Che lab 2

I. INDUSTRIAL DRYER
A. Basic Concept
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or
another solvent
[1]
by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process
is often used as a final production step before selling or packaging products. To
be considered "dried", the final product must be solid, in the form of a
continuous sheet long pieces particles (e.g., cereal grains or corn flakes) or
powder A source of heat and an agent to remove the vapor produced by the
process are often involved. In bioproducts like food, grains,
and pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to be removed is almost
invariably water.

B. Basic Equation




C. Equipment
1. Definition
Industrial dryers are used for efficiently processing large bulks of
material that need their respective moisture levels reduced.
Depending on the amount and the makeup of material needing to be
dried industrial dryers come in many different models constructed
specifically for the type and bulk of material needing to be processed.
The most common types of industrial dryers are fluidized bed dryers,
rotary dryers, rolling bed dryers, pharmaceutical dryers,
suspension/paste dryers, and dispersion dryers
2. Uses
Fluidized beds are used for several purposes, such as fluidized bed
reactors(types of chemical reactors), fluid catalytic cracking, fluidized
bed combustion, heat or mass transfer or interface modification, such
as applying a coating onto solid items. This technique is also
becoming more common in aquaculture for the production of shellfish
in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture systems
3. Classification
a. A fluidized bed is formed when a quantity of a solid particulate
substance (usually present in a holding vessel) is placed under
appropriate conditions to cause the solid/fluid mixture to behave
as a fluid. This is usually achieved by the introduction of
pressurized fluid through the particulate medium. This results in
the medium then having many properties and characteristics of
normal fluids; such as the ability to free-flow under gravity, or to
be pumped using fluid type technologies.
b. The rotary dryer is a type of industrial
dryer employed to reduce or minimize the
liquid moisture content of the material it is
handling by bringing it into direct contact
with a heated gas.

The dryer is made up of a large, rotating
cylindrical tube, usually supported by concrete columns or steel
beams. The dryer slopes slightly so that the discharge end is lower
than the material feed end in order to convey the material through
the dryer under gravity. Material to be dried enters the dryer, and
as the dryer rotates, the material is lifted up by a series of internal
fins lining the inner wall of the dryer. When the material gets high
enough to roll back off the fins, it falls back down to the bottom of
the dryer, passing through the hot gas stream as it falls. This gas
stream can either be moving toward the discharge end from the
feed end (known as co-current flow), or toward the feed end from
the discharge end (known as counter-current flow). The gas
stream can be made up of a mixture of air and combustion gases
from a burner, in which case the dryer is called a direct heated
dryer. Alternatively, the gas stream may consist of air or another
(sometimes inert) gas that is preheated. When the gas stream is
preheated by some means where burner combustion gases do not
enter the dryer, the dryer known as an indirect-heated type. Often,
indirect heated dryers are used when product contamination is a
concern. In some cases, a combination of direct-indirect heated
rotary dryers are also available to improve the overall efficiency.

c. Rolling bed dryers are used for
efficiently processing large bulks of
material that need their respective
moisture levels reduced. Rolling bed
Dryers are most often used for drying
wood chips and organic residues and are
most often utilized in the biomass,
waste/recycling, wood particle board,
pellet, and biofuel industries.


II. EVAPORATOR

A. Basic Concept
For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the
surface, be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic
energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces.Only a small
proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, so the rate of evaporation
is limited. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its
temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures.
As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have
lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid thus
decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is
why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to
proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and
liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example,
laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a
windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat,
humidity and air movement.
B. Basic Equation

C. Equipment
1. Definition
An evaporator is a device used to turn the liquid form of a
chemical into its gaseous form. The liquid is evaporated, or
vaporized, into a gas.
2. Uses
An evaporator is used in an air-conditioning system to allow a
compressed cooling chemical, such as R-22 (a.k.a Freon) or R-
410A, to evaporate from liquid to gas while absorbing heat in
the process.
[1]
It can also be used to remove water or other
liquids from mixtures. The process of evaporation is widely
used to concentrate foods and chemicals as well as salvage
solvents. In the concentration process, the goal of evaporation
is to vaporize most of the water from a solution which contains
the desired product. In the case of desalination of sea water or
in Zero Liquid Discharge plants, the reverse purpose applies;
evaporation removes the desirable drinking water from the
undesired product, salt.
One of the most important applications of evaporation is in the
food and beverage industry. Foods or beverages that need to last
for a considerable amount of time or need to have certain
consistency, like coffee, go through an evaporation step during
processing.
In the pharmaceutical industry, the evaporation process is used to
eliminate excess moisture, providing an easily handled product
and improving product stability. Preservation of long-term activity
or stabilization of enzymes in laboratories are greatly assisted by
the evaporation process.
Another example of evaporation is in the recovery of sodium
hydroxide in kraft pulping.
[2]
Cutting down waste-handling cost is
another major reason for large companies to use evaporation
applications. Legally, all producers of waste must dispose of waste
using methods compatible with environmental guidelines; these
methods are costly. By removing moisture through vaporization,
industry can greatly reduce the amount of waste product that
must be processed.

3. Classification
1. Natural/forced circulation evaporator
Natural circulation evaporators are based on the natural
circulation of the product caused by the density differences
that arise from heating. In an evaporator using tubing, after
the water begins to boil, bubbles will rise and cause
circulation, facilitating the separation of the liquid and the
vapor at the top of the heating tubes. The amount of
evaporation that takes place depends on the temperature
difference between the steam and the solution. Problems can
arise if the tubes are not well-immersed in the solution. If this
occurs, the system will be dried out and circulation
compromised. In order to avoid this, forced circulation can be
used by inserting a pump to increase pressure and circulation.
Forced circulation occurs when hydrostatic head prevents
boiling at the heating surface. A pump can also be used to
avoid fouling that is caused by the boiling of liquid on the
tubes; the pump suppresses bubble formation. Other problems
are that the residing time is undefined and the consumption of
steam is very high, but at high temperatures, good circulation
is easily achieved.
2. Falling film evaporator
This type of evaporator is generally made of long tubes (48 m
or 1326 ft in length) which are surrounded by steam jackets.
The uniform distribution of the solution is important when
using this type of evaporator. The solution enters and gains
velocity as it flows downward. This gain in velocity is attributed
to the vapor being evolved against the heating medium, which
flows downward as well. This evaporator is usually applied to
highly viscous solutions, so it is frequently used in the
chemical, food, and fermentation industries.
3. Rising film (Long Tube Vertical) evaporator


A rising film evaporator
In this type of evaporator, boiling takes place inside the tubes,
due to heating made (usually by steam) outside the same.
Submergence is therefore not desired; the creation of water
vapor bubbles inside the tube creates an ascensional flow
enhancing the heat transfer coefficient. This type of evaporator
is therefore quite efficient, the disadvantage being to be prone
to quick scaling of the internal surface of the tubes. This
design is then usually applied to clear, non-salting solutions.
Tubes are usually quite long, typically 4+ meters (13+ ft).
Sometimes a small recycle is provided. Sizing this type of
evaporator is usually a delicate task, since it requires a precise
evaluation of the actual level of the process liquor inside the
tubes. Recent applications tend to favor the falling-film pattern
rather than rising-film.
4. Climbing and falling-film plate evaporator
Climbing and falling-film plate evaporators have a relatively
large surface area. The plates are usually corrugated and are
supported by frame. During evaporation, steam flows through
the channels formed by the free spaces between the plates. The
steam alternately climbs and falls parallel to the concentrated
liquid. The steam follows a co-current, counter-current path in
relation to the liquid. The concentrate and the vapor are both
fed into the separation stage where the vapor is sent to a
condenser. This type of plate evaporator is frequently applied
in the dairy and fermentation industries since they have
spatial flexibility. A negative point of this type of evaporator is
that it is limited in its ability to treat viscous or solid-
containing products. There are other types of plate
evaporators, which work with only climbing film.
5. Multiple-effect evaporators
Unlike single-stage evaporators, these evaporators can be
made of up to seven evaporator stages or effects. The energy
consumption for single-effect evaporators is very high and
makes up most of the cost for an evaporation system. Putting
together evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy.
Adding one evaporator to the original decreases the energy
consumption to 50% of the original amount. Adding another
effect reduces it to 33% and so on. A heat-saving-percent
equation can be used to estimate how much one will save by
adding a certain amount of effects.
The number of effects in a multiple-effect evaporator is usually
restricted to seven because after that, the equipment cost
starts catching up to the money saved from the energy-
requirement drop.

III. FILTER PRESS
A. Basic Concept
Filtration is commonly the mechanical or physical operation which is
used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by
interposing a medium through
which only the fluid can pass. The fluid
that passes through is called the
filtrate.
[1]
Oversize solids in the fluid are
retained, but the separation is not
complete; solids will be
contaminated with some fluid and
filtrate will contain fine particles
(depending on the pore size and filter
thickness). Filtration is also used to
describe somebiological processes,
especially in water treatment and sewage treatment in which undesirable
constituents are removed by absorption into a biological film grown on or
in the filter medium as in slow sand filtration.

B. Basic Equation




C. Equipment
1. Definition
Filter press is a separation process, specially employed by
solid/liquid separation using the principle of pressure drive,
provided by a slurry pump. Filter press is a fixed volume and
batch operation, which simply means that the operation must
be stopped to discharge the filter cake before the next batch
can be started.
[1]
The major components of filter press are
skeleton and filter pack. The skeleton holds the filter pack
together while pressure is being developed inside filter
chamber. It however can only hold a specific volume of solids.

2. Uses
The detailed applications in food industry,mining industry,pharmaceutical
industri,chemical industry, wastewater treatment etc. are as follows:
[11]

1, Chemical industry: dyes, pesticides, silicic acid, glycerin, white carbon,
busy, sodium carbonate, additives, basic chemicals, chemical filler, pigment,
white alumina, manganese, caustic soda, soda ash, alkali salts mud,
saponin, graphite, bleaching powder, Synaptic powder phosphor, sodium
hydrosulfite, potassium chlorate, potassium sulfate, ferrous sulfate, ferric
hydroxide, water purification agent ( aluminum sulfate, chloride, basic
aluminum chloride ) and so on,filter press is the ideal filtration equipment in
these applications ; 2, Food industry : wine filter press, yeast, fruit juice
filter press, edible oil, vegetable oil, soy sauce, sugar mills, rice wine, white
wine, fruit juices, soft drinks, beer, yeast, citric acid, vegetable protein, plant
density sweetener, glucose, stevioside, maltose, starch, rice flour, corn
syrup, gum, carrageenan, monosodium glutamate, spices, butter, oral
liquid, soy, seaweed ; 3, Metallurgical industry : gold, platinum, uranium,
cobalt, nickel, zinc, manganese, copper, iron sands filter press ; 4, Non-
metallic minerals : tailings, coal, acid clay, bentonite, kaolin, ceramics,
cement, clay, industrial sand ; 5, Pharmaceutical industry : enzymes, amino
acids, antibiotics, pharmaceutical intermediates, bulk drugs, medicine,
blood products, antibiotics ( chlortetracycline, erythromycin, spiramycin,
Jinggangmeisu, Midecamycin, tetracycline, berberine, oxytetracycline ),
calcium phytate, Chinese inositol, growth derived sand, organic phosphorus,
glucoamylase ; 6, Environmental Engineering : Chemical waste water,
wastewater filter press, mining wastewater filter press, domestic wastewater,
waste water, waste steel, waste removal, leather wastewater, ports silt, mud,
salt mud wastewater, carbide slag, gypsum, waste acid recovery, gold
clarification of liquids mine tailings, biological wastewater, wastewater,
sewage smelting, printing and dyeing wastewater, sewage brewing,
pharmaceutical waste water, sewage and other environmental particulates,
new equipment purification process. 7, Refining : white oil, sesame oil, light
oil, glycerin, mechanical oil, vegetable oil. 8, clay industry : kaolin,
bentonite, activated clay, clay, electronic ceramics clay. 9, the automotive
industry : filtration, decorative
3. Classification
Plate and frame filter press[edit]
Plate and frame filter press is the most fundamental design among all the other filter
presses, and majority nowadays refer it as membrane filter plate. This type of filter
press consists of many plates and frames assembled alternately with the supports of a
pair of rails. Presence of a centrifuge pump would ensure the remaining suspended
solids do not settle in the system and its main function is to deliver the suspension
into each of the separating chambers in the plate and frame filter. For each of the
individual separating chambers, there is one hollow filter frame separated from two
filter plates by filter clothes. The introduced slurry flows through a port in each
individual frame, and the filter cakes are accumulated in each the hollow frame. As
the filter cake becoming thicker, the filter resistance increases as well. So when the
separating chamber is full, the filtration process is stopped as the optimum pressure
difference had reached. The filtrate that passes through filter cloth are collected
through collection pipes and stored in the filter tank. Whereas filter cakes (suspended
solids) accumulation occurs at the hollow plate frame, then being separated at the
filter plates by pulling the plate and frame filter press apart. The cakes would just fall
off from those plates and being discharge to the final collection point .
[5]

Cake discharge can be done in many ways. For example: Shaking the plates while they
are being opened or shaking the cloths. Scraper can also be used, by moving from one
chamber to another and scrape the cake off the cloth. At the end of each run, the cloth
are cleaned using wash liquid and ready to start the next cycle
[6]

Automatic Filter Press[edit]
Automatic filter press has the same concept as the manual filter and frame filter just
that the whole process is fully automated. It consists of larger plates and frames filter
presses with mechanical plate shifter.
[4]
The function of the plate shifter is to move
the plates and allow rapid discharge of the filter cakes accumulated in between the
plates. It also contains diaphragm compressor in the filter plates which aids in
optimizing the operating condition by further drying the filter cakes.
[4]

Recessed plate filter press[edit]
For recessed-plate filter press, it is made up of polypropylene squares at about 2 to 4
feet across with concave depression and a hole in the center.
[7]
Two plates join together
to form a chamber to pressurize the slurry and squeeze the filtrate out through the
filter cloth lining in the chamber.
[7]
It is capable of holding 12 to 80 plates adjacent to
each other depending on the required capacity. When the filter press is closed, a series
of chambers is formed. The differences with the plate and frame filter are that the
plates are joined together in such a ways the cake recess on each plate, the cake
thickness is restricted to 32mm unless extra frames are used which acts as
spacers.
[8]
However there are disadvantages to this method such as longer cloth
changing time, unable to accommodate filter papers as well as the possibility of
forming uneven cake.
[8]




IV. BOILER


A. Basic Concept
The boiler usually sits on top of a burner in which fuel is burned to produce
heat. The fuel produces the heat, the water or steam in the boiler is used to
distribute the heat through the house usually via pipes and radiators.
The most common fuel for boilers in the United States today is
natural gas which is usually piped directly into the house from a pipeline
that runs under the street or road. In rural areas not served by natural gas
lines the most common fuel for boilers is propane gas which is kept in a
large tank in the yard and piped into the house. Propane is usually more
expensive than natural gas.
In some areas of the US mainly New England there are some boilers that are
heated by fuel or heating oil. Outside of the Northeast oil fired boilers are
actually very rare. Many oil fired boilers have been converted to burn
natural gas or propane. The reason natural gas and propane are more
popular is that they are much cheaper fuels.
There are also a small number of boilers around that burn other fuels.
Before Word War II many boilers burnt coal. Today, some people particularly
in rural areas burn wood because it is often cheaper than natural gas or
propane. There are also boilers that burn other more exotic fuels such as
waste oil, wood pellets and even corn cobs.

B. Basic Equation



C. Equipment
1. Definition
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is
heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. (In North America the
term "furnace" is normally used if the purpose is not actually to
boil the fluid.) The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for
use in various processes or heating
applications,
[1][2]
including central heating, boiler-based power
generation, cooking, and sanitation
2. Uses
The main function of a boiler is to heat water to generate
steam. Steam produced in a boiler can be used for a variety of
purposes including space
heating, sterilisation, drying, humidification andpower
generation. The temperature or condition of steam required for
these applications is different, so boiler designs vary accordingly.
3. Classification
"Pot boiler" or "Haycock boiler": a primitive "kettle" where a fire heats a partially
filled water container from below. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced
and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam, often hardly above that of the
atmosphere. These could burn wood or most often, coal. Efficiency was very low.
Fire-tube boiler. Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left
above to accommodate the steam (steam space). This is the type of boiler used in
nearly all steam locomotives. The heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that
has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the
temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. The furnace can be
situated at one end of a fire-tube which lengthens the path of the hot gases, thus
augmenting the heating surface which can be further increased by making the
gases reverse direction through a second parallel tube or a bundle of multiple
tubes (two-pass or return flue boiler); alternatively the gases may be taken along
the sides and then beneath the boiler through flues (3-pass boiler). In the case of a
locomotive-type boiler, a boiler barrel extends from the firebox and the hot gases
pass through a bundle of fire tubes inside the barrel which greatly increase the
heating surface compared to a single tube and further improve heat transfer. Fire-
tube boilers usually have a comparatively low rate of steam production, but high
steam storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are readily
adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety.
Water-tube boiler. In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a
furnace in a number of possible configurations: often the water tubes connect large
drums, the lower ones containing water and the upper ones, steam and water; in
other cases, such as a monotube boiler, water is circulated by a pump through a
succession of coils. This type generally gives high steam production rates, but less
storage capacity than the above. Water tube boilers can be designed to exploit any
heat source and are generally preferred in high-pressure applications since the
high-pressure water/steam is contained within small diameter pipes which can
withstand the pressure with a thinner wall.
Flash boiler. A specialized type of water-tube boiler.
Fire-tube boiler with Water-tube firebox. Sometimes the two above types have been
combined in the following manner: the firebox contains an assembly of water
tubes, called thermic siphons. The gases then pass through a conventional firetube
boiler. Water-tube fireboxes were installed in many Hungarian locomotives, but
have met with little success in other countries.
Sectional boiler. In a cast iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop
boiler" the water is contained inside cast iron sections. These sections are
assembled on site to create the finished boiler.


V. CONDENSER

A. Basic Concept

All condensers operate by removing heat from the gas or vapour; once
sufficient heat is eliminated, liquefaction occurs. For some applications,
all that is necessary is to pass the gas through a long tube (usually
arranged in a coil or other compact shape) to permit heat to escape into
the surrounding air. A heat-conductive metal, such as copper, is
commonly used to transport the vapour. A condensers efficiency is often
enhanced by attaching fins (i.e., flat sheets of conductive metal) to the
tubing to accelerate heat removal. Commonly, such condensers employ
fans to force air through the fins and carry the heat away. In many
cases, large condensers for industrial applications use water or some
other liquid in place of air to achieve heat removal.
B. Basic Equation
C. Equipment
1. Definition
is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to
its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is given
up by the substance, and will transfer to the condenser coolant.
Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have various designs
and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-held) to very
large industrial-scale units used in plant processes.
1. Uses
Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical
processes such as distillation, steam power plantsand other heat-
exchange systems. Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant
is common in many condensers.

Condensers are employed in power plants to condense exhaust steam
from turbines and in refrigeration plants to condense refrigerantvapours,
such as ammonia and fluorinated hydrocarbons. The petroleum and
chemical industries employ condensers for the condensation of
hydrocarbons and other chemical vapours. In distilling operations, the
device in which the vapour is transformed to a liquid state is called a
condenser.
2. Classification
A surface condenser is an example of such a heat-exchange system. It is a shell
and tube heat exchanger installed at the outlet of every steam
turbine in thermal power stations. Commonly, the cooling water flows through
the tube side and the steam enters the shell side where the condensation
occurs on the outside of the heat transfer tubes. The condensate drips down
and collects at the bottom, often in a built-in pan called a hotwell. The shell
side often operates at a vacuum or partial vacuum, often produced by attached
airejectors. Conversely, the vapor can be fed through the tubes with the coolant
water or air flowing around the outside.

A condenser unit used in central air conditioning systems typically has a heat
exchanger section to cool down and condense incoming refrigerant vapor into liquid,
a compressor to raise the pressure of the refrigerant and move it along, and a fan for
blowing outside air through the heat exchanger section to cool the refrigerant inside.

Direct contact condenser
In this type of condenser, vapors are poured into the liquid directly. The vapors
lose their latent heat of vaporization; hence, vapors transfer their heat into
liquid and the liquid becomes hot. In this type of condensation, the vapor and
liquid are of same type of substance. In another type of direct contact
condenser, cold water is sprayed into the vapour to be condensed.




VI. DIDTILLATION COLUMN

A. Basic Concept

Distillation is based on the fact that the vapour of a boiling mixture will be
richer in the components that have lower boiling points.
Therefore, when this vapour is cooled and condensed, the condensate
will contain more volatile components. At the same time, the original mixture
will contain more of the less volatile material.
Distillation columns are designed to achieve this separation efficiently.


B. Basic Equation

C. Equipment
1. Definition
A distillation column is a tube that provides surfaces on which condensations
and vaporizations can occur before the gas enters the condenser in order to
concentrate the more volatile liquid in the... ...is required.


1. Uses
It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such
astransport, power generation and heating. Air is distilled to separate its
componentsnotably oxygen, nitrogen, and argonfor industrial use.
Liquid chemicals for diverse uses are distilled after synthesis to remove
impurities and unreacted starting materials. Distillation
offermented solutions can produce distilled beverages with a higher
alcohol content. The premises where distillation is carried out, especially
distillation of alcohol, are known as a distillery.
2. Classification
Batch Columns
In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the
column is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out. When
the desired task is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.
Continuous Columns
In contrast, continuous columns process a continuous feed stream. No interruptions
occur unless there is a problem with the column or surrounding process units. They
are capable of handling high throughputs and are the most common of the two types.
We shall concentrate only on this class of columns.

VII. CHEMICAL REACTOR

A. Basic Concept
A chemical reactor is a device which is used to contain controlled chemical reactions.
Reactions take place inside the reactor, in conditions which can be monitored and
controlled for safety and efficiency. These types of reactors are used in the production of
chemicals such as components of pharmaceutical compounds, and they can operate in
several different ways. A number of scientific specialty companies produce chemical
reactors and accessories such as replacement components for damaged devices.
Chemical reactors can be designed as either tanks or pipes, depending on the needs,
and they can vary in size considerably. Small benchtop chemical reactor designs are
intended for use in labs, for example, while large tanks can be used to make chemicals
on an industrial scale. The design also includes a variety of features which can be used
to control conditions inside the reactor.
With a batch chemical reactor, the components of the reaction are added to the reactor
and a controlled reaction is allowed to take place. When the reaction is finished, the
batch can be removed and the reactor can be prepared for another round. This type of
reactor works best when people need chemicals on a small scale, as for example when
research chemists are preparing compounds for pharmaceutical research.
B. Basic Equation
The rate law or rate equation for a chemical reaction is an equation that links
the reaction rate with concentrations or pressures of reactants and constant parameters
(normally rate coefficients and partial reaction orders).
[1]
To determine the rate equation
for a particular system one combines the reaction rate with a mass balance for the
system.
[2]
For a generic reaction aA + bB C with no intermediate steps in its reaction
mechanism (that is, an elementary reaction), the rate is given by



C. Equipment
1. Definition
A vessel in which chemical reactions take place. A combination of vessels is kn
own as a chemical reactor network. Chemical reactors havediverse sizes, shap
es, and modes and conditions of operation based on the nature of the reaction
system and its behavior as a function oftemperature, pressure, catalyst properti
es, and other factors.

2. Uses
There are two major groups of applications for the artificial crystallization
process: crystal production and purification.
CRYSTAL PRODUCTIN EXAMPLES:
* "Powder salt for food" industry;
* Silicon crystal wafer production.
* Production of sucrose from sugar beet, where the sucrose is crystallized out
from an aqueous solution.
PURIFICATION EXAMPLES:
*Used to improve (obtaining very pure substance) and/or verify their purity.
Chemical reactors are the vessel in which substances are mixed and are
allowed to react. These are commonly used in pharmaceutical industry
and paint industry.
3. Classification
a. CSTR (Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor)
In a CSTR, one or more fluid reagents are introduced into a tank reactor
(typically) equipped with an impeller while the reactor effluent is removed. The
impeller stirs the reagents to ensure proper mixing. Simply dividing the volume
of the tank by the average volumetric flow rate through the tank gives
the residence time, or the average amount of time a discrete quantity of reagent
spends inside the tank. Using chemical kinetics, the reaction's
expected percentcompletion can be calculated.
PFR (Plug Flow Reactor)[edit]


In a PFR, one or more fluid reagents are pumped through a pipe or tube. The chemical reaction
proceeds as the reagents travel through the PFR. In this type of reactor, the changing reaction rate
creates a gradient with respect to distance traversed; at the inlet to the PFR the rate is very high, but
as the concentrations of the reagents decrease and the concentration of the product(s) increases the
reaction rate slows.
Semi-batch reactor[edit]
Main article: Semibatch reactor
A semi-batch reactor is operated with both continuous and batch inputs and outputs. A fermenter, for
example, is loaded with a batch of medium and microbes which constantly produce carbon dioxide
that must removed continuously. Analogously, driving a reaction of gas with a liquid is usually
difficult, since the gas bubbles off. Therefore, a continuous feed of gas is injected into the batch of a
liquid. One chemical reactant is charged to the vessel and a second chemical is added slowly (for
instance, to prevent side reactions).
Catalytic reactor[edit]
Although catalytic reactors are often implemented as plug flow reactors, their analysis requires more
complicated treatment. The rate of a catalytic reaction is proportional to the amount of catalyst the
reagents contact, as well as the concentration of the reactants. With a solid phase catalyst and fluid
phase reagents, this is proportional to the exposed area, efficiency of diffusion of reagents in and
products out, and efficacy of mixing. Perfect mixing usually cannot be assumed. Furthermore, a
catalytic reaction pathway often occurs in multiple steps with intermediates that are chemically
bound to the catalyst; and as the chemical binding to the catalyst is also a chemical reaction, it may
affect the kinetics.


VIII. CRYSTALLIZER

A. Basic Concept

Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation of
solid crystals precipitating from a solution, melt or more rarely depositeddirectly from
a gas. It is an important process in the production of commodity and
specialty chemicals. Several different configurations of continuous
crystallizers have been developed for these applications. The design and
operation of industrial crystallizer are optimized based on the conditions
needed for
Producing larger and more uniform crystals of the desired
product.
Reducing the formation of agglomerates
Reducing the amount of liquid impurities included in each
crystals.
Reducing the amount of liquid retained by the crystal cake after
solid-liquid separation and washing

B. Basic Equation
Primary nucleation (both homogeneous and heterogeneous) has been modelled with the following:
[1]


B is the number of nuclei formed per unit volume per unit time.
N is the number of nuclei per unit volume.
k
n
is a rate constant.
c is the instantaneous solute concentration.
c
*
is the solute concentration at saturation.
(cc
*
) is also known as supersaturation.
n is an empirical exponent that can be as large as 10, but generally ranges between 3 and 4.


The following model, although somewhat simplified, is often used to model secondary nucleation:
[1]


k
1
is a rate constant.
M
T
is the suspension density.
j is an empirical exponent that can range up to 1.5, but is generally 1.
b is an empirical exponent that can range up to 5, but is generally 2.

C. Equipment
1. Definition
Crystallizer are used in the crystallization process. Mass transfer of a solute from the
liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs..
2. Uses
4. Classification
Cooling crystallizers[edit]


Vertical cooling crystallizer in a beet sugar factory
The simplest cooling crystallizers are tanks provided with a mixer for internal circulation, where
temperature decrease is obtained by heat exchange with an intermediate fluid circulating in a jacket.
These simple machines are used in batch processes, as in processing ofpharmaceuticals and are
prone to scaling. Batch processes normally provide a relatively variable quality of product along the
batch.
The Swenson-Walker crystallizer is a model, specifically conceived by Swenson Co. around 1920,
having a semicylindric horizontal hollow trough in which a hollow screw conveyor or some hollow
discs, in which a refrigerating fluid is circulated, plunge during rotation on a longitudinal axis. The
refrigerating fluid is sometimes also circulated in a jacket around the trough. Crystals precipitate on
the cold surfaces of the screw/discs, from which they are removed by scrapers and settle on the
bottom of the trough. The screw, if provided, pushes the slurry towards a discharge port.
A common practice is to cool the solutions by flash evaporation: when a liquid at a given
T
0
temperature is transferred in a chamber at a pressure P
1
such that the liquid saturation
temperature T
1
at P
1
is lower than T
0
, the liquid will release heat according to the temperature
difference and a quantity of solvent, whose total latent heat of vaporization equals the difference
in enthalpy. In simple words, the liquid is cooled by evaporating a part of it.
In the sugar industry vertical cooling crystallizers are used to exhaust the molasses in the last
crystallization stage downstream of vacuum pans, prior to centrifugation. The massecuite enters the
crystallizers at the top, and cooling water is pumped through pipes in counterflow.
Evaporative crystallization[edit]
Another option is to obtain, at an approximately constant temperature, the precipitation of the
crystals by increasing the solute concentration above the solubility threshold. To obtain this, the
solute/solvent mass ratio is increased using the technique of evaporation. This process is of course
insensitive to change in temperature (as long as hydration state remains unchanged).
All considerations on control of crystallization parameters are the same as for the cooling models.
Evaporative crystallizers[edit]
Most industrial crystallizers are of the evaporative type, such as the very large sodium
chloride and sucrose units, whose production accounts for more than 50% of the total world
production of crystals. The most common type is the forced circulation (FC) model (see evaporator).
A pumping device (a pump or an axial flow mixer) keeps the crystal slurry in
homogeneous suspension throughout the tank, including the exchange surfaces; by controlling
pump flow, control of the contact time of the crystal mass with the supersaturated solution is
achieved, together with reasonable velocities at the exchange surfaces. The Oslo, mentioned above,
is a refining of the evaporative forced circulation crystallizer, now equipped with a large crystals
settling zone to increase the retention time (usually low in the FC) and to roughly separate heavy
slurry zones from clear liquid.
DTB crystallizer[edit]

DTB Crystallizer


Schematic of DTB
Whichever the form of the crystallizer, to achieve an effective process control it is important to
control the retention time and the crystal mass, to obtain the optimum conditions in terms of crystal
specific surface and the fastest possible growth. This is achieved by a separation to put it simply
of the crystals from the liquid mass, in order to manage the two flows in a different way. The practical
way is to perform a gravity settling to be able to extract (and possibly recycle separately) the
(almost) clear liquid, while managing the mass flow around the crystallizer to obtain a precise slurry
density elsewhere. A typical example is the DTB (Draft Tube and Baffle) crystallizer, an idea of
Richard Chisum Bennett (a Swenson engineer and later President of Swenson) at the end of the
1950s. The DTB crystallizer (see images) has an internal circulator, typically an axial flow mixer
yellow pushing upwards in a draft tube while outside the crystallizer there is a settling area in an
annulus; in it the exhaust solution moves upwards at a very low velocity, so that large crystals settle
and return to the main circulation while only the fines, below a given grain size are extracted and
eventually destroyed by increasing or decreasing temperature, thus creating additional
supersaturation. A quasi-perfect control of all parameters is achieved. This crystallizer, and the
derivative models (Krystal, CSC, etc.) could be the ultimate solution if not for a major limitation in the
evaporative capacity, due to the limited diameter of the vapour head and the relatively low external
circulation not allowing large amounts of energy to be supplied to the system.


IX. COOLING TOWER

A. Basic Concept
All cooling towers operate on the principle of removing heat from water
by evaporating a small portion of the water that is recirculated through
the unit. The heat that is removed is called the latent heat of
vaporization. Each one pound of water that is evaporated removes
approximately 1,000 BTUs in the form of latent heat.
B. Basic Equation

A water balance around the entire system is then:
[14]

M = E + D + W
Since the evaporated water (E) has no salts, a chloride balance around the system is:
[14]


and, therefore:
[14]


From a simplified heat balance around the cooling tower:

where:

H
V
= latent heat of vaporization of water = 2260 kJ / kg
T = water temperature difference from tower top to tower bottom, in C
c
p
= specific heat of water = 4.184 kJ / (kgC)
Windage (or drift) losses (W) is the amount of total tower water flow that is
evaporated into the atmosphere. From large-scale industrial cooling towers, in the
absence of manufacturer's data, it may be assumed to be:
W = 0.3 to 1.0 percent of C for a natural draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators
W = 0.1 to 0.3 percent of C for an induced draft cooling tower without windage drift
eliminators
W = about 0.005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators
W = about 0.0005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators and
uses sea water as make-up water.

M = Make-up water in m/h
C = Circulating water in m/h
D = Draw-off water in m/h
E = Evaporated water in m/h
W = Windage loss of water in m/h
X = Concentration in ppmw (of any completely soluble salts ... usually chlorides)
X
M
= Concentration of chlorides in make-up water (M), in ppmw
X
C
= Concentration of chlorides in circulating water (C), in ppmw
Cycles = Cycles of concentration = X
C
/ X
M
(dimensionless)
ppmw = parts per million by weight



C. Equipment
1. Definition
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which extracts waste heat to
the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower
temperature. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to
remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air
temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely
on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
5. Uses
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil
refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power
stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the
type of air induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are natural
draft and induced draft cooling towers.
6. Classification

With respect to the heat transfer mechanism employed, the main types are:
dry cooling towers operate by heat transfer through a surface that separates the working fluid
from ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat exchanger, utilizing convective heat transfer. They
do not use evaporation.
wet cooling towers (or open circuit cooling towers) operate on the principle of evaporative
cooling. The working fluid and the evaporated fluid (usually water) are one and the same.
fluid coolers (or closed circuit cooling towers) are hybrids that pass the working fluid through
a tube bundle, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied. The resulting
heat transfer performance is much closer to that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage
provided by a dry cooler of protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure and
contamination.


X. ABSORPTION COLUMN

A. Basic Concept
absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in
which atoms, molecules, or ions enter some bulk phase gas, liquid, or solid material.
This is a different process from adsorption, since molecules undergoing absorption are
taken up by the volume, not by the surface (as in the case for adsorption). A more
general term is sorption, which covers absorption,adsorption, and ion exchange.
Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance.
[1]

In many processes important in technology, the chemical absorption is used in place of
the physical process, e.g., absorption of carbon dioxide by sodium hydroxide such
acid-base processes do not follow the Nernst partition law.

B. Basic Equation
If absorption is a physical process not accompanied by any other physical or chemical
process, it usually follows the Nernst distribution law:
"the ratio of concentrations of some solute species in two bulk phases in contact is
constant for a given solute and bulk phases":

The value of constant K
N
depends on temperature and is called partition coefficient.
This equation is valid if concentrations are not too large and if the species "x" does not
change its form in any of the two phases "1" or "2". If such molecule undergoes
association or dissociation then this equation still describes the equilibrium between "x"
in both phases, but only for the same form concentrations of all remaining forms must
be calculated by taking into account all the other equilibria.
[1]

In the case of gas absorption, one may calculate its concentration by using, e.g.,
the Ideal gas law, c = p/RT. In alternative fashion, one may use partial pressures instead
of concentrations.

C. Equipment
1. Definition
A vessel containing trays or packing material that provides gas-liquid
interfacial area for mass transfer operations.
7. Uses

In gas absorption a soluble vapors are more or less absorbed
in the solvent from itsmixture with inert gas. The purpose of such gas
scrubbing operations may be any of thefollowing;a)For Separation of
component having the economic value. b)As a stage in the preparation of
some compound.c)For removing of undesired component (pollution).

8. Classification
8.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN PACKED ANDPLATE COLUMN
1)The packed column provides continuous contact between vapor and liquid
phaseswhile the plate column brings the two phases into contact on stage wise
basis.2)SCALE: For column diameter of less than approximately 6 ft. It is more
usual toemploy packed towers because of high fabrication cost of small trays.
But if thecolumn is very large then the liquid distribution is problem and large
volume of packing and its weight is problem.3)PRESSURE DROP: Pressure
drop in packed column is less than the plate column.In plate column there is
additional friction generated as the vapor passes throughthe liquid on each
tray. If there are large No. of Plates in the tower, this pressuredrop may be quite
high and the use of packed column could effect considerablesaving.4)LIQUID
HOLD UP: Because of the liquid on each plate there may be a Urgequantity of
the liquid in plate column, whereas in a packed tower the liquid flowsas a thin
film over the packing.5)SIZE AND COST: For diameters of less than 6 ft, packed
tower require lower fabrication and material costs than plate tower with regard
to height, a packedcolumn is usually shorter than the equivalent plate
column.From the above consideration packed column is selected as the
absorber, becausein our case the diameter of the column is less than 6 ft. As
the solubility is infinity so theliquid will absorb as much gases as it remain in
contact with gases so packed tower provide more contact. It is easy to operate.