INTERN

REPORT ON
HIGHWAY
SHUDDHASHIL GHOSH
2011UCE1063
ABSTRACT
Independent engineer service for
development and operation of
Chittorgarh Neemuch NH-79 section
(Km. 183.000 To Km. 221.400) &&
Nimbahera-Pratapgarh NH-113 section
(Km 5.4000 To 80.000) in the state of
Rajasthan through Public Private
Partnership (PPP) on Design, Built,
Finance, Operate and Transport (the
DBFOT) basis.



PAGE 1
Contents

1. Introduction
Project road description
Salient features
Scope of work
2. Project milestones
Project completion schedule and milestone
Extension of period
3. Preconstruction activities
Status of land acquision
Handing/taking over
Mobilization of Independent Engineer
4. Quality Control
All test for approval of source.
Test on aggregates.
Test of bitumen.
Test for soil, GSB, WMM.
Test for DBM.
Test for B.C.
5. Structural works
Foundation.
Sub-structure.
Super structure.
R.E. wall.
Reinforcement.
Pouring of concrete.
Curing of cement and its importance.
PAGE 2
6. Highway construction
Various layers of highway, their functions.
Construction sequence and methods.
Types of machinery used at site.
7. Survey
Center line fixit
TBM fixit
Levelling and checking of levels
8. Documentation- How various works is done in office.




























PAGE 3

INTRODUCTION
PAGE 4
INTRODUCTION
National Highway 79 (NH 79) is a National Highway that links Ajmer in
Rajasthan and Dhar in Madhya Pradesh. The highway is 500 km long, out of
which 220 km is in Rajasthan and 280 km is in Madhya Pradesh. The section
of NH-79 from Chittorgarh to Nimbahera & up to Madhya Pradesh border is
only 2 lane. The road portion from Chittorgarh to Ajmer has already been
developed as 4 lane under GQ. The road portion in Madhya Pradesh from
Naya Gaon to Indore has also been developed as 4 lane by Madhya Pradesh
State Road Development Corporation. The East & West side of Chittorgarh
has been developed as 4 lane road as East West corridor. The Traffic density
on Chittorgarh Madhya Pradesh border is very high and the present road is
not capable of sustaining the operational traffic resulting in frequent road
blocks & traffic jams.
PROJECT ROAD DESCRIPTION
1. Project NH-79 Chittorgarh to Neemuch including Nimbahera bypass,
starts from km 183.00 and ends at Km 227.080 in Neemuch, MP border.
The project road starts from Chittorgarh which is a famous tourist
place and has many cement industries and passes through Nimbahera
which is also known for cement industries and stones and finally it
ends at Neemuch which is also having Cement Industries, Agriculture
Business, and is a Major CRPF Center.
2. As the project road starts and passes through industrial areas, trucks
with double and multi axle are the major components of the traffic.
3. The existing highway is generally 2-lane wide except at some places.
One ROB at Km 222.160 is also 4-lane. The proposed NH-79 is having
two Bypasses namely Shambhupura Bypass (From Km 194+450 to Km
198+000) and Nimbahera Bypass (From Km 209+000 to Km 223+500).
The entire stretch traverses through the plain terrain. The pavement is
flexible having an earthen shoulder except in urban locations. NH-113
is 240 Km long connecting Nimbahera in Rajasthan and Dahod in
PAGE 5
Gujarat, out of which 200 Km is in Rajasthan and 40 Km in Gujarat.The
project stretch NH-113 starts at Km 0.00 (Nimbahera) and ends at Km
80.00 (Pratapgarh). The major towns on the project corridor are
Nimbahera, Chotti Sadri and Pratapgarh are the towns on NH 113
section. As part of this BoT project, two toll plazas are proposed on NH
113, located at Km 10.00 (Narasinga) and Km 70 (Kulmipura). The
project corridor, the main land utilized is agricultural on NH-113. The
stretch of NH 113 is currently with intermediate lane and is proposed to
be widened to 2 lane with earthen shoulder.








PAGE 6
SAILENT FEATURES

SR.NO
PARTICULARS DESCRIPTION
1
NAME OF PROJECT Development and operation of
NH-79 Of Chittorgarh -
Neemach (MP Border) Section
(PWD Km. 183.000
to Km. 221.400) or (Design Ch.
183.000 to 227.082)
by Four Laning and Nimbahera-
Partapgarh Section
(PWD Km. 5.400 to Km. 80.000)
or (Design Ch.
0.000 to 72.915) of NH-113 by
Two Laning in the
State of Rajasthan through PPP
on DBFOT-Toll basis
2
TOTAL LENGTH OF
PROJECT
116.997 KMS
A
NH-79 44.082 KMS
B
NH-113 72.915 KMS
3
Client / Authority The Chief Engineer, (NH-
PWD),Govt. of Rajasthan,
Jaipur
4
Independent Engineer Consulting Engineers Group Limited
5
Concessionaire Chetak Tollways Limited
(SPV of Chetak Enterprises Ltd.)
6
EPC Contractor Chetak Enterprises Limited
7
Date of signing of
Concession Agreement
05-September-2012
8
Appointed date 01-October-2013
9 Schedule Commercial
Operation Date
(COD)
30-September-2015
PAGE 7
10 Schedule Completion
Period of
Construction
730 Days from appointed Date (01-
Oct-2013)
11
Concession Period 19 Years including construction period

SCOPE OF WORK
The Scope of Project is as below:-
(a) Construction of the Project Highway on the Site set forth in
Schedule A and as specified in Schedule-B together with provision of
Project Facilities as specified in
Schedule-C, and in conformity with the Specifications and Standards
set forth in Schedule-D;
(b) Operation and Maintenance of the Project Highway is in
accordance with the provisions of the Agreement;
(c) Performance and fulfillment of all other obligations of the
Concessionaire in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement
and matters incidental thereto or necessary for the performance of any
or all of the obligations of the Concessionaire under this Agreement.
i. Construction of Four Lane Project Highway including Two Bypasses
and Construction of Two Lane Project Highways including Two
Bypasses, as described in Concession Agreement
ii. Operation and Maintenance of the Project Highway in accordance
with the provisions of Agreement
iii. Performance and fulfillment of all other obligations of the
Concessionaire in accordance with the provisions of Agreement.




PAGE 8
PROJECT
MILESTONE








PAGE 9
PROJECT MILESTONE
During construction period, the concessionaire shall comply with the
requirements set forth in schedule G for each of the project mile stone and
the scheduled four / two laning date with in 15 (fifteen) days of the date of
each project milestone, the concessionaire shall notify to the Authority of
such compliance along with necessary particulars.
PROJECT COMPLETION SEDULE AND MILESTONE

Sr.no
Milestones Period of
appointment
date
Completion
date
Description Remarks
1
Milestone -
I
200th day
19-April-2014

Concessionaire
shall have
commenced
construction
of Project
Highway and
expended not
less than 10
% of the total
capital cost set
forth in the
Financial
Package.
Achieved
2 Milestone-
II
410th day
15-Nov-2014

Concessionaire
shall have
commenced
construction
of all bridges
and
expended not
less than 35

PAGE 10
% of the total
capital cost
set forth in the
Financial
Package.
3 Milestone -
III
620th day
13-June-2015

Concessionaire
shall have
commenced
construction
of all Project
Facilities and
expended not
less than 70
% of the total
capital cost
set forth in the
Financial
Package.

4 Scheduled
Completion
Date
730th day
01-Oct-2015

Concessionaire
shall have
completed the
Four-Lane
Project
Highway in
accordance
with this
Agreement.



PAGE 11
PRE
CONSTRUCTION
ACTIVITIES







PAGE 12
PRE-CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
STATUS OF LAND ACQUISION
Consequent to availability of land, the handing over has been
completed between authority and concessionaire as per following
details, Appointed date has been declares as 01
st
Oct. 2013 and work
commenced at site as per approved programme and drawings.
HANDING AND TAKING OVER

PAGE 13

PAGE 14

PAGE 15
MOBILISATION OF INDEPENDENT ENGINEER
Independent Engineer has mobilized on the 07th June 2013 and the
camp office has been set up at Nimbahera as under:
Independent Engineer
Consulting Engineers Group Ltd.
Plot No. 3-4, Behind Ayyapa Temple
Goverdhan Nagar, Nimbahera
Distt. Chittorgarh, Rajasthan.
Required elements of key personnel and sub-professional staff have
also been mobilized at Nimbahera and the Independent Engineer team
fully functional. During the development period preceding appointed
date of 01 October 2013 required shop drawings have been finalized
and good for construction drawings issued to concessionaire. The
QA/QC manual and all reporting formats have been finalized details of
Independent Engineer set up is as follows:

PAGE 16
QUALITY
CONTROL













PAGE 17
Source of material
The contractor shall notify the engineer of his proposed source of
materials prior to delivery. If it is found that after trial that sources
of supply previously approved do not produce uniform and
satisfactory products or if the product from any other source
proves unacceptable at any time, the contractor shall furnish
acceptable material from other sources at his own expense.
1. BRICKS brunt clay bricks shall conform to requirements of
IS:1077 except that the minimum compressive strength when
tested shall not be less than 8.5MPa. for individual bricks and
10.5 MPa. for avg. of 5 specimen.
2. STONES the stones when emerged in water for 24 hrs. shall
not absorb water for more than 5% of their dry weight when
tested in accordance to IS:1124. The length of the stone shall
not exceed 3 times its height nor shall be less than twice its
height plus one joint.
3. CAST IRON cast iron shall conform to IS:210. The grade no.
of the material shall not be less than 14.
TEST FOR BITUMEN
1. Penetration test
2. Softening point test
3. Viscosity test
4. Ductility test
5. Marshal test
6. Bitumen extraction

PAGE 18
A. Penetration test
Aim to grade the material in terms of its hardness
Apparatus container (55 mm. dia., 35 mm. height), needle
(straight highly polished), water bath (maintained at 25 1
o
C, 10
liters of water),penetrometer (either manual or electrical),
transfer tray, stop water.
Procedure
1. Heat the bitumen to 90
o
C above the softening point.
2. Pour into the container at least 10mm above the expected
penetration.
3. Allow the sample containers to cool in atmospheric
temperature for one hour.
4. Place the sample containers in temperature controlled water
bath at a temperature of 25 1
0
C for a period of one hour.
5. Fill the transfer dish with water from water bath to cover the
container completely.
6. Take off the sample container from the water bath, place in
the transfer dish and place under the needle of penetrometer.
7. Adjust the needle to make contact with surface of the sample.
8. See the dial reading and release the needle exactly for 5 0.1
seconds.
9. Note the final reading.
10. The difference between the initial and final readings is taken
as the penetration value in one tenth of mm.
11. Make at least three determinations at points on the surface of
the sample not less than 10 mm apart and does not less than
10 mm from the side of the dish.
The liquid bitumen is stirred thoroughly to remove air bubbles.
The atmosphere temperature should not be less than 13
o
C. the
weight of needle, shaft & additional weight is 100 grams.
PAGE 19
Vg 10 -- 80-100
Vg 20 -- 60-80
Vg 30 -- 50-70
Vg 40 -- 40-60

Importance to determine penetration of bitumen.
B. Softening point test
Aim determine softening point of by ball and ring apparatus.
Apparatus ball (steel balls 2 nos., 9.5 mm dia. 2.5 0.005
gm), ring (brass ring 2 nos. 6.5 mm dia., with three equally
spaced ball guides, inside dia. 17.5 mm at top and 15.9 mm at
bottom), support (used for placing of ring, the upper surface of
ring is adjusted to be 50 mm below surface of water. Dist.
between bottom of ring and bottom plate is 25 mm),
thermometer (0-300
o
C, sensitivity 0.1
o
C), bath & stirrer ( a heat
resistant glass container of 25 mm dia. & 120 mm depth is used)
PAGE 20
Procedure
1. Collect the bitumen.
2. Heat the bitumen to 125
0
150
0
C.
3. Heat the rings at same temperature on a hot plate and place it
on a glass plate coated with glycerin.
4. Fill up the rings with bitumen.
5. Cool it for 30 minutes in air and level the surface with a hot
knife.
6. Set the ring in the assembly and place it in the bath
containing distilled water at 5
0
C and maintain that
temperature for 15 minutes.
7. Place the balls on the rings.
8. Raise the temperature uniformly @ 5 0.5
0
C per minute till
the ball passes through the rings and touches the bottom
plate.
9. Note the temperature at which each of the ball and sample
touches the bottom plate of the support.
10. Temperature shall be recorded as the softening point of that
bitumen.

Vg 10 min. 40
Vg 20 min. 45
Vg 30 min. 47
Vg 40 min. 50
Importance it gives us idea about the impurities present in bitumen as
impurities will lower the softening point.
PAGE 21

Importance to determine presence of impurities.

C. Viscosity test
Aim to determine viscosity off bitumen in poise.
Apparatus vacuum pump, water bath, oil bath, cannon-
manning vacuum capillary viscometer.
Procedure
1. Take bitumen in test tube and temperature of it should be
200
o
C.
PAGE 22
2. Put the tube in oil bath (in kinetic viscosity meter apparatus)
for 10 mins. which is maintained at a temperature of 135
o
C.
3. Take of the tube and place in absolute viscosity meter
machine in which the water is maintained at a temperature of
60
o
C for hrs.
4. Connect the vacuum pump (maintained at 30 mm of Hg.) to
the leaner part of the tube.
5. The bitumen starts to rise to the first line (A).
6. When it reaches A line, start stop watch.
7. Note the time it takes to reach the second line(B), similarly
note the time it takes to reach the third line (C).
Calculations
Viscosity 1 =time taken from A to B X correction factor for
A to B
Viscosity2 = time taken from B to C X correction factor for B to
C

Viscosityavg. = (viscosity1 + viscosity2)/2
Unit poise/sec.

The correction factor for each tube is given by manufacturer.
Vg 10 800
Vg 20 1600
Vg 30 2400
Vg 40 3200
PAGE 23

Importance to determine the rolling temp of bitumen
D. Ductility test
Importance the binder should form thin ductile film around
aggregate. This proves as satisfactory binder in improving the
physical interlocking of aggregates.
Aim to determine ductility.
Apparatus ductility machine, knife, briquette molds.
PAGE 24
Procedure
1. The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature of 75 to
1000C above the approximate softening point until it is
fluid.
2. It is strained through 90 micron sieve, poured in the mould
assembly and placed on a brass plate, after a solution of
glycerin and dextrin is applied at all surfaces of the mould
exposed to bitumen.
3. After 30 to 40 minutes, the plate assembly along with the
sample is placed in water bath maintained at 270C for 30
minutes.
4. The sample and mould assembly are removed from water
bath and leveling the surface using hot knife cuts off excess
bitumen material.
5. After trimming the specimen, the mould assembly-
containing sample is replaced in water bath maintained at
270C for 85 to 95 minutes.
6. The sides of the mould are now removed and the clips are
carefully hooked on the machine without causing any initial
strain.
7. The pointer is set to zero, the machine is started and the
two clips are pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed of
50 +/- 2.5mm per minute. While the test is in operation, it is
checked whether the sample is immersed in water at depth
of at least 10mm.
8. The distance, at which the bitumen thread of each specimen
breaks, is recorded (in cm) to report as ductility value.
Vg 10 min. 75
Vg 20 min. 50
PAGE 25
Vg 30 min. 40
Vg 40 min. 25

Importance - to determine the elastic property of bitumen


PAGE 26
E. Marshal test
Aim determine stability, flow, voids, voids in mineral
aggregates, voids filled with asphalt & density of asphalt mixture.
Apparatus specimen mould assembly ( 75 mm high), specimen
extractor, compacting hammer (4.kg. , free fall of 475 mmm),
compaction pedestal, loading machine (a calibrated proving ring
of 5 ton is fixed & a movement of 50 mm/min.), flow meter.
Procedure
1. Clean the compaction mould assembly and hammer and keep
them pre-heated to a temperature of 95 150 Degree Celsius.
Place a paper disk in the mould.
2. Take approx. 1200 gm. bituminous mix and place it in a
mould. Spade the mixture vigorously with a heated spatula or
trowel 15 times around the perimeter and ten times over the
interior.
3. Compact by the rammer, with 75 blows on each side, the
compacting temperature being 149 Degree Celsius for 60 / 70
grade bitumen. The compacted specimen should have a
thickness of 63.5mm.
4. Soon after the bituminous mix specimens have cooled to
room temperature, extract them from the mould.
5. Number the specimens and note down the average thickness
of each specimen.
6. Keep the specimens immersed under water, in a
thermostatically controlled water bath, maintained at 60 plus
or minus 1 Degree Celsius for 30 to 40 minutes.
7. Clean the Marshall test head and attach the flow dial gauge.
8. Take the specimens one by one out of water, place in the
Marshall Test Head, Keep under the loading machine and
apply the load at constant rate of deformation, 51 mm per
minute, until failure occurs.
PAGE 27
9. Note down the maximum load carried in Kg. before failure
(i.e. the stability) and the deformation corresponding to the
maximum load in units of 0.25mm (i.e. the flow).
10. Apply the correction to the observed stability if the average
thickness of the specimen is not exactly 63.5mm.
For BC/DBM (grade 1)
- Min. stability (KN at 60
o
C) = 900 (for grade 2 2000)
- Min. flow = 2mm
- Max flow = 4mm
- No. of blows = 75 on each face
- % air voids = 3-6
- % VMA = 10-12
- % VFB = 65-75
Importance the stability gives us the minimum vertical load that the road
can sustain. The flow gives us idea about the elastic property of bitumen, ie,
stretching without breaking. The bitumen should only stretch between the
specified limits or it will break.
PAGE 28

PAGE 29

F. Bitumen extraction by centrifugal extractor
Procedure
1. A representative sample (approx.. 500 g) to be exactly weighed
and placed in the bowl of the extraction apparatus.
2. Cover the sample with commercial grade Benzene.
3. The mixture is allowed to stand for about one hour before
starting the motor.
4. The dried filter ring is weighed and then fitted around edge of
the bowl and the cover of the bowl is clamped tightly.
5. A beaker is placed under the drain to collect the extract.
6. The machine is revolved and the speed is maintained till the
solvent ceases to flow from the drain.
7. The machine is allowed to stop and 200ml of benzene is added to
the bowl and the procedure is repeated.
8. The filter ring is removed, the residual material is dried first in
air and then in oven at constant temperature of 110
0
C 5
0
C till
constant weight is obtained (W1).
9. Filter the extract through a filter paper.
10. Dry the filter paper in the oven and determine the weight of
fines attached to filter paper (W2).
11. Determine the amount of mineral matter in the extract (W4).
12. Calculate the % bitumen in the test portion as follows:
13. Bitumen Content, % = [ { W - (W1+W2+W4) } / (W1) ] x 100
PAGE 30

Importance to determine if adequate bitumen is added to
aggregate.
SOME INFO.
a. The bitumen is brought to sufficient fluidity or viscosity before use in
pavement const. by any one of the following 3 methods
- By heating in form of hot bitumen binder.
- By dissolving in light oils in form of cutback bitumen.
- By dispersion of bitumen in water, in form of bituminous
emulsion.
b. The paving bitumen in India is classified in 2 categories.
- Paving bitumen from Assam Petroleum denoted as A-type.
- Paving bitumen from other sources denoted as S-type.
c. Cutback bitumen is defined as the bitumen the viscosity of which has
been reduced by a volatile diluent. For use in surface dressing and
some types of bituminous macadam. Cutback bitumen is available in
three types
PAGE 31
- Rapid curing
- Medium curing
- Slow curing
d. Bitumen emulsions is a liquid product in which a substantial amount
of bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous
medium and stabilized by means of one or more suitable materials.
The main advantage of emulsions are that
- They can be used without heating.
- Particularly useful for patch repair works.
- Can be used even when surface is wet or when its raining.

3 types of emulsions can be prepared.
- Rapid setting (RS) for penetration and surface treatment.
- Medium setting (MS) used for plant mixes with coarse
aggregate.
- Slow setting (SS) used for fine aggregate mixes.
PAGE 32

e. Additive any substance which is added in small amount to bitumen
to impart some particular properties. Eg. Improved adhesion,
emulsification, etc.
f. Antifoam agent a substance like silicon oil which when added to
bitumen will reduce the surface tension and hence frothing of hot
bitumen in presence of water.
g. PMB bitumen binder containing selected polymers to produce
enhance performance characteristics.

Vg 40
Used in highly stressed areas such as those in
intersections, near toll booths and parking lots.
Vg 30
Used for paving in most of India.
Vg 20
Used for paving in cold climates, high altitude
of North India.
Vg 10
Used in spraying application (tack coat, prime
coat) and for paving in very cold climates.








PAGE 33

TEST ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE
1. Normal consistency of cement.
2. Initial and final setting time.
3. Soundness of cement.
4. Workability of concrete.
5. Compressive strength of concrete.

A. Normal consistency of cement
Apparatus vicat apparatus with plunger (10mm dia.)
Theory the standard consistency of cement is defined as that
consistency at which the vicat plunger penetrate to a point 5 to 7
mm from bottom of vicat mould.
Procedure
1. Weight 400 g. of cement and place it on a glass plate. Mix with
water, starting from 25% and prepare a paste.
2. Fill the paste in Vicat mould without forming any air bubbles
and strike off the excess paste. The time of gauging is not less
than 3 mins. , nor more than 5 mins. The gauging time shall be
counted from the time of adding water to the dry cement until
commencing to fill the mould.
3. Place and filled mould under the plunger of Vicat apparatus.
Lower the plunger gently to touch the surface of the test block
and quickly release.
4. Note the reading of penetration, when the plunger stops
penetrating.
PAGE 34
5. Repeat the test with increased percentage of water till the
plunger penetrates to a point, 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the
mould.
6. The percentage of water (amount of water as a percentage by
Wt. of the Dry cement) corresponding to that particular
penetration, gives the normal consistency of cement.
The room temperature should be 27
o
2
o
C.
Importance to determine the water content for test of soundness
and initial and final setting time.
B. Initial and final setting time
Apparatus the vicat apparatus
Initial setting time
1. Prepare a cement paste with water equal to 0.85 P (P normal
consistency of cement) start the stop watch at the time of
adding the water to the cement.
2. Fill the paste in the Vicat mound and smooth off the surface.
3. Place the mould under the rod of Vicat apparatus, under the
rod bearing the needle. Lower the needle gently to bring it in
contact with the surface of the mould, and quickly release.
4. Note down the penetration of needle.
5. Repeat the procedure of penetration until the needle fails to
penetrate beyond a point, 5 0.5 mm from bottom of the
mould.
6. The time period elapsed between the instant at which water is
added to the cement to the time at which the needle gives the
specific penetration; gives the initial setting time of the
cement.


PAGE 35
Final setting time
1. Replace the needle of Vicat apparatus by a needle with an
annular attachment.
2. Lower the angular attachment to the surface of the test block
and gently release.
3. Repeat this procedure until the needle makes an impression
on the surface of the mould, while the annular attachment
fails to do so.
4. Note down the time elapsed between the instant at which
water is added to the cement, to the end point specified,
which gives the final setting time of the cement.
Initial setting time min. 30 mins
Final setting time max. 600 mins
Importance to determine the time in which we have to mix the concrete
and place it.
C. Soundness of cement (le chartlier method)
Apparatus small split cylinder of spring brass or other suitable
metal of 0.5 mm thickness, forming a mould of 30mm dia. &
30mm. high. On either sides are attached 2 indicators with
pointed ends & dist. between cylinders and ends is 165 mm.
Procedure
1. Prepare a cement paste with quantity of water equal to 0.78 P
(P Normal consistency of cement).
2. Fill the mould of Le-Chartlier apparatus, with the paste, place
it on a glass plate. Place another glass plate on the top.
3. Immediately place the whole assembly in water maintained at
27
0
c.
4. After 24 hours, determine the distance between pointers,
nearest to 0.5mm.
PAGE 36
5. Place the mould in a water bath and heat the water to boiling
and keep the mould at that temperature for three hours.
6. Remove the mould from water, allow to cool and again
measure the distance between the pointers.
7. The difference between the initial and final measurements of
the distance between the pointers, represent the soundness of
cement which is expressed in mm.
Important - Expansion should not be more than 10 mm.

D. Compressive strength of concrete
Apparatus testing machine (10 KN least count).
Age at test 3, 7, 14 & 28 days.
No. of specimen at least 3 specimens from different batches
for each selected age.
Procedure
1. Fill the mould with freshly mixed concrete in 3 equal layers,
compact it with tamping bar giving 35 blows in each layer
uniformly and finally level off with the trowel. Mark the date
of casting, cube no and the identification of member.
2. Keep the specimen in moist air of at least 90% relative
humidity and at a temp of 27 plus or minus 2 Degree Celsius
for 24 hours. Alternatively, cover the moulds with wet gunny
bags.
3. After specified time period is over remove the specimen from
the mould and submerge it in clean fresh water, maintained
at a temp of 27 plus or minus 2 Degree Celsius till the cube is
ready is for test.
4. Take out the cube after for 3,7,14, 28 days as required and
wipe off the surface water with cloth.
PAGE 37
5. Note down the dimensions and weigh the cube and then
place it in the compression testing machine.
6. Apply the load on the cube at the rate of 140 Kg / Sq. cm. /
Min. till it fails. Record the maximum load applied.
7. The compressive strength is calculated in N / MM
2
by
dividing the maximum load taken in Newtons by the cross
sectional area of the cube calculated from the mean
dimension of the section

3 days 40% compaction
7 days 72% compaction
28 days 100% compaction


Taking an example of M30 grade concrete on 3
th
day testing
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% compaction
PAGE 38
(Theoretical)
Since the test is done on 7
th
day the compaction is 72 %
Hence the strength of concrete is = 72/100 30 area of cube ( 15
15 = 225 cm
2
)
= 4860
(Practical)
Put the block in machine and record the reading upto which the
dial stops. Let it be x
x/ area(22.5) = strength

- Take 3 readings
- Take avg. of three readings ( suppose y)
- Take 15% of the avg.
The variations in the reading should be between y 0.15y.
Generally the readings comes greater than the theoretical value.
Importance - to know how much strength is developed in the
concrete after a specific period of time.
E. Slump test
Apparatus -1) Mould in form of frustum of a cone whose
dimensions are as follows: top dia. 10mm.
bottom dia. 20 mm.
height 30 cm.
2) Tamping rod (16 mm dia., 0.6 meter long)
PAGE 39
Procedure
1. Clean the internal surface of the Slump mould thoroughly.
2. Fill the concrete sample in the mould in 4 layers, each layer
approximately of the height of the mould.
3. In case of the concrete containing aggregate of maximum size
more than 38 mm, the concrete shall be wet-sieved through
38 mm screen to exclude aggregates particles bigger than 38
mm.
4. Tamp each layer 25 times by tamping rod.
5. When the mould is filled, cut off the excess concrete, to the
level of the top of the cone.
6. Immediately remove the mould, by raising it slowly in vertical
direction, allowing the concrete to subside.
7. Place the mould by the side of subsided concrete.
8. Measure the difference in level between the height of the
mould and the highest point of the concrete, in millimeters,
and record it as slump.
9. Inspect the type of slump and record it.
Importance to determine the workability of concrete
SOME INFO.
a. As the water content increases the strength of concrete decreases.
b. Hence high slump concrete will have more workability but less
strength.
c. Slumps of some structural parts

Raft
40-50 mm.
Pier
50-70 mm.
PCC
30 mm.
PAGE 40

d. More workability means internal friction is reduced


TEST ON SOILS
1. Free swell index
2. CBR
3. Determination of MDD (proctor test)
4. Liquid limit
5. Plastic limit
6. Flakiness and elongation index
7. FDD by sand replacement method

A. Free swell index
Procedure
1. Take 2 samples of 10 g each of oven dried soil passing through
IS 425 micron sieve.
2. Pour soil specimens in 2 separate glass graduated cylinders of
100 ml capacity.
3. Fill are cylinder with kerosene and the other cylinder with
distilled water up to 100 ml mark.
4. Stir the sample gently to remove entrapped air and allow it to
stand for 24 hours.
5. The difference in readings of both the cylinders shall be
expressed in % of volume of soil in kerosene, to give the free
swell index of soil.
PAGE 41
Importance to determine the quality of soil and can the
road be constructed on it.
B. CBR testing (static and dynamic method)
Compaction by static method
1. Find the weight of oiled empty CBR mould with base plate
and filter paper placed in.
2. Calculate the weight of soil required at OMC by using the
formula. CBR= % of compaction required x MDD (in g / CC)
x (1+OMC)/100 x Volume of mould
3. Take 6 Kg. of dry soil and mix it thoroughly after adding the
quantity of water required to bring it to a state at which it can
be compacted to attain its maximum dry density.
4. Take the required quantity from this as calculated above.
5. Place this soil in the mould in 2 or 3 layers by ramming the
layers lightly by a disc so that a leveled surface is attained.
6. Over the compacted specimen place one spacer disc
approximately equal to 1/3
rd
height of the compacted
specimen.
7. Then compress it in a compressing machine or any similar
suitable apparatus till the spacer is just pushed to the top of
the mould. Remove the spacer disc.

Compaction by dynamic method
1. Take 5 - 6 Kg. of oven dried soil.
2. Add water (optimum water content required to attain max.
dry density) to it and mix it thoroughly.
3. Take the empty weight of oiled CBR mould.
4. Fit the collar to the mould.
5. Place a spacer disc in it and then place one filter paper over it.
6. Then, fill the soil mixture in the mould in 5 layers by giving 10
blows to each layer.
PAGE 42
7. Remove the collar and trim it off by a straight edge.
8. Then remove the mould from base plate, take the spacer disc
out.
9. Invert the mould and fix it in position on the base plate after
placing a filter paper.
Finding degree of compaction & swell index
1. After compaction, weigh the mould with specimen.
2. Find the weight of the specimen.
3. Take a portion of the remaining sample left in the tray and
find the moisture content.
4. Find the dry density and compare it with the maximum dry
density and find the degree of compaction (%) by comparing
this with the maximum dry density.
Determination of swell index
1. After weighing the moulds, place the surcharge weights
(Equal to the Wt. of Pavement) to the nearest 2.5 kg a
perforated disk connected with an adjustable stem place this
assembly in the mould.
2. Place the tripod having the micrometer in place and adjust
the stem to touch the micrometer indicator and find the
initial reading on the micrometer.
3. Then place the mould in water tank and soak for 96 hours.
4. After 96 hours, find the micrometer reading.
5. Find the difference in reading.
6. Find the swell index by dividing the swell by the height of the
specimen before soaking. Express this in percentage.
CBR testing
1. After 96 hours of soaking and after measuring the swell, find
the weight of the mould with soaked specimen.
PAGE 43
2. Drain the excess water by keeping the specimen vertically or
by tilting for 10-15 min (for sandy specimen no titling is
required.)
3. Remove the filter paper on the specimen and keep it in the
CBR testing machine.
4. Place the same surcharge weight used when soaking.
5. Adjust the penetration measuring micrometer on the
platform on which the CBR mould containing the specimen
rests, to show penetration when the specimen is loaded.
6. The plunger shall be seated under a load of 4 kg so that full
contact is established between the surface of the specimen
and the plunger.
7. Start loading the specimen at the rate of 1.25 mm/min, after
adjusting the penetration dial and the proving ring to zero
mark.
8. Note the deflections in the dial gauge of the proving ring for
corresponding penetrations as per the requirement. (in our
case, deflections, are noted for penetrations of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5,
3, 4,5, 7.5, 10, 12, 12.5mm of the plunger).
9. Convert the deflections in to loads and plot them against
penetrations (in mm).
10. Find any correction required to be applied for the loads (when
an S-type curve is formed the lower bend can be corrected by
drawing a straight line.
11. Correct the loads by shifting the points actually plotted, (if a
correction of 0.5 is observed, instead of taking deflection for
penetration of 2.5mm, deflection for 3mm shall be taken).
12. Take the load for 2.5mm and 5mm (for corrected curves,
corrected load shall be taken).
13. Take the load for 2.5mm and 5mm (for corrected curves,
corrected load shall be taken).
PAGE 44
14. Find the CBR values for these penetrations by using the
formula.
15. CBR = PT 100/ Ps
16. Where
PT = Load corresponding to the chosen penetration.
Ps = Standard load corresponding to the chosen penetration
as for PT taken from the table given below.

Penetration depth (mm)
Total standard load (kgf)
2.5
1370
5.0
2055
17. The CBR value shall be considered grater of the two values.
18. Repeat the same procedure with 35 & 65 blows respectively.
19. Draw a graph between the Dry Densities and the CBR Values.
Calculate the CBR at required % of compaction (Dry Density).
C. MDD test
Procedure
1. Take the weight of the mould and the soil (m2).
2. Find out the water content as per IS 2720 Part-II.
3. Calculate the Bulk Density and Dry Density.
4. Repeat the same procedure for various percentages of water
until the weight of the mould + soil attains a peak and starts
reducing with increase in water content. So that a minimum
of 5 points are available to plot the graph between dry density
and moisture content.
5. By using the graph between dry density and moisture content,
find the maximum dry density and the corresponding
moisture content and report as MDD and OMC, respectively.
PAGE 45
6. For compacting soil containing coarse material up to 37.5 mm
IS Sieve, the 2250 cc mould should be used. A sample
weighing about 30 kg is used for the test. Soil is compacted in
5 layers, each layer being given 55 blows of 4.9 kg rammer.
7. Take the weight of the mould and the soil (m2).
8. Find out the water content as per IS 2720 Part-II.
9. Calculate the Bulk Density and Dry Density.
10. Repeat the same procedure for various percentages of water
until the weight of the mould + soil attains a peak and starts
reducing with increase in water content. So that a minimum
of 5 points are available to plot the graph between dry density
and moisture content.
11. By using the graph between dry density and moisture content,
find the maximum dry density and the corresponding
moisture content and report as MDD and OMC, respectively.

12. For compacting soil containing coarse material up to 37.5 mm
IS Sieve, the 2250 cc mould should be used. A sample
weighing about 30 kg is used for the test. Soil is compacted in
5 layers, each layer being given 55 blows of 4.9 kg rammer.
13. FDD/MDD = 98% for subgrade & 95% for embankment.

Height of fall of hammer = 180 cm
Mould height = 18 cm
PAGE 46
Collar height = 6.5 cm
Dia. of mould = 17 cm


ATTERBERG LIMITS

D. Liquid limit (casagrande apparatus)
Procedure
1. Take 120gm of specimen passing 425-micron IS Sieve and
mix it thoroughly with distilled water, to form a uniform
paste.
2. Take a portion of the paste and place it in the cup above the
spot where the cup rests on the base, squeezed down and
spread.
3. Trim to a depth of one centimeter at the point of maximum
thickness, returning the excess soil to the dish.
4. Cut the soil in the cup with the standard grooving tool, along
the center line of the cam follower so that a clean, sharp
groove of proper dimensions is formed.
5. Immediately start rotating the handle at a rate of 2
revolutions per second.
6. Count the number of blows till both the parts of the sample
come into contact at the bottom of the groove, along a
distance of about 12mm.
7. Record the number of blows and determine the moisture
content of the sample, taken near the closed groove at right
angles to the groove.
8. Repeat the test by adding soil mixture, so that the number of
blows to close the groove is between 35 and 15.
PAGE 47
9. Plot a graph with number of blows in logarithmic scale and
corresponding moisture content in natural scale, and fit a
straight line.
10. Read the moisture content corresponding to 25 number of
blows from the graph, which gives the liquid limit of the soil.

E. Plastic limit
Procedure
1. Mix about 20gm. of soil passing 425-micron IS Sieve, with
distilled water.
2. Take approximately 8 gm. of soil from the mix. Make a ball
and roll it on a glass plate, with hand to make a thread.
3. When the diameter of 3mm is reached re-mould the soil again
to a ball. Keep 3mm MS bars to have dia. comparison.
4. Repeat the process of rolling and re-moulding until the thread
crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and the soil
no longer be rolled into a thread.
5. The crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter
greater than 3 mm. This shall be considered a satisfactory end
point, provided the soil has been rolled in to a thread 3 mm in
diameter immediately before.
6. At no time shall an attempt be made to produce failure at
exactly 3 mm diameter by allowing the thread to reach 3 mm,
then reducing the rate of rolling or pressure or both and
continuing the rolling without further deformation until the
thread falls apart.
7. Determine the moisture content of the crumbled threads.
8. Repeat the test twice more, with fresh portion of the soil mix.
9. The average of moisture contents determined in the three
trials, gives the plastic limit of the soil.
PAGE 48




F. Flakiness and elongation index
Procedure
1. Take a representative sample and sieve the sample through IS
sieve 63,50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16,12.5,10 and 6.3mm
2. Separate the flaky material by using the standard flakiness
gauge.
3. Take the wt. of flaky material which passes through standard
gauge.
4. The flakiness index = weight of material passing the gauge
100 / total weight of sample
5. Take the non-flaky portion of the sample tested and take
weight (W2 gm).
6. Separate elongated material by using standard elongation
gauge and take weight.
7. The Elongation Index = Wt. of elongated particles 100 /
Sample Tested (W2)
8. Combined Flakiness and Elongation Index = FI + EI.

G. FDD by sand replacement method
Procedure
1. Clean and level the surface.
2. Place the metal tray with central hole on the prepared surface.
3. Excavate a hole 150mm deep / and collect the excavated
material in a container (Polythene bags).
PAGE 49
4. Take the weight of the excavated soil / material.
5. Pour the standard sand (passing 1 mm and retaining 600-
micron) in the cylinder upto top (leave 1-cm from top) and
take the weight.
6. Place the sand pouring cylinder centrally over the excavated
hole.
7. Open the shutter till the sand fills the excavated hole and the
cone completely (Seeing the movement of sand in the
Cylinder).
8. Close the shutter and take the weight of the cylinder with
remaining sand.
9. Determine the moisture content of excavated soil / material.
10. Determine the bulk & dry densities of excavated soil
11. Calculate the degree of compactions by comparing the field
dry density with the MDD determined in the laboratory.

W = fixed for every cylinder (weight of sand in cone)
Ww = weight of sample
W1 = weight of sand + cylinder (before pouring)
W2 = weight of sand + cylinder (after pouring)

W3 = W1 - W2 W
W3 = (weight of sand in hole)
V (volume of hole) = W3/s (fixed for every cylinder)
b = Ww/V
FDD = b 100 / (1+m)
m= OMC
PAGE 50

SOME INFO.
1. If P.I. > 45%, there will be crack in case of vertical load.
P.I. = LL PL
2. FSI if testing is done, there should not be more than 50% FSI
3. CBR it give us an idea about how strong is the ground. The projects
CBR is 13.
4. The more the CBR, the less is the thickness required.
5. In bitumen mixes and bases (SG, GSB, WMM) we do not need flaky
particles as they tend to break up during rolling process.
6. FI - % by weight of particles whose least dimension (i.e. thickness) is
less than three fifths of mean dia.
7. EI - % by weight of particles whose largest dimension (i.e. length) is
greater than one & fourth-fifths times its mean dimension.

PAGE 51
STRUCTURE











PAGE 52
RETAINING WALL
Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to
unnatural slopes. They are used to bound soils between two
different elevations often in areas of terrain possessing
undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be
shaped severely and engineered for more specific purposes like
hillside farming or roadway overpasses.
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist
the lateral pressure of soil when there is a desired change in
ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.








1. Gravity walls depend on their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy
material) to resist pressure from behind and may have a 'batter'
setback to improve stability by leaning back toward the retained soil.
For short landscaping walls, they are often made from mortarless stone
or segmental concrete units (masonry units). Dry-stacked gravity walls
are somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing in frost areas.
Home owners who build larger gravity walls that do require a rigid
concrete footing can make use of the services of a professional
PAGE 53
excavator, which will make digging a trench for the base of the gravity
wall much easier.
2. Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-
reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often in the
shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever loads (like a beam) to a
large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures from behind
the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes
cantilevered walls are buttressed on the front, or include a counterfort
on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads. Buttresses
are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These
walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This
type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.
3. Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces.
Sheet pile walls are made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are
driven into the ground. For a quick estimate the material is usually
driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be altered
depending on the environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-
back anchor, or "dead-man" placed in the soil a distance behind the
face of the wall, that is tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod.
Anchors are then placed behind the potential failure plane in the soil.
4. An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the
aforementioned styles but also includes additional strength using
cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind it. Usually
driven into the material with boring, anchors are then expanded at the
end of the cable, either by mechanical means or often by injecting
pressurized concrete, which expands to form a bulb in the soil.
Technically complex, this method is very useful where high loads are
expected, or where the wall itself has to be slender and would
otherwise be too weak.
PAGE 54

Cantilever retaining wall

R.E. WALL (segmental retaining wall)
Segmental retaining wall consists of modular concrete blocks that interlock
with each other. They are used to hold back a sloping face of soil to provide a
solid vertical front. Without adequate retention the slopes can cave, slump
or slide.
Segmental retaining wall consists of a facing system and a lateral tieback
system. The facing system usually consists of modular concrete blocks that
interlock with each other and with the lateral restraining members. The
PAGE 55
lateral tiebacks are usually geogrids that are buried in the stable area of the
backfill. In addition to supporting the walls the geogrids also stabilizes the
soil behind the walls. These two factors allow higher and steeper walls to be
constructed.
To build a RE wall we use segmental blocks of concrete. These are pre cast
blocks and they come in many shapes and sizes. The segmental blocks have a
key made so they interlock with each other without the need of any mortar.
First we excavate the ground upto which the wall has to be made. The depth
of excavation is more in the central portion of flyover than the ends.
After excavating we do PCC in the base the dimensions are as shown:
After doing PCC we place the blocks one over other till it reaches the
required height. We ram filler material in the blocks so that they dont move
by increasing the overall weight and friction of the block.
The thickness of the filler material per layer is equal to the thickness of the
segmental block, i.e. 200mm
We also use geo grit as to make a grip on blocks. Geo grit is attached after 1
st
,
3
rd
, 7
th
, 10
th
, 13
th
, 16
th
, 19
th
.etc.
The advantages of R.E. wall over the conventional reinforcement wall are :-
1. More economical
2. Easy to construct
3. No curing required
4. Structure is constructed quickly
5. No specially skilled labour required.
6. No problem of rusting of reinforcement.
7. Horizontal and vertical curvatures
8. A wide variety of colors, sizes and textures.
9. Easy grade changes.
PAGE 56
10. No need for a concrete footing.

But the conventional one has greater strength and durability than the RE.
We use baby rollers only for the compaction of filler media. We dont use
bigger rollers as they can displace the blocks from their alignment and due
to their bigger size they can damage the blocks if attention is not paid.


Geo grit
Filler material
Key
PAGE 57

Segmental retaining wall


SUPERSTRUCTURE
A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a
baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of physical structures such as
buildings, bridges.
In order to improve the response during earthquakes of buildings and
bridges, the superstructure might be separated from its foundation by
various civil engineering mechanisms or machinery.
On a bridge, the portion of the structure that is the span and directly
receives the live load is referred to as the superstructure. In contrast, the
abutment, piers, and other support structures are called the substructure.

PAGE 58

SUBSTRUCTURE
1. In buildings the substructure consists of foundation.
2. In bridges the abutment, piers, and other support structures including
the foundation is called substructure.
Its function is to transmit the load to the ground. It provides a base.
CURING OF CONCRETE AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Curing is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of
moisture and kept within a reasonable temperature range. This process
results in concrete with increased strength and decreased permeability.
Curing is also a key player in mitigating cracks, which can severely affect
durability.
Concrete bridges require a higher standard of curing to achieve the low
permeability required for protection of steel reinforcement. Standard
recommendations for curing bridge decks is moist curing for a minimum
of seven days for concrete mixtures containing only portland cement and as
long as 14 days when supplementary cementing materials are included in the
concrete mixture. Some states also require the application of curing
compound upon removal of the moist curing methods.
PAGE 59

Curing of concrete using gunny bags

FOUNDATION
A foundation is the lowest and supporting layer of a structure. Foundations
are generally divided into two categories: shallow foundations and deep
foundations
1. Shallow foundation
Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded
about a metre or so into soil. One common type is the spread
footing which consists of strips or pads of concrete (or other
materials) which extend below the frost line and transfer the
weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock.
Another common type of shallow foundation is the slab-on-
grade foundation where the weight of the building is transferred
to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface. Slab-on-
grade foundations can be reinforced mat slabs, which range from
PAGE 60
25 cm to several meters thick, depending on the size of the
building, or post-tensioned slabs, which are typically at least 20
cm for houses, and thicker for heavier structures.

2. Deep foundation
A deep foundation is used to transfer the load of a structure
down through the upper weak layer of topsoil to the stronger
layer of subsoil below. There are different types of deep footings
including impact driven piles, drilled shafts, caissons, helical
piles, geo-piers and earth stabilized columns. The naming
conventions for different types of footings vary between different
engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced
concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete.

Types of shallow foundation
1. Strip footing
The strip footing is employed in case of a load-bearing wall. The strip
footing is also used for a row of columns that are very closely held and
spaced such that their spread footing overlap or tends to nearly touch
each other. In such cases it is more economical and effective to use a
strip footing than to use a number of spread footings held in a single
line. Thus, a strip footing is also called as continuous footing.
2. Spread footing
The spread/isolated/pad footing is generally constructed to support an
individual column. The spread footing may be circular, square or
rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes it may be designed
as stepped or to spread/distribute the load over a larger area.
3. Combined footing
The combined footing is designed to support two parallel columns. It
is principally used when the two columns are so close that to one
PAGE 61
another that their individual footing would overlap. The combined
footing may also be constructed when the property line is so close to
column that a spread footing gets eccentrically loaded if kept within
the property lines. Thus, by combining it with that of an interior
column, the load gets evenly/uniformly distributed. The combined
footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal.
4. Raft foundation
The mat/raft foundation is a big slab supporting a number of columns
and walls its entire structure or in a large part of the structure. The
mat is efficient when the permissible soil pressure smaller or where the
columns and walls are very close such that individual footing gets
overlap or nearly touched each other.
The mat foundations are efficient in eliminating the differential
settlement on the non-homogeneous soils or where there is a large
variation in loads on the individual columns.

PAGE 62


TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATION
1. Pile foundation
Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation
loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock
strata having a high bearing capacity. They are used when for
economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is
desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of
shallow foundations. In addition to supporting structures, piles are
also used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist
structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces.
2. Pier foundation
Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is
constructed in situ in a deep excavation.
PAGE 63

Pier foundation at chainage 217+695

3. Well foundation
Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above
ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging
material from within the caisson.

CULVERTS
A culvert is a structure that allows water to flow under a road, railroad, trail,
or similar obstruction. Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a
culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other material. A
structure that carries water above land is known as an aqueduct. Culverts
may be used to form a bridge-like structure to carry traffic. Culverts come in
many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, pear-
shaped, and box-like constructions. Culverts may be made of concrete,
galvanized steel, aluminum, or plastic, typically high density polyethylene.
PAGE 64
Two or more materials may be combined to form composite structures. For
example, open-bottom corrugated steel structures are often built on
concrete footings. Plastic culvert liners are also inserted into failing concrete
or steel structures in order to repair the structure without excavating and
closing the road. To prevent the older structure from collapsing, the space
between it and the plastic liner is usually filled with grout.

1. BOX CULVERT
They are used for water passage, generally seasonal/ brief. Rest of year
used by wildlife. They have concrete base floor & have more room than
pipe arch for wildlings.

2. PIPE ARCH
Generally made of steel or concrete. Main use is passage of water but
sometimes also used by wild animals. Pipe culverts have inner
diameters of 60 cm, 100 cm, 140 cm and 150 cm. At the beginning these
culverts were made of reinforced concrete pipes produced on the site;
the length of the pipe was 1 m.
used on a large scale for forest road building due to their advantages
over other construction solutions:

ease to handle;
fast execution without problems;
PAGE 65
short time of execution;
rapid putting into service;
smaller costs compared with other solutions.
The major disadvantage of these culverts is clogging with material

from the slopes, which may put the culverts out of service.
3. SLAB CULVERTS
Slab culverts have a clearance span between abutment faces of
maximum 4 m. Small culverts with a clearance of 0.5 m and 1 m have
been used in 1960-1961 and then replaced by pipe culverts. The culverts
with a clearance of 2 to 4 m were first designed and realized with
reinforced concrete cast in situ and, starting in 1964-1965 the use of
factory-made prefab reinforced concrete was introduced
CROSS BARRIERS
PAGE 66
On top of culverts we use cross barriers. They are made of high strength
concrete (M50) as they can be hit by vehicles. They serve as protection. The
main reinforcement comes from the slab and the sloping part is formed by
the binder of the slab.


TYPES OF BRIDGES
1. Culverts 0 to4m
2. Minor bridge 4 to 30 m
3. Major bridge 30 and above

M15 M20 M30 M35 M50
PCC WALL RAFT CURB CROSS BARRIER
SLAB
CRUBS
They are made along the side of the road. They are cast in-situ by
machine. The casting is a continuous process.
PAGE 67

Curb casting


Level checking of curb


PAGE 68
HIGHWAY
CONSTRUCT-
-ION





PAGE 69
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MACHINES USED IN HIGWAYS
1. DBM/HM plant
2. Crusher
3. WMM plant
4. Dumper
5. Loader
6. Weight bridge
7. Sprayer
8. Excavator
9. Rollers
10. Grader
11. Bitumen plant
12. JCB
13. Paver

A. DBM / HM Plant
An HM plant is a plant used for the manufacture of DBM and
BC.
There are three main classes of plant: batch heater, semi-
continuous (or "asphalt plant"), and continuous (or "drum mix").
The batch heater has the lowest throughput, the continuous
plant the highest at up to around 500 Tonnes per hour
There are two cabins in HM plant
1. Cold bin controls the tanks A, B, C, D by increasing or
decreasing the RPM of the motors attached to these tanks.
Increasing the rpm will increase the agg. Quantity.
PAGE 70
2. Hot bin it controls the sieves. We feed the recipe to the
computers and only that specified amount of material will fall in
mixer
How it works
1. A plant runs material from various cold feed hoppers into a heater
drum, where the batch is then heated up to temperature.
2. The hot aggregate is screened into numerous hot bins (depending
on the various aggregate sizes).Each hot bin releases a certain
amount of aggregate into a weigh hopper, then it is discharged
into a mixing drum where (dry) filler and binder are added.
3. The blend is mixed and discharged either directly into the
delivery vehicles or into a small weighing and collecting hopper.
To increase throughput, the heater can be heating the next batch
while the previous is being mixed.
We use blowers to heat the aggregates so that the heat reaches
deep inside the heating chamber. We heat the aggregates because
any water present will decrease the efficiency of bitumen to bind
with it. The fuel used to heat is called LDO
PAGE 71


B. CRUSHER
When material comes from supplier in dumpers its crushed and
graded to the specified size. But sometimes if good quality aggregate is
available near by then companies instead of buying install crushers on
the site. The raw material is put inside it where it gets crushed to the
required sizes. It then sieves the crushed agg. And places them in
different heaps.
PAGE 72

C. WMM PLANT
Its working is same ass the HM plant but here we dont heat the agg.
and use water in place of bitumen. The water content is decided by
MDD and OMC we get from the lab. If it comes say 7 % then we use
8% in WMM plant as some water can get vaporized.
PAGE 73


D. DUMPER / TRIPPER
Its used to carry materials like BC, DBM, GSB etc to respective sites
and bringing aggregates to the plant.
PAGE 74

E. LOADER
The widely used companies in India are Hindustan and Volvo. They
are used to load the material either in dumper or at site. The carrying
capacity of a loader is 2 tonnes. Sometimes caterpillar loaders are also
used in hilly areas. The caterpillar loaders have their tires replaced iron
chains which helps to grip the ground more strongly.

F. WEIGHT BRIDGE
Used for weighing of vehicles going and coming at site.
G. SPRAYER
PAGE 75
The arms length can be increased or decreased according to the width
of the road. Used for spraying the tack coat and the prime coat. A
heater is attached to the back of the vehicle so that the bitumen does
not solidify.

H. EXCAVATOR
Used for digging of foundations and embankments. A drill bit can also
be attached to the end of the arm in case of drilling operation.

I. ROLLERS
They are used for compaction and rolling operation. There are many
types of rollers used in road construction.
1. Soil compactor
2. Tandem roller
3. Baby roller
4. Ptr roller
5. Static roller

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Soil compactor it can do both vibratory as well as plane rolling.
The weight during plain rolling is around 6-9 tonnes and during
vibrational rolling its around 9-15 tonnes.

Tandem roller - A tandem roller is a piece of machinery used in
paving roads and parking lots. Commonly referred to as a steam
roller, the tandem roller is made up of two very heavy and unequal
sized steel rollers fitted to a chassis, which is powered by steam,
gasoline or diesel. The tandem roller is used to smooth out and
compact asphalt or blacktop before it cools and hardens. The steel
drums or rollers the machine rides on are often cooled with a
stream of water in order to prevent the pavement from sticking to
the rollers.
PAGE 77

Baby rollers they are used for compaction of the filler material in
segmental retaining wall.


PAGE 78
PTR rollers - - Once the paver finisher does its job the tandem
rollers are used for further compaction. In the process the edges of
the tandem compactor drums leave grooves or trailing lines on the
otherwise smooth asphalt surface. These lines lead to
uncomfortable and drifting drive. To overcome this, a pneumatic
tyre roller is used which wipes out these lines or any other residual
undulations and leave the road in good driving surface.

Important feature
- The last equipment in finishing the road surface is the
Pneumatic Tyred Roller.
- The Pneumatic Tyred Roller (PTR) is available from Volvo
India. Mounted on 8 bold tyres with very heavy Ballast result
in best road finish.




PAGE 79
Static roller for low compaction (road repair works of small size).


J. GRADER
A grader, also commonly referred to as a road grader, a blade, a
maintainer, or a motor grader, is a construction machine with a long
blade used to create a flat surface during the grading process. Typical
models have three axles, with the engine and cab situated above the
rear axles at one end of the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of
the vehicle, with the blade in between. In certain countries, for
example in Finland, almost every grader is equipped with a second
blade that is placed in front of the front axle. Some construction
personnel refer to the entire machine as "the blade." Capacities range
from a blade width of 2.50 to 7.30 m and engines from 93373 kW (125
500 hp). Certain graders can operate multiple attachments, or be used
for separate tasks like underground mining.
In the construction of paved roads they are used to prepare the base
course to create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on.
Graders are also used to set native soil foundation pads to finish grade
prior to the construction of large buildings. Graders can produce
inclined surfaces, to give cant (camber) to roads. In some countries
they are used to produce drainage ditches with shallow V-shaped
PAGE 80
cross-sections on either side of highways.


K. BITUMEN PLANT
Here we can convert the grade of bitumen. A current of hot sir is
passed from the pipes inserted in the tanks of bitumen. The air has the temp.
of 220
o
C. Vg 10 has more oil content than the higher grades, so the
passing of hot air distils the mixture and oil gets separated. By
controlling the amount of hot air different grades of bitumen can be
obtained.


L. JCB MACHINE
This machine has a loader in front of it and excavator arm at back.
Hence it can perform both the functions of loader and excavator but
PAGE 81
on a smaller scale. A drill bit can also be attached at the place of
excavator.
M. PAVER
A paver (paver finisher, asphalt finisher, paving machine) is a piece of
construction equipment used to lay asphalt on roads, bridges, parking
lots and other such places. It lays the asphalt flat and provides minor
compaction before it is compacted by a roller.
The asphalt is added from a dump truck or a material transfer unit into
the paver's hopper. The conveyor then carries the asphalt from the
hopper to the auger. The auger places a stockpile of material in front of
the screed. The screed takes the stockpile of material and spreads it
over the width of the road and provides initial compaction.[4]

The paver should provide a smooth uniform surface behind the screed.
In order to provide a smooth surface a free floating screen is used. It is
towed at the end of a long arm which reduces the base topology effect
on the final surface. The height of the screen is controlled by a number
of factors including: the attack angle of the screed, weight and
vibration of the screed, the material head and the towing force.[4]

To conform to the elevation changes for the final grade of the road
modern pavers use automatic screed controls, which generally control
the screed's angle of attack from information gathered from a grade
sensor. Additional controls are used to correct the slope, crown or
superelevation of the finished pavement.
PAGE 82

Paver laying BC
Design of crust
To design crust we have to have these parameters
1. Traffic load (unit is PCU {passenger car unit}, 1PCU = 8.1 tonne)
2. Loading on road (total weight exerted by layers)
3. Age upto which road has to be maintained.
All these parameters are then changed to MSA.
Then we need the CBR value of the road material. For egs. Take a stretch of
road of 80 kms which have 2 sections


CBR = 20 CBR = 10
PAGE 83
Then we can have two types of road crust
With different thickness
Same thickness for an avg. CBR value (15) which will be maintained for
the entire length of 80 kms.
From IRC 38 there is a graph of CBR and MSA which will give us the
thickness of BM from which we can calculate thickness of other layers.
The various layers of the road crust are
BC
DBM
WMM
GSB
SG
Embankment
SDBC is never used for NHs, they are only used for SHs.
BM is only used when we are constructing over existing roads. For new
roads we use DBM. We are decreasing the use of BM as recent studies
have indicated that they are the main cause of formation of pot holes.
The different sizes of aggregates used in different layers
1. BC -- 20 mm
2. WMM 53 mm
3. DBM 45 mm
4. GSB 75 mm

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTION OF VARIOUS LAYERS
1. NGL natural ground level. We determine this by auto level. The
offset in longitudinal direction is 10 m & in horizontal its 2 m.
PAGE 84
2. CNG cleaning and grooving. Its removal of shrubs, roots & other
unwanted materials. We remove shrubs and other organic matter
because
- If they decompose they will shrink and create a void space
which will cause settlement of road.
- They can grow and crack the road surface
The general thickness of CNG is 150mm.
3. OGL original ground level. Determined by auto level.

Embankment formation
After OGL we do testing for soils after every 1km, 2.5km, 5 km
(depending on conditions)
If CBR > 10 then we proceed for subgrade
If CBR < 10 then we cut the embankment
4. FRL finished road level.
5. GSB granular sub base
PAGE 85
There are 2 layers
- Drainage layer
- Filter layer

If the soil have high strength then use only one layer ,ie, drainage layer
If the soil is weak in strength then use both layers

The GSB has higher density than WMM as it has to stop all the water.
If water penetrates the GSB and reaches the SG layer which is purely
soil then it will mix with it and form clay which will lead to settlement
of road.

Compaction of GSB
6. WMM- wet mix macadam
It consists of 2 layers-
- First layer paver lay without sensor (but in practice we use
grader).
PAGE 86
- Top layer paver lay with sensor.

After WMM we clean the surface by groomer which is a mechanical
broom which removes dust and other loose material from WMM
After groomer we use air compressor to remove any remaining dust
and fine material. it provides additional load distribution and
contributes to the sub-surface drainage

Compaction of WMM top layer
7. On WMM surface which is now clean and dry we do prime coat (SS).
The WMM gets dry in 24-48 hrs. The rate of spraying PC is 6-9 liter/10
sqm. Since PC is slow setting we dont do any work for 24 hrs.
8. After 24 hrs of applying PC we do DBM laying.
PAGE 87


PAGE 88
9. After DBM laying we do tack coat (RS) and immediately after that we
do BC laying. Rate of tack coat spray is 2.5-3 liter/10 sqm.. Minimum 5
km stretch is required for BC, because after rolling a stretch a hump is
formed at the end of the stretch. So when we do the next stretch a
uneven joint will be formed instead of a uniform one which will cause
discomfort to the passengers. So to avoid it we cut a section upto the
DBM level and along a dist. of 5m so as to match the end and the
beginning of the stretches and avoid a hump formation. To cut the
section we use a cutter or a hot knife. We first heat the road by a
heater and then start cutting. The no. of joints along the entire road
length should be as low as possible and the length of stretch is
determined on the capacity of plants and width of the road. BC is done
for every road.

The functions and requirements of this layer are:
- It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,
drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the entrance of excessive
quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base
and sub-grade,
- It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and
provide a smooth and skid- resistant riding surface,
- It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-
grade from the weakening effect of water.
10. After BC we do thermoplastic paint on the road.
Center 10 cm
Side edge 15 cm
Thickness 2-2.5 mm
CURVES
There are 2 types of road curves
S curve -- generally used in hilly regions
PAGE 89
C curve -- generally used in plain regions
MARKINGS
Per 1 km km stone
Per 200m hectometer stone (in 1 km there are 4 hectometer stones)
SHOULDER gives protection to DBM and BC. Rain and traffic will cut the
sides of the layers. But when we provide shoulder, it itself gets cut and
protects the layers. Its also used to stand the vehicles to rest in case of
emergency.
OVER MOISTURE IN ANY LAYER
If over moisture is there bumping will occur. Bumping is defined as sliding of
road material form its place due to the reduced internal friction due to over
moisture.
So if bumping is present it can be removed by 2 ways:-
(best one) remove the whole layer upto which over moisture is
present. Throw away the material and put fresh one.
Harrowing at least 4-5 times then mix again and relay
if very high bumping is there we do sand filling. Generally done for clayey
soils & high embankment.
1-3 m low embankment
3-above high embankment
GENERAL THICKNESS OF VARIOUS LAYERS
BC (single layer) 40mm
DBM (single/multiple layers) 120-130mm (each layer of 60-65 mm)
WMM (2 layers) 250mm (each layer of 125 mm)
PAGE 90
GSB (single/multiple layers) 200mm
SG ( 3 layers) top-150mm
II 150mm
I-200mm
ROLLING TEMPERATURES FOR DIFFERENT GRADE
OF BITUMEN

BITUMEN
GRADE
BITUMEN
TEMP.
AGGREGATE
TEMP.
MIXED
MATERIAL
TEMP.
LAYING
TEMP.
ROLLING
TEMP.
Vg 40 160-170 160-175 160-170 150 min 100 min
Vg 30 150-165 150-170 150-165 140 min 90 min
Vg 20 145-165 145-170 140-165 135 min 85 min
Vg 10 140-160 140-165 140-160 130 min 80 min

WEATHER & SEASONAL LIMITATIONS IN LAYING
Dense grade bitumen should not be laid
1. Presence of standing water on surface.
2. When rain is imminent & during fog, rains and dust storms
3. When base/binder course is damp
4. When speed of wind at any temperature exceed 40 km/ hr at 2m
height.
5. When surface temperature is less than 10
o
C


PAGE 91
VARIOUS LAYERS FUNCTION:
1. SUBGRADE it transfers load to earth mass.
2. GSB it acts as a protection layer to SG. It doesnt allow water to
penetrate and disturb SG.
3. WMM its function is to disperse the load over a larger area through a
finite thickness and acts as a drainage to water because if WMM is not
there then GSB will stop all the water, the bitumen from DBM will get
strip
4. DBM its function is to give strength and protect WMM layer and
disperse load to a greater area.
5. BC its wearing course. It doesnt give any strength but is made for
smooth riding & its called wearing course as it has to take up all the
abrasive forces.










PAGE 92

SURVEY





PAGE 93
AUTO LEVEL SURVEY
A dumpy level, builder's auto level, leveling instrument, or automatic
level is an optical instrument used to establish or check points in the
same horizontal plane. It is used in surveying and building to transfer,
measure, or set horizontal levels.
Operation - The level instrument is set up on a tripod and, depending
on the type, either roughly or accurately set to a leveled condition
using footscrews (levelling screws). The operator looks through the
eyepiece of the telescope while an assistant holds a tape measure or
graduated staff vertical at the point under measurement. The
instrument and staff are used to gather and/or transfer elevations
(levels) during site surveys or building construction. Measurement
generally starts from a benchmark with known height determined by a
previous survey, or an arbitrary point with an assumed height.

Level checking is done for every layer
B.S. + R.L. = H.I.
H.I. + I.S. = R.L.
B.S. back sight
H.I. height of instrument
I.S. intermediate sight
R.L reduced level
PAGE 94


TOTAL STATION
A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern
surveying and building construction. The total station is an electronic
theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic distance meter
(EDM) to read slope distances from the instrument to a particular
point.

Robotic total stations allow the operator to control the instrument
from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an
assistant staff member as the operator holds the reflector and controls
the total station from the observed point.

COORDINATE MEASUREMENT - Coordinates of an unknown point
relative to a known coordinate can be determined using the total
station as long as a direct line of sight can be established between the
two points. Angles and distances are measured from the total station
to points under survey, and the coordinates (X, Y, and Z or easting,
PAGE 95
northing and elevation) of surveyed points relative to the total station
position are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation. To
determine an absolute location a Total Station requires line of sight
observations and must be set up over a known point or with line of
sight to 2 or more points with known location.

ANGLE MEASUREMENT - Most modern total station instruments
measure angles by means of electro-optical scanning of extremely
precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs
within the instrument. The best quality total stations are capable of
measuring angles to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive "construction grade"
total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-seconds

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT - Measurement of distance is
accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal,
generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's optical
path, and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by
the computer in the total station. The distance is determined by
emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the
integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most
total stations use purpose-built glass corner cube prism reflectors for
the EDM signal. A typical total station can measure distances with an
accuracy of about 1.5 millimeters (0.0049 ft) + 2 parts per million over
a distance of up to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft)
PAGE 96


















PAGE 97
DOCUMENTATION




























PAGE 98
Registers
1. Receipt register all the letters information, that are coming to
the office are entered in this register. Every letters letter no,
subject, senders name, receivers name, date of receiving is entered
in the columns.
2. Dispatch register all the letters information, that are sent from
the office are entered in this register. Letters no. , subject, senders
name, and receivers name is entered.

Files
1. 1.1 File form head office (HO to TL) all the letters that comes
from the head office are put in this file
PAGE 99
1.2 Files form site office (TL to HO) a copy is made for each
letter that TL sends to the HO and then O/C is marked on that copy
and put in this file.
2. 2.1 File form Concessionaire office all the letters that comes
from the Concessionaire are put in this file
2.2 Files for Concessionaire office a copy is made for each letter
that TL sends to the Concessionaire and then O/C is marked on
that copy and put in this file.
3. 3.1 File form Client office all the letters that comes from the
Concessionaire are put in this file
3.2 Files for Client office a copy is made for each letter that TL
sends to the Concessionaire and then O/C is marked on that copy
and put in this file.



Drawings
All the drawings are made by Concessionaire and are then sent to the
Independent engineers regional office which is then forwarded to the
Head office where its gets checked by a competent authority, a
concurred seal is stamped and is then send back to regional office
which is then send back to the Concessionaire. Its only after this
process the work can start.

MPR
Its called monthly progress report. Here all the work done till the
month is mentioned and a copy is sent to each of the following persons
PAGE 100
1. TL
2. Project director
3. Project manager

PAGE 101
Sample of work progress report

PAGE 102