.

Pergamon
Quaternary International, Vol. 40, pp. 81-91, 1997.
PO:
C 1997 INQUA/ Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain.
1040-6182197$32.00
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY AND CORRELATION OF THE PLIOCENE AND
QUATERNARY OF COLOMBIA
Thomas van der Hammen*t and Henry Hooghiemstra*
*Hugo de Vries lAboratory, Department of Palynology and Paleo/Actuo-ecology, University of Amsterdam,
Kruislaan 318, 1098 SM Amsterdam, The Netherlands
1
tTropenbos-Colombia, Bogota, Colombia
Names for the chronostratigraphic units of the Pliocene and Quaternary of Colombia are defined and formalized based on studies of
outcrops and deep bore holes in the area of the high plain of Bogota. Chronostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic sequences
have been correlated as far as possible. A tentative correlation with the marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy is indicated.
Pliocene chronostratigraphic units are provisionally characterized by abundance/first appearance in the pollen record of specific floral
elements: Mauritia zone (Tequendamian: ca. Ma), Hedyosmum zone (Facatativanian: ca. 4.2-3.5 Ma), Myrica zone (Sisganian: ca.
3.5-3.1 Ma), Borreria zone (Chocontanian: ca. 3.1-2.7 Ma and Engativanian: ca. 2.7-2.4!2.2 Ma), although precise boundaries cannot yet
be established. The Engativanian is a transitional phase, characterized by a continuous temperature decrease in successive cold episodes,
and may include the latest part of the Pliocene and the earliest part of the Quaternary.
Quaternary chronostratigraphic units are precisely limited by levels of pronounced climatic change; these boundaries are near to the first
appearance/abundance of Juglan.s-Plantago (Funzanian: ca. 2.4!2.2-1.0 Ma), Alnus (Fuchanian: ca. 1000-660 ka and Cotanian: ca. 660-
335 ka), and Quercus (Subanian: ca. 335-128 ka, Bacatanian: ca. 128-73 ka, Fuquenian: ca. 73-10 ka, and the Holocene).
The relationship with the officially defined position of the base of the Quaternary, at ca. 1.80 Ma, is shown. The last glaciation in Colombia
is named the Cocuy glaciation. @ 1997 INQUA/ Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
INTRODUCTION
In recent decades, we have learned increasingly about
the Quaternary and Pliocene stratigraphy of the high plain
of Bogota and its surrounding areas (Van der Hammen
and GonzaJ.ez, 1960a, 1963, 1964; Van der Hammen et
al., 1973, 1980; Vander Hammen, 1974, 1978, 1981a, b,
1992; Andriessen et al., 1993; Helmens, 1990; Helmens
and Van der Hammen, 1994). Important findings also
have come to light in other areas such as the Colombian
Central Cordillera (Thouret and Van der Hammen, 1981,
1983; Thouret, 1988; Thouret et al., 1995), and the
Amazon basin (Van der Hammen et al., 1991a, b). Of
prime importance for subdividing the Quaternary of
Colombia are pollen records of lacustrine deposits on the
high plain of Bogota (Fig. 1 ), which represent the last 3
million years (=3 Ma) (Vander Hammen and GonzaJ.ez,
1960a, 1964; Van der Hammen et al., 1973; Hooghiem-
stra, 1984, 1989, 1995; Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento,
1991; Hooghiemstra and Cleef, 1995, in preparation;
Hooghiemstra and Ran, 1994a, b). This pollen sequence
can be correlated with the marine oxygen isotope
stratigraphy (Hooghiemstra et al., 1993) and with the
stratigraphic sequence of the borders of the high plain of
Bogota (Helmens, 1990), its adjacent valleys and with
other zones studied in Colombia. We now have a more
detailed understanding of the last interglacial and glacial
(especially the late Glacial) and Holocene, thanks to
1
The Netherlands Centre for Geo-ecological Research, ICG.
81
palynological data from numerous lakes in different parts
of Colombia (Van Geel and Van der Hammen, 1973;
Melief, 1985).
The objective of this paper is to define and formalize
the chronostratigraphy of the Pliocene and Quaternary of
Colombia and its nomenclature. Another aim is to
correlate the chronostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and
lithostratigraphic sequence and nomenclature to the
greatest extent possible.
The Pliocene-Quaternary boundary has been debated
widely. According to its definition by the lUGS
Stratigraphical Commission, the boundary corresponds
to the top of the Olduvai paleomagnetic epoch (ca.
1.65 Ma). This criterion is difficult to apply in most
continental pollen records and climatic change is the most
appropriate basis for correlation on a global scale.
Therefore, in terrestrial records the first pronounced cold
period was used as a criterion (Zagwijn, 1960, 1975; see
also the important discussion in Zagwijn, 1992) and
places the Pliocene-Quaternary boundary at ca. 2.5-
2.3 Ma.
The Quaternary poses a special problem of chronos-
tratigraphic subdivision. There is biostratigraphic evi-
dence with data on the appearance and disappearance of
taxa and associations. There is also the sequence of
significant climatic changes, which are mirrored in major
changes in the vegetation. Most of these climatic changes
are global in nature and offer an excellent basis for
chronostratigraphy, by providing means to differentiate
between stages (Zagwijn, 1992). Given these considera-
82 T. Van der Hammen and H. Hooghiemstra
/
/.
/ \
/
0 5 10
*
/
\
\ /
...... /
... \.
N"'
Cboconta ChocontAl
Choconta-4 /
\ /c;
.\ ./
/
/\

.;;>.
\rr.
\
FIG. 1. Map of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, indicating the
location of the basin of Bogota at 2550 m altitude. Locations of main
pollen records discussed in the text are shown by a star.
tions, we propose in this paper a formal chronostrati-
graphy (chronostratigraphic nomenclature) for the Qua-
ternary of Colombia as a general framework for
correlating in time the biostratigraphie& and lithostrati-
graphies of the different geographic regions having
different geographic, climatic and environmental condi-
tions. The chronostratigraphic nomenclature suggested
for the Pliocene is more provisional, since precise
boundaries are still impossible to determine.
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY AND IUSTORIC
PHYTOGEOGRAPIDC ASPECTS OF THE IDGH
PLAIN OF BOGOTA-EASTERN CORDILLERA
A biostratigraphic zonation of the Pliocene and
Quaternary of Colombia was proposed by Van der
Hammen et al. (1973). Seven biozones were identified
and are distinguished mainly by successive immigrations
of taxa (Fig. 2). Biozones I through IV were based on a
palynological analysis of intervals of organic sediments
separated by intervals of white sand and clay, without
pollen. For this reason, the precise boundaries between
these biozones are unknown. Biozones V through VII
were based on the continuous sequence of lake sediments
in the 195 m deep bore hole Ciudad Universitaria (CUX-
CUY) from the high plain of Bogota (Van der Hammen
and Gonza.J.ez, 1964; Van der Hammen et al., 1973).
0.2-
0.3-
<::
0.4- )>
-..
0.5- .....

0.6- "'
)>
0.7-
0.8-
0.9-
1.0-
1.1
1.2-
6.0-

"'(
VI
Tnxa wilh 'first nppcolnmL'C dale' in lhc Hogo1D urcn
(b:s..cd nn inlhc h'ltl)
"TT
c
:I
N
Ill

c c
N
111!1!111 tropical forest elements
stilandellll fot?st e/ exrl
LC.::I SWancfellll
! I lsub/piramo e/HJenls
r'.' I savanna elements
N
s
N
N
FIG. 2. Composite pollen record from the lower Pliocene to latest
Pleistocene of the sediments of the basin of Bogota (after Van der
Hammen et al., 1973; Hooghiemstra, 1984Hooghiemstra, 1989).
Successive altitudinal positions during upheaval of the Eastern
Cordillera are represented by biozones I to IV. The basin reached
modem elevations 2550 m) around 3.5 Ma. A successive immigra-
tion of flora elements which originated from temperate and cool zones of
the northern and southern hemisphere is demonstrated. n = northern
hemisphere element (holarctic affinity); s = flora element of southern
South America (austral-antarctic affmity); s, n =origin may be from both
geographical areas; c = cosmopolitan element; * = relation with
southeast Asia (laurasiatic element; Vander Hammen and Cleef, 1983).
Adapted after Hooghiemstra-and Cleef (in preparation).
Chronostratigraphy and Correlation of the Pliocene and Quaternary of Colombia
83
Biozone IV is also represented in bore hole Funza-11,
allowing us to distinguish more precisely the boundary
between biozones IV and V. The IV-V boundary could be
identified at a depth of 405 min Funza-IT (Fig. 3), based
on the depth where Juglans and Plantago are first
observed (although a few grains can be found occasion-
ally at lower levels). Daphnopsis is more frequent below
this boundary; Hypericum is more frequent above. High
percentages of Borreria are characteristic of biozone IV.
The lower portion of biozone V is transitional in
appearance, while the upper part has Borreria values
that are already quite low. In biozone V, Polylepis
replaces Hypericum as the most important element in the
high-Andean (=upper montane) dwarf forest belt. Other
characteristics of this boundary can be seen in the
complete diagram of Funza-II and to some extent in
Fig. 3. The boundary between biozones IV and V is
estimated at 2.2 to 2.4 Ma, while the base of biozone IV
could be dated at least 3.2 Ma.
The boundary between biozones V and VI corresponds
to the beginning of the Alnus (alder) record and its age is
estimated at 1.0 Ma (Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento, 1991;
Andriessen et al., 1993). The boundary between biozones
VI and VII corresponds to the start of the Quercus (oak)
pollen record, and its age is estimated at ca. 330 ka
(Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento, 1991; Hooghiemstra and
Ran, 1994a). The percentages of Quercus increase
distinctly after ca. 200 ka, indicating that Quercus forest
is a prominent type of zonal vegetation from that time
onward.
Figure 3 shows the downcore distribution of some 20
taxa based on the pollen records of bore holes Funza-I and
Funza-11. Most are immigrants from the northern hemi-
sphere (or could have come from either the southern or
northern hemispheres); Rhus, Clethra, Symplocos and
Hedyosmum have amphipacific phytogeographic relations
(Laurasiatic Tertiary) (Van der Hammen and Cleef,
1983). However, a detailed analysis of Funza II has yet
to be completed and the first appearance dates of
elements less pronounced than Alnus and Quercus could
change somewhat.
Several observations are in order with respect to initial
appearances. Based on what we now know, the
Caryophyllaceae family appears for the first time in the
upper part of biozone IV. A comparison between the
pollen assemblages of sediments in biozones III and IV
shows the latter also contains (at least locally) the first
appearance of Umbelliferae, Geranium, Aragoa, Poly-
lepis and Myriophyllum. There is a clear increase in
abundance of Plantago pollen grains in biozone V, but
minor percentages indicating local presence only, occur
in biozone IV. In recent studies, small percentages of
Hedyosmum were found locally in the sediments of
biozone I (Wijninga, pers. commun. 1994) and also seem
to be present locally in Miocene sediments of the Amazon
(Hoorn, pers. commun. 1994). This could mean that
biozone II is characterized by the continuous and
relatively abundant presence of Hedyosmum, while
biozone I apparently may have low percentages and very
local representation of Hedyosmum. Finally, we have no
knowledge as yet of a series of continuous sediments that
could include the boundary between biozones lli and IV.
Figure 3 also shows intervals with characteristic vegeta-
tional-environmental conditions (high or low frequency
of certain taxa), indicated by the letters 'a' through 'h'.
In the following paragraphs we will first discuss the
Pliocene, followed by the time interval represented by the
540 m of lacustrine sediments from the high plain of
Bogota (represented especially in the bore holes Funza-1
and Funza-11). These sediments correspond to the period
of biozone IV, of upper Pliocene age, through biozone
VII, of late Pleistocene age.
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY AND
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE
Van der Hammen and Gonzalez (1964) and Van der
Hammen et al. (1973) placed the basis of the Quaternary,
in accordance with the criterion Zagwijn (1960) used for
European pollen stratigraphy, at the first major cooling
around 2.5 Ma. They divided the Quaternary of Colombia
into three major parts: the 'Lower', 'Middle' and 'Upper'
Quaternary. The beginning of these subdivisions could be
determined by the first appearance of Alnus (base of the
'Middle' Quaternary) and Quercus (base of the 'Upper'
Quaternary). The respective ages of these boundaries are
ca. 1 Ma and ca. 330 ka (Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento,
1991; Andriessen et al., 1993). Dividing the Quaternary
into the Juglans!Plantago zone (biozone V), the Alnus
zone (biozone VI), and the Quercus zone (biozone VII)
(see Fig. 5) seems a highly practical proposal for
Colombia. Although the first appearance of Alnus and
Quercus in the north and south of Colombia might not be
exactly synchronic, both trees are anemophilous and
produce large quantities of pollen, which is spread by
eolian transport easily over great distances; rivers also
carry (and deposit) pollen of Alnus and Quercus. For this
reason, their first appearance in sediments should be quite
close to synchronic. Nevertheless, chronostratigraphic
boundaries should be established on the basis of the most
significant change in climate nearest to the initial
appearances mentioned (or, in general and to the extent
possible, those nearest the biostratigraphic boundaries).
Although there is no precise international definition
(besides the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary), it is com-
mon usage that the early Quaternary starts at the first
clear glacial period (ca. 2.4 Ma*), or at the top of the
Olduvai magnetic epoch (ca. 1.65 Ma*), the middle
Quaternary at Oxygen Isotope Stage 22 (ca. 0.9 Ma),
and the late Quaternary at the beginning of the Eemian
(corresponding to Oxygen Isotope Stage 5e; ca. 128 ka)(*
recent recalibration of the paleomagnetic scale has
resulted in the lowering of these dates to 2.6 Ma and
1.8 Ma, respectively). Figure 5 shows the relationship
between the climatic sequence, the biozones, and the two
possible major subdivisions of the Quaternary. Establish-
ment of the precise position of what is considered as the
first clear glacial period in Colombia will be possible
when the lower part of the Funza-11 pollen record has
84
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...
g
n :!00.1:! Ma
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167m)
7
0
..
..
100
liD
1::!0
I Ma
300
t2QR-,07 n\l
310
Ma
ml .o
1.010 21 Mo
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, ..
...
T. Van der Hammen and H. Hooghiemstra
-;

Sl.
"'
"
l!
]
=
2
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c
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j


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,
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-;;s:
,. t:

.E-u
Onwncnrc and
nf main ahuodatwc of taxa
.....
2.H0.6J Ma
m) '510
...
...
FIG. 3. Summary pollen diagram of core Funza-IT, pollen zones, estimated ages (provisionally; after Hooghiemstra and Ran (1994a) and
Hooghiemstra and Cleef (submitted)), and biozones (after Vander Hammen et al., 1973). Changes of the contribution of 21 selected taxa
to the zonal (regional) and azonal (local) montane vegetation throughout the Late Pliocene-Pleistocene is indicated. (Figure adapted from
Hooghiemstra and Cleef, in preparation.) Solid lines: presence with relatively high percentages in the vegetation (note the first appearance
dates of Alnus and Quercus). Densely dotted lines: continuous presence with low percentages in the vegetation. Widely dotted lines:
discontinuous presence with low percentages in the vegetation.
Chronostratigraphy and Correlation of the Pliocene and Quaternary of Colombia
85
Age
(Ma BP)
2.212.4
3
-
Chronostratigraphy
Engativanian
Chocontanian
Sisganian
~
=

CJ
e
Facatativanian
-
-
4
~
Tequendamian
5
-
I
I
~
~
=

CJ
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-
6
Datings Biozones
~
b
c
s
IV

-
c
2.74f0.63
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a
c
=
(2.77!().52)

~ ~
III
>. s
~
3.62t0.67 E
3.67!().50 =
e
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II
Ill
c
c
s
>.
'C
~
cc
I
c
c
N
.!
I ....
;:
=
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5.33tl.02
Lithostratigraphy
~
= c
ere
c -
-=-
~
c
~
Guali
Member
...
~ c
c.
.2
c.
....
;:J
Guasca
ell
c
Member
E
. 2
...
c
....
II..
ell
E
ell
...
...
c
Tibagota
~
~
...
...
Member
c
'ell .c
....
u
.!
e:
.... -----
--
...
--
--
c
~
c
c
::::
..;j
Cll
E
Tequendama
...
c
II..
Member
"'
:$
.!!l
"
=
,;. ,,
-----------
---
.. - c:
~ c
= -
-=-
Cl "
E
......
c
. ~ ~
FIG. 4. Chronostratigraphic units of the Pliocene of Colombia. Correlation with biostratigraphic zones and the lithostratigraphy of the
sediments of the high plain of Bogota and surroundings is indicated.
been analyzed in detail (Hooghiemstra, in preparation); it
is anticipated that this period is in the Engativanian. The
chronostratigraphic units are described formally in the
following section.
PLIOCENE CHRONOSTRA TIGRAPIDC UNITS
A continuous pollen sequence for the continental
Pliocene in our area is not available. There are limited
intervals of organic sediments, which provided the data
for biostratigraphic zonation: biozones I, II, ill and IV
(Van der Hammen et al., 1973). Consequently, as it is
impossible to establish the base of chronostratigraphic
units on the basis of any characteristic climatic event (or
other event of chronological importance), most of the
units cannot be described formally, with the exception of
the latest, the Engativanian. Until we have sufficient data
to establish these boundaries precisely, it is suggested the
names Tequendamian, Facatativanian, Sisganian and
Chocontanian be used provisionally, in a chronostrati-
graphic sense (provisional chronostratigraphic units at
stage level) (Fig. 4).
Tequendamian (prov.)
For now, this chronostratigraphic unit will include the
time sequence of biozone I. The name is derived from
Saito Tequendama (Tequendama Falls), near where
sediments of that age are found (Van der Hammen et
al., 1973; Wijninga, 1996a. b). Spanish name: Tequenda-
mense.
Facatativanian (prov.)
For now, this chronostratigraphic unit will include the
time sequence of biozone n. The name is derived from
the city of Facatativa, where sediments of that age are
found (Vander Hammen et al., 1973; Wijninga, 1996b).
Spanish name: Facatativense.
Sisganian (prov.)
For now, this chronostratigraphic unit will include the
time sequence of biozone m. The name is derived from
Embalse de Sisga (Sisga Reservoir), where sediments of
that age are found (Van der Hammen et al., 1973).
Spanish name: Sisgense.
86
T. Van der Hammen and H. Hooghiemstra
Chocontanian (prov.)
This chronostratigraphic unit includes the 540 to 465 m
interval in bore hole Funza-ll (Figs 3 and 4 ), as the upper
portion, and corresponds approximately to the lower part
of biozone IV (interval 'a' in Fig. 3). However, the
stratigraphic position of the base remains unknown. The
name comes from the town of Choconta, where sediments
of that age are found (Van der Hammen et al., 1973).
Spanish name: Chocontense.
Engativanian
Characterized by the interval of 465 m (base) to 405 m
(top) in bore hole Funza-ll, this chronostratigraphic unit
corresponds to Funza-II pollen zones F2-X9, F2-X10 and
F2-X11. The base coincides with a sharp drop in
temperature and the temperature decrease continued, with
minor fluctuations, until the onset of a new and drastic
decline after 405 m core depth (Hooghiemstra, 1993;
Hooghiemstra and Ran, 1994b). Using this period of
temperature decrease, dated about 2.5 Ma, as the basis of
the Quaternary (corresponding to the Praetiglian period in
the European climatic subdivision as shown by Zagwijn,
1960, 1992), the Engativanian is a transitional phase and
could correspond to the latest part of the Pliocene and the
earliest part of the Quaternary. It represents the period of
global cooling that led to the start of the ftrst pronounced
series of cold episodes ('glacial' intervals) of the
Quaternary. The age of the Engativanian is estimated
from 2.8-2.7 Ma to 2.4-2.2 Ma. The Engativanian
corresponds approximately to the upper part of biozone
IV (subzone IVb) and to interval 'b' in Fig. 3. The name
is derived from the town of Engativa on the high plain of
Bogota. Spanish name: Engativense
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPWC UNITS OF THE
QUATERNARY
Although not corresponding to the officially accepted
lower boundary of the Quaternary, we use here the ca.
2.5 Ma age as the basis of the Quaternary (see the
discussion in Zagwijn, 1992). Figure 5 shows the
relationship between our subdivision and terminology,
and the JUGS-accepted base and subdivision of the
Quaternary. The chronostratigraphic units of the Qua-
ternary of Colombia are formally described here at the
level of stages, based on deep bore holes drilled on and
near the high plain of Bogota (Funza-! and Funza-ll,
Ciudad Universitaria CUX-CUY, Laguna de Fuquene-ll
and Laguna de Fuquene-ill).
Funzanian
Characteristic interval from 405 m (base) to 255m
(top) in bore hole Funza-ll. In Funza-1, the top is located
at approximately 257 m. This unit corresponds to Funza-
11 pollen zones F2-X1 through F2-X8. The base
corresponds to a sharp drop in temperature, which
represents the start of a glacial, in our view the fust of
the Quaternary. It is a long stage, characterized by cold
climatic conditions interrupted by relatively short inter-
vals of an interglacial nature. The Funzanian corresponds
to the early Quaternary. Its age is estimated from 2.4-
2.2 Ma to 1.0 Ma. This chronostratigraphic unit corre-
sponds approximately to biozone V and to intervals 'c'
and 'd' in Fig. 3. The name is derived from the village of
Funza on the high plain of Bogota.
The Funzanian can be subdivided into early, middle
and late Funzanian; the early Funzanian from 405 to
380m in bore hole Funza-II (cold climate with relatively
short interglacials), the middle Funzanian from 380 to
297 m in bore hole Funza-II (cold glacials and not very
warm interglacials), and the late Funzanian from 297 to
257m in bore hole Funza-11 (cold glacials and relatively
warm interglacials).
The cold stage at the start of the Funzanian probably
corresponds to one of the last cold periods in the series of
cold episodes with the stage numbers G6 (Stage 110 in
the old numbering) to 96 (Tiedemann et al., 1994) of
marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy. The cold stage at the
start of the Funzanian probably also corresponds in time
to the pollen-based cold Praetiglian interval of European
chronostratigraphy (e.g. Zagwijn, 1960, 1992). Spanish
name: Funzense.
Fuchanian
Characteristic interval from 257m (base) to 143m
(top) of bore hole Funza-! (255m and 147m respectively
in bore hole Funza-ll). This chronostratigraphic unit
corresponds to Funza-! and Funza-11 pollen zones 21 to
29, and most of 30. The base corresponds to a significant
rise in temperature, which coincides with the beginning of
the ftrst major interglacial (number 10, counting from top
downward; see Fig. 5). It includes interglacials 10, 9 and
8 'a' and 'b', the glacials separating these intervals, and
ends with a sharp cooling at the start of the glacial
between interglacials 8 and 7. The Fuchanian corresponds
approximately to the lower part of biozone VI and to
much of interval 'c' in Fig. 3. With the Fuchanian begins
the middle Quaternary, characterized by a predominant
periodicity in climatic change of ca. 100 ka which leads
to the sequence of pronounced interglacials and glacials
(Hooghiemstra et al., 1993). Its age is estimated from 1.0
to 0.66 Ma. This chronostratigraphic unit probably
corresponds to Stages 17 through 25 of the marine
oxygen isotope stratigraphic record. The name is derived
from the Fucha River on the high plain of Bogota.
Spanish name: Fuchense.
Cotanian
Characteristic interval from 147m (base) to 94 m (top)
in bore hole Funza-11 (143 m and 94 m respectively in
bore hole Funza-1). This unit corresponds to the pollen
zones F2-14 through F2-20 in bore hole Funza-11. The
base corresponds to a pronounced cooling and the top to a
Chronostratigraphy and Correlation of the Pliocene and Quaternary of Colombia
Estimated displacement
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY BIOZONES
LITHOSTRA
Tentative
of the upper forest line
TIGRAPHY
correlation
based on pollen records Main
(high plain of
180/16Q
Funza-1 and Funza-ll
Hl
1
nterglacials
Depth Funza
Bogol:i)
stages
-
-:: Ia
Fuqueman
u
C)lip_F. g
=
F-11
=
0
-
--
-

2
'"""'
Hncntnman
F-1
s - -
5
2
-- 5lm 43m
I'll I'll
VII
"'
e e
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3L,.,._....,,
::I
1....:.
Subanian
&&
7
c::::

::I
-
.-::::
F-11 F-1
Cl
C'll 0
9
c
c u "0 0
s::::::
94m (94m) .g
C'll
;g
c.;.
"'

:s
0
II
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e
=
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Cotanian
;::
c
E
0
0
13

1.1.

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u
u
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I'll 15
c
-
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::>
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147m (143m)
VI
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Fuchanian
-
21
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FIG. 5. Chronostratigraphic units of the Quaternary and late Pliocene of Colombia. Correlation with biostratigraphic wnes and the
lithostratigraphy of the sediments of the high plain of Bogota and surroundings is indicated. An age of ca. 2.5-2.2 Ma is used as the base
of the Quaternary (see the discussion in the text) whereas the position of this boundary, according to the Stratigraphical Commission, is
indicated on the right. The climatic record was based on the pollen records from bore holes Funza-! and Funza-ll (Hooghiemstra and Ran,
1994b).
87
88 T. Vander Hammen and H. Hooghiemstra
rise in temperature. It includes the large interglacials 7, 6
and 5 (Fig. 5), and the intermediate glacials, beginning
and ending with a glacial. The Cotanian corresponds
approximately to the upper part of biozone VI and the
upper part of interval 'e' and interval 'f' in Fig. 3. Its age
is estimated between 660 ka and 335 ka. This chronos-
tratigraphic unit probably corresponds to Stages 10
through 16 in marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy. The
name is derived from the village of Cota on the high plain
of Bogota. Spanish name: Cotense.
Subanian
Characteristic interval from 94 m (base) in the bore
holes Funza-1 and Funza-IT to 43 m (top) in Funza-1 (and
approximately 51 min Funza-IT). It corresponds to pollen
zones 8 to 13 in bore holes Funza-1 and Funza-IT. The
base reflects a distinct rise in temperature towards
interglacial 4 (Fig. 5). The top also corresponds to a
sharp increase in temperature, towards interglacial 2.
Therefore, the Subanian includes interglacials 4 and 3, the
glacial separating them, and the glacial after the third
(between interglacials 3 and 2). This unit corresponds
approximately to the lower part of biozone VIT and
roughly to interval 'g' in Fig. 3. Its age is estimated from
335 to 128 ka. The Subanian probably corresponds to
Stages 6 through 9 in marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy.
The name comes from the village of Suba on the high
plain of Bogota. Spanish name: Subense.
Bacatanian
Characteristic interval from 43 min Funza-1 (ca. 51 m
in Funza-IT) and 31m in bore hole Ciudad Universitaria-
X (Bogota; Van der Hammen and Gonzalez, 1960a,
1963)(base) to provisionally 30m in Funza-IT and 22.2 m
in bore hole Ciudad Universitaria-X (top). This would
correspond to pollen zones 5, 6 and 7 of the bore holes
Funza-1 and Funza-IT, and to the complex of the last
interglacial (number 2 in Fig. 5). The base corresponds to
a pronounced rise in temperature and the top to a decline
in temperature; interglacial conditions are interrupted by
one or two extremely cold stages. The Bacatanian is also
represented in the section of Paramo de Agua Blanca
(pollen zone IV, Helmens and Kuhry, 1986) and the 43-
27.5 m interval of bore hole Fuquene-m (Van der
Hammen and Hooghiemstra, in preparation a). It
corresponds to part of biozone VII and part of interval
'h' in Fig. 3. Its age is estimated from 128 to 73 ka. The
Bacatanian chronostratigraphic unit corresponds to Stage
5 in marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy and to the
Eemian and early Glacial (including the Brorup and
Odderade interstadials) in Europe.
The name is derived from Bacata, an Indian place-
name also constituting the basis for the name of the city
of Santa Fe de Bogota. This interval was ftrst observed in
Santa Fe de Bogota on the high plain of Bogota (bore hole
Ciudad Universitaria). Spanish name: Bacatense.
Fuquenian
Characteristic interval from 27.5 m in bore hole
Fuquene-m (Van der Hammen and Hooghiemstra, in
preparation a), 28.5 m in Funza-IT and 22.2 m in Ciudad
Universitaria-X (base) to the top at 4.1 m in bore hole
Laguna de Fuquene-IT (Van Geel and Vander Hammen,
1973). This chronostratigraphic unit corresponds to pollen
zones 2, 3 and 4 in bore holes Funza-1 and Funza-IT, to
pollen zones 4 to 8 in bore hole Fuquene-m, and the
pollen zones V, W andY in bore hole Fuquene-IT. The
base of the Fuquenian corresponds to a drop in
temperature. The Fuquenian corresponds to part of
biozone Vll and a part of interval 'h' in Fig. 3. Its age
is estimated from 73,000 to 10,150 BP. This chronostrati-
graphic unit corresponds to Stages 2, 3 and 4 of the
marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy. Its name is derived
from the village of Fuquene and the lake at short distance,
which bears the same name. The Fuquenian and its
subdivision are discussed later in more detail (Van der
Hammen, 1995; Vander Hammen and Hooghiemstra, in
preparation a, b). This unit corresponds to what is known
worldwide as the last glacial, particularly for different
regions: i.e. the Wiirm glaciation, Weichsel glaciation,
Wisconsin glaciation and the Merida glaciation. We
hereby formally propose that this last glaciation in
Colombia be named the Cocuy glaciation, since the
sequence of moraines in the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy,
described 20 years ago, is fairly complete and its absolute
and relative dating permits an initial time profile of
morainic stages (Vander Hammen et al., 1980/81). Also
to be considered is the fact that maximum glacial
extension was during the middle Pleniglacial and not
during the late Pleniglacial. In other words, it was well in
advance of the maximum extension of ice in the northern
hemisphere. Spanish name: Fuquense.
Holocene
The Holocene, which corresponds to the last ca. 10,150
years, is clearly recognized in many parts of the world
and is a chronostratigraphic unit precisely defined in time.
It is registered in bore hole Fuquene-IT, represented
adequately in the interval from 4.1 m to the surface (Van
Geel and Van der Hammen, 1973), and in many other
sections of Colombian lakes. The Holocene shows small
fluctuations in temperature and considerable changes in
precipitation (Vander Hammen and Gonzalez, 1960a, b,
1963, 1965; Wijmstra and Van der Hammen, 1966; Van
der Hammen, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1992; Vander Hammen
and Cleef, 1992; Melief, 1985; Salomons, 1986; Kuhry,
1988; Plazas et al., 1988).
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY, BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
AND CORRELATION WITH
LimOSTRATIGRAPHY
Correlation within Colombia in general
A clear and important relationship between chronos-
Chronostratigraphy and Correlation of the Pliocene and Quaternary of Colombia
89
tratigraphy and biozones exists on and near the high plain
of Bogota. Whereas biozone boundaries are based largely
on the first appearance of pollen from immigrant
anemophilous species (i.e. pollen that is produced in
large quantities and transported by wind and frequently
by rivers), they are probably more or less synchronic
throughout Colombia. This is particularly plausible for
boundaries established on the first continuous appearance,
with significant percentages of pollen of Hedyosmum,
Myrica, Alnus and Quercus. Based on recent sediments
from the lower Magdalena River region, we know that
pollen from Andean taxa (such as Alnus) can reach the
tropical lowlands (Wijmstra, 1967). A very interesting
sequence in this respect was found in bore hole
Barranquilla-1, drilled in 1983 by Koch Colombia Inc.
on the Caribbean continental shelf off Barranquilla and
the mouth of the Magdalena River. Samples from the
interval between a depth of 279m (915ft) and 690 m
(2265 ft) were studied palynologically (VanderMeulen,
1987) and micropaleontologically (nannofossils; Ming
Jung Jiang, mentioned in Van der Meulen, 1987).
Hedyosmum and Myrica are found from the base of this
interval upward, but Alnus makes its first appearance at
389m (1275 ft) and, from this depth upward, is relatively
abundant in all samples. According to the nannofossil
study, the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary could be
between 526 m (1725 ft) and 553 m (1815 ft) (boundary
of Martini's zones NN 18 and 19, 1971, mentioned in Van
der Meulen, 1987). These data appear to agree with the
first immigration of Alnus into the South American
continent, at approximately 1 Ma. The base of biozone VI
is probably at 389m (1275 ft), which corresponds
roughly to the base of the Fuchanian. Alnus also appears
for the first time in the formations of Cerro de la Popa
(Popa Hill) in Cartagena (Sole de Porta, 1960), in the
middle of the bluish marl, which would indicate a
Quaternary age for this marl and the coral limestone on
the upper part of the hill.
Duenas and Castro (1981) studied samples from the
Las Palmas Member of the Mesa Formation in the Falan
region. As these samples were found to contain neither
Hedyosmum, Myrica nor Alnus, this member seems to
belong to the Lower Pliocene and should therefore
correspond to the Tequendamian.
There appears to be a clear biostratigraphic and
chronostratigraphic correlation between sediments of the
Tilata and Tunja formations on the high plains of
Cundinamarca and Boyaca (Van der Hammen et al.,
1973).
Correlation on and near the high plain of Bogota
Chronostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and lithostrati-
graphic correlation on and near the high plain of Bogota
seems possible, although certain problems remain to be
solved. The boundary between the Sabana and Subacho-
que formations in bore hole Funza-II may be placed at
320m (where layers of sand first appear) and the
boundary between the Subachoque and Tilata formations
at 468 m. The upper 'unnamed member' (Helmens, 1990;
Helmens and Van der Hammen, 1995) of the Tilata
Formation, therefore, corresponds to the 468 to 585 m
interval of bore hole Funza-IT, and is formally described
here as the Guali Member.
The Guali Member of the upper Tilata Formation.
Characteristic interval from 468 to 585 m in bore hole
Funza-II. The base should be younger than the upper
portion of the Guasca Member and rests on older rocks.
The upper limit of the Gualf Member corresponds to the
base of the interval correlated lithologically (and
biostratigraphically) with the Subachoque Formation.
This member consists of compacted grey and olive-green
clay, clayey silt and several layers of lignite and sand.
The sand is fine and exhibits biogenetic structures,
undulating fragments of organic matter and occasionally
gravel up to 5 mm in diameter. Some of these materials
show signs of being colluvial. The Gualf Member, as
described here, corresponds approximately to biozone
IV a and to the Chocontanian chronostratigraphic stage. Its
name is derived from Pantano de Gualf (Gualf Marsh);
bore hole Funza-11 was drilled close to this marsh.
The correlation between chronostratigraphy, biostrati-
graphy and lithostratigraphy on and near the high plain of
Bogota is shown in Figs 4 and 5. The original descriptions
of the lithostratigraphical units were given in Van der
Hammen et al. (1973), Helmens (1990) and Helmens and
Van der Hammen (1995).
The chronostratigraphic position of the Marichuela
Formation is not known precisely; it may be of late
Miocene or early Pliocene age. The Tllata Formation is
of Pliocene age. The Tequendama Member is Tequen-
damian (prov.) in age (early Pliocene; the possibility that
it includes some of the late Miocene should not be
excluded). The Tibagota Member is Facatativanian
(prov.) in age, the Guasca Member is Sisganian and
the Guali Member Chocontanian in age, but exact
boundaries and precise correlations have yet to be
determined.
The Subachoque Formation is basically Lower
Quaternary (Pleistocene) and corresponds to the Funza-
nian and the Engativanian (which would still be Late
Pliocene and correspond, climatically speaking, to the
transition from the Pliocene to the Quaternary). The upper
boundary possibly transgresses the time line. Accord-
ingly, the boundary in lateral areas of the high plain might
be somewhat younger, and somewhat older in the central
part.
The Sabana Formation is Fuchanian, Cotanian,
Subanian, Bacatanian, Fuquenian and, in part, Holocene
in age. The lower boundary may predate the chronostrati-
graphic boundary to some degree, including for example
part of the late Funzanian in the center of the high plain,
according to the upper boundary of the Subachoque
Formation.
The Cbia Formation corresponds to the Holocene and
probably includes part of the late Fuquenian as well.
These definitions and correlations allow for a better
definition of the position of sediments in the Choconta
zone, shown on map sheet 3 (in preparation) in the
90 T. Van der Hammen and H. Hooghiemstra
northern section of the Neogene and Quaternary map of
the high plain of Bogota, located in the upper Bogota
River Basin.
In the Choconta zone, the Tilata Formation has
intervals corresponding respectively to the Tequendamian
and Sisganian. The Facatativanian is probably represented
as well. The highest part corresponds mainly to fluviatile
sediments (the remains of a kind of giant fan east of
Choconta) and is probably Chocontanian (corresponding
to biozone IVa) in age. Therefore, it could correspond in
time approximately to the Guali Member (Upper Tilata
Formation). On the other hand, sediments with a strong
colluvial influence, found throughout this zone, seem to
be more recent, mainly biozone V and Funzanian in age.
These sediments might correspond to colluvial facies or
marginal solifluction of the Subachoque Formation, such
as those found in Sesquile and Guasca (Van der Hammen
et al., 1973; Bakker and Vander Wiel, 1984).
ACKNOWLEDGEMrnNTS
We thank T.C. Partridge for organizing the stimulating session 'The
Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary' and discussions during the XIV INQUA
congress in Berlin, August 1995. He is also thanked for constructive
comment on an earlier version of this paper.
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