they are attracted to the
NEGATIVE ELECTRODE. It is a flow of electrons from the battery into the electrode that makes it negative.
Positive metal ions gain electrons from the negative electrode and turn back into atoms.
Non-Metal Ions are NEGATIVELY CHARGED, so they are attracted to the POSITIVE ELECTRODE. This
electrode is positive because electrons flow out of it into the battery. Negative ions give up electrons to
the positive electrode and turn back into atoms.
Li
+



N
o

s
i
m
p
l
e

i
o
n
s

N
3-
O
2-
F
-
N
o

I
o
n
s

f
o
r
m
e
d

Na
+
Mg
2+

Al
3+
S
2-
Cl
-
K
+
Ca
2+
TRANSITION
METALS FORM
MORE THAN ONE
ION
E.G Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
Br
-
Rb
+
Sr
2+
I
-
Cs
+
Ba
2+

1+ 2+ 3+ 3- 2- 1-


CHAPTER FIVE SALTS
Why are salts so different from their elements?
Compounds of metals with non-metals are salts. Chemists can explain the differences between a salt and
its elements by looking at what happens during the reaction. An example is the reaction between two
very reactive elements to make everyday table salt.
Salts
Salts are crystalline structures. An example of one is sodium chloride, which is shaped like a cube.
Salts have a much higher melting and boiling point than compounds such as chlorine and bromine, which
are made up of small molecules.
Chemical Formula Melting Point (C) Boiling Point (C)
Sodium Na 98 890
Chlorine Cl
2
-101 -34
Sodium Chloride NaCl 808 1465
Potassium K 63 766
Bromine Br
2
-7 58
Potassium Bromide KBr 730 1435

Sodium chloride is an example of a salt which is soluble in water. There are other examples of soluble salts,
including most of the compounds of the alkali metals with halogens.
Some salts however are insoluble in water. Lithium fluoride is an example of a salt which is only very slightly soluble
in water. Many minerals consist of insoluble salts. Fluorite (CaF
2
) is one example.
Modern Salts and Electricity
This is a descripition of an experiment done in class which determines whether a salt conducts electricity
The crucible contains some white powdered solid. This is lead bromide. At first the bulb doesnt
light, showing that the solid does not conduct electricity. This is true of all compounds of metals
with non-metals; they do not conduct when solid.
Heating the crucible melts the lead bromide. As soon as the compound is molten, there is a reading
on the meter. This shows that a current is flowing around the circuit. As a liquid, the compound is
a conducted. That is not all. The electric current causes the compound to decompose chemically.
The most obvious change is the bubbling around the positive electrode. Puffs of orange gas
appears as the bubbles burst. The orange gas is bromine.
After a while, it is possible to show that lead has formed at the negative electrode. This is done by
switching off the current and pouring the liquid from the crucible into a mortar. The unchanged
lead bromide quickly solidifies. Gently crushing the solid reveals a shiny lump of metallic lead. So
the electric current splits the compound into its elements: lead and bromine.