Textbooks

SCBI 122 „ Campbell, N.A. and Reece, J.B., 2005. Biology.

Nervous System 7th edition. Pearson Education Inc.

Further readings:

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Outline Nervous system : 3 overlapping functions

„ Nervous system
„ Neuron

„ Supporting cells Information is

communicated
„ Membrane potential via a network
of neurons,
„ Actionpotential electrically and
chemically.
„ The Central Nervous System
„ The brain
„ The spinal cord

„ The Peripheral Nervous System (Campbell, 2008)

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Nervous system Neuron (nerve cell)
„ Neurons (or nerve cells or neurones)
„ Excitability.

„ Conductivity.

„ Supporting cells (or glia or neuroglia)

„ Playsupporting role w/o participating in
nerve signaling.
„ Outnumber neuron 10-50 folds.

Campbell, 2008

Axons vs. Dendrites Basic Neuron Types (by shape)

Unipolar

Bipolar
Multipolar

http://health.howstuffworks.com/brain1.htm 2/27
Types of neuron (by function) Three classes of neurons
„ Afferent neurons: in
PNS, sensory receptor
on one end, cell body
near spinal cord, w/o
dendrite and
presynaptic inputs
„ Efferent neurons: in
PNS, cell body in CNS,
relay inputs to effectors
„ Interneurons: 99% of
neurons, found only in
CNS = 100 billion
Association
Efferent
Afferent neuron
neuron
neuron interneurons, connect
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/N/Neurons.html
afferent-efferent,
Figure 5-2
interconnections w/
interneurons > mind

Supporting cells vs. Neurons Supporting cells (glia, the “glue”)

„ Neurons have two "processes" called axons and PNS
dendrites, glial cells have only one. „ Schwann cells: provide myelin for individual neurons.
„ Neurons can generate action potentials, glial cells Tubular/cylindrical in shape.
cannot. CNS
„ Neurons have synapses that use „ Oligodendrocytes: provide myelin for multiple neurons.

neurotransmitters, glial cells do not have chemical
synapses.
„ There are many more glial cells in the brain
compared to the number of neurons, (10-50 times
more).
Microglia: the resident in-house immune system of the
brain and spinal cord.
„ Astrocytes: the housekeepers, nursemaids, and
handservants of the neurons: maintain the extracellular
environment, clear away debris, store glucose, etc.
„ Ependymal cells: line the internal cavities of CNS
3/27
 Glial cells Schwann cell

Campbell, 2008

„ Schwann cells: provide myelin for individual neurons.

Tubular/cylindrical in shape.
Campbell, 2008

Oligodendrocytes Microglia
„ Form insulating
myelin sheaths
around the axon
of many neurons.
„ Membranes are
mostly lipid >
poor conductor
of electrical
currents.
„ Just like
insulation Derived from mesoderm
covering „ The resident in-house immune system (macrophage) of
electrical cords. the brain and spinal cord: phagocytosis: very small.
http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy332/Salinas/Cells/oligo.gif http://www.prit.go.jp/Ja/Pgeriat/microgl.htm 4/27
 Astrocyte
Ependymal cells

http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/slides/Nerve/14-
http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/slides/Nerve/14-Ependyma%20-
„ Central cavity of neural tube
becomes the ventricles of the
brain and the central canal of
the spinal cord
„ Line the internal cavities of
CNS
„ Involved in the production of
CSF

Ependyma%20-%20Central%20Canal.jpg
„ Their cilia help circulate CSF
„ Might serve as neuronal stem
„ Astrocytes: provide structural and metabolic support cells w/ the right cocktail
for neurons, communicate w/ one another chemically.
http://www.biology.uiowa.edu/daileylab/images/astro1.jpg Figure 5-5

Schwann cell
Brain tumor
„ Neuron > no ability of cell
division
„ Gliomas : brain tumor of
neural origin > glial cells
„ Brain tumor of non-neural
origin
„ Metastasis (spread)
„ Meningiomas: originates from
the meningis

http://cancer.better-health-home.com/images/brain.jpg

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f14-6_cellular_organiza_c.jpg 5/27
 Nature of nerve signals Membrane potential
„ End of 18th century: Galvani discovered that frog „ Every cell has a
muscles produce electricity voltage, or
„ 19th Century: von Helmholtz and Raymond Dubois membrane
found that electrical signals travel along nerves and potential, across its
communicate between neurons and muscles plasma membrane.
„ 20th Century: mechanisms of nerve transmission
„ -50 to -100 mV in
explained by the presence of a small number of
animal cells.
specialized proteins, neurotransmitter receptors and ionic
channels „ Membrane potenial
„ Every cell exhibits a membrane potential: difference in of an unstimulated
electric charges across plasma membrane neuron is -70 mV Campbell & Reece, 2005

http://bioweb.usc.edu/courses/2004-spring/documents/bisc221-baudry_lecture29.pdf „ “Resting potential”

Maintenance of a membrane potential Maintenance of a membrane potential

A-: proteins, a.a., sulfate, phosphate, -ve charged molecules. A-: proteins, a.a., sulfate, phosphate, -ve charged molecules.
Campbell, 2005 Campbell, 2005 & 2008

„ Selective permeability of the plasma membrane and „ Selective permeability of the plasma membrane and
the Na+/K+ pump maintain the membrane potential. the Na+/K+ pump maintain the membrane potential.
http://www.lifesci.ucsb.edu/~mcdougal/neurobehavior/modules_homework/lect2.dcr http://www.lifesci.ucsb.edu/~mcdougal/neurobehavior/modules_homework/lect2.dcr6/27
 Neurons & muscles are excitable
Voltage-gated channels
„ Only neurons and muscles are excitable cells.
„ Membrane potential of an excitable cells in a resting state
“Resting membrane potential” = -70 mV, based on ungated
ion channels (Na+ and K+) plus Na+/K+ pump
„ Excitable cells have gated ion channels:
„ Chemically-gated ion channels: open/close in response to a
chemical stimulus.
„ Voltage-gated channels: respond to a change in membrane
potential.
„ Changes in membrane potential result in impulse.
„ Graded vs. resting membrane potentials: hyperpolarization,
„ Open or close in response to changes in membrane potential
depolarization and action potential.
http://bioweb.usc.edu/courses/2004-spring/documents/bisc221-baudry_lecture29.pdf

Chemically-gated channels Mechanically-gated channels

„ Conformational changes due to the binding of ligand and

„ Respond to stretching or other mechanical
membrane receptors deformation 7/27
Membrane potential Hyperpolarization

„ An increase in the voltage

across the membrane.
„ Opening of K+ channel.
„ Increasing of K+ outflow.
Campbell, 2008 „ More negative inside.
Campbell, 2008

Depolarization Action potential

„ A decrease in the voltage „ A big change in the voltage

across the membrane. across the membrane.
„ Opening of Na+ channel. „ Opening of more Na+
channels.
„ Increasing of Na+ inflow.
„ Large increasing of Na+ inflow.
„ More positive inside. „ More positive inside. Campbell, 20088/27
Campbell, 2008
 Action potential Action potential
„ Na+ gate channels
are closed.
„ Na+ inactivation
loops are open
„ K+ channels are
closed.

„ Resting membrane
potential is maintained.
„ Triggering an action
potential.

Campbell, 2008 Campbell, 2008

Action potential Action potential

„ A stimulus opens some „ Na+ channels are open.
Na+ channels. „ K+ channels remain
„ Inactivation loops closed.
remain open. „ Na+ rushes inside.

„ If the depolarization
reaches threshold „ The inside of the cell
(-50 to -55 mV), more Na+ becomes more positive.
gates open.
„ Triggering an action
potential.
Campbell, 2008 Campbell, 2008 9/27
 Action potential
„ Na+ channels are
closed.
„ K+ channels are now
open.
„ K+ leaves the cell.
Action potential
„ Na+ channels are closed.
„ K+ channels remain
open.
„ Too much K+ leaves the
cell.

„ The inside of the cell loses „ Then K+ channels are Refractory period

positive charge. closed, returning to the

„ The inside of the cell resting state.
becomes more negative.

Campbell, 2008 Campbell, 2008

All-or-none law Action potential propagation

„ Magnitude of the action potential is independent of „ Action potential does not
the strength of the depolarizing stimulus that travel along the axon.
triggered it, as long as the depolarization reaches the „ It is repeatedly regenerated
threshold potential. along the axon.
„ Once the action potential is triggered, the „ Initial depolarization triggers
membrane potential goes through a stereotypical depolarization of adjacent
segments of axon; extensive
sequence of changes.
Na+ influx depolarize the next
„ If a stimulus is intense, the neuron will fire segment.
repeatedly ( greater frequency of action potentials.) „ Signal moves unidirectionally
because of the refractory
http://bioweb.usc.edu/courses/2004-spring/documents/bisc221-baudry_lecture29.pdf period. 10/27
Campbell, 2008
Action potential propagation Action potential propagation
„ Initial
depolarization
triggers
depolarization of
adjacent segments
of axon; extensive
Na+ influx
depolarize the
next segment.

Campbell, 2008 Campbell, 2008

Action potential propagation Action potential propagation

„ Several factors affect the speed of the action
„ Signal moves potential propagations along an axon.
unidirectionally
„ Diameter of the axon: the larger the axon’s diameter, the
because of the faster the speed the transmission (resistance to the flow
refractory of electricity current is inversely proportional the
period. diameter of the conductor).
„ In vertebrates, many axons are myelinated by
oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells. The voltage-gated
channels are dense in the nodes of Ranvier. Plus
extracellular fluid contacts the axon at the nodes. Na+
current generated by the action potential travels to the
next nod to stimulate depolarization/action potential.
Campbell, 2008 11/27
 Saltatory conduction
Myelinated fiber

„ In vertebrates, many axons are myelinated by oligodendrocytes

or Schwann cells. The voltage-gated channels are dense in the
nodes of Ranvier. Plus extracellular fluid contacts the axon at
the nodes. Na+ current generated by the action potential travels
Figure 4-15 to the next nod to stimulate depolarization/action potential.
Campbell, 2008

Multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis

„ Autoimmune disease „ Slows transmission of
„ Body’s defense system impulses in the affected
mistakenly attacks the neurons
myelin sheath „ Scars interfere with and
„ Herpes (HHV-6) viral block the propagation of
infection action potential
„ Virus shares common „ Common symptoms
structural features with „ Visual problems
myelin sheath http://www.hmiworld.org/hmi/issues/July_aug_2005/images/around_ms.jpg „ Tingling and numbness
„ 1 in 1000 people in the US „ Muscle weakness
„ Impaired coordination
http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/images/brainbriefings/ms_illus.gif „ Gradual paralysis 12/27
 Communication at synapse
Synapses
„ Synapse are unique cell junctions that control
communication between:
„ Neuron and neuron
„ Sensory receptors and sensory neurons

„ Motor neurons and muscle cells

„ Neurons and gland cells

„ Two types of synapses:

„ Electrical
synapse
„ Chemical synapse „ A nerve cell in the brain may have about
10, 000 to 150, 000 synapses.

Electrical synapse
Synapses
„ Connections by gap

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.figgrp.319
junction.
„ Directly from pre- to
postsynaptic cell
„ No delay

„ No loss of strength

„ In fish, lobsters and

other crustaceans.

Campbell, 2008 13/27

 Chemical synapse Chemical synapse
„ Separated by a
http://bio.winona.msus.edu/berg/308s04/Lec-note/9-new.htm

synaptic cleft.
„ Electrical signal gets
converted to
chemical one which
travels across the
cleft
„ Then gets converted
back to electrical
signal. Campbell, 2008

Life cycle of neurotransmitters

Chemical synapse

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.figgrp.386
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.figgrp.322

14/27
 Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters
An experiment of Otto Loewi, a German physiologist, in 1926. „ Chemical signals released from presynaptic nerve
terminals into the synaptic cleft.
Acetylcholine
„ The subsequent binding of neurotransmitters to
specific receptors on postsynaptic neurons (or other
classes of target cells) transiently changes the
electrical properties of the target cells.
„ Leading to an enormous variety of postsynaptic
effects .

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.section.375

Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters
„ Two majors categories of neurotransmitters, based
on their sizes:
„ Small-molecule neurotransmitters: small

„ Neuropeptides: large, 3-36 amino acids.

Campbell & Reece, 2005 Campbell & Reece, 2005

15/27
 Acetylcholine Communication at synapse
„ One of the most common neurotransmitters in both „ Excitatory
vertebrates and invertebrates. synapse
„ In vertebrate CNS, ACh can be inhibitory or „ EPSP
excitatory: excitatory
postsynaptic
„ Excitatory to vertebrate skeletal muscles >
potential
contraction of skeletal muscles.
„ Inhibitory
„ Inhibitory to cardiac muscle cells > reduce the synapse
strength and rate of cardiac muscle cell „ IPSP
contraction. inhibitory
Campbell & Reece, 2005
postsynaptic
potential
Campbell & Reece, 2005

Summation of postsynaptic potentials Types of nerve circuit

Poolsa-nguan, 2001

Campbell, 2008 16/27

Simple reflex arc

Campbell, 2008

Crossed extensor reflex

Simple reflex arc
To be learned

Pathways that cross

over to the opposite
side of the spinal
cord to stimulate the
knee extensor and
inhibit its flexor
http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f16-13_monosynaptic_and_c.jpg 17/27
Diversity of nervous systems Development of the brain

Campbell & Reece, 2005

Campbell & Reece, 2005

Vertebrate nervous system Meninges

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f15-4_cranial_meninges_c.jpg
CNS
„ Brain and Spinal cord, develop
from the neural tube.
„ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills
brain ventrical & central canal
in spincal cord, delivering
neutreints, hormones and wbc.
„ The brain is surrounded by
meninges.
„ Axons are wrapped with „ Dura mater: thick, durable membrane, closest to the skull
mylein sheaths, appearing „ Arachnoid mater: spider web-
web-like appearance, provides a cushioning effect for
white > white matter. the CNS
„ Gray matter > dendrites + cell „ Pia mater: very delicate membrane, attached to the brain or the spinal cord,
cord,
Campbell, 2008 bodies Within the pia mater are capillaries responsible for nourishing the brain. 18/27
 Meninges

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f16-2b_spinal_meninges__c.jpg http://trc.ucdavis.edu/biosci10v/bis10v/week10/cerebrospinal.gif

The brain The brain

„ Lateralization of brain functions; Right and
left hemispheres do not perform the same
function:
„ Lefthemisphere: language, math logic operations,
processing of serial sequences of information
„ Right hemisphere: pattern recognition, face
recognition, spatial relations, nonverbal ideation,
emotional processing

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f15-10l_cerebral_hemisp_c.jpg 19/27
The brain Cerebrum

Campbell, 2005

Campbell & Reece, 2005

Cerebral cortex Thalamus

„ Main input center for sensory information
going to cerebrum.
„ Incoming from all the sense is sorted out here
and sent to appropriate part of the brain.
„ Also receives input from the cerebrum and
other part of the brain that regulate emotion
and arousal.

Campbell & Reece, 2005

Campbell, 2008 20/27
 Hypothalamus Midbrain
„ One of the most important brain region in „ Contains centers for the receipt and
homeostatic regulation. integration of several sensory information.
„ Body’s thermostat, hunger and thirst centers. „ Then sends the sensory information to the

„ Other basic survival mechanisms: breathing, forebrain.

blood pressure „ Mammals use this part of the brain only for

„ Sexual and mating behavior. eye reflexes.

„ Pleasure.

„ Fight or flight response.

Hindbrain Hindbrain

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f15-22a_cerebellum_mids_c.jpg
„ Medulla:
„ Centers for visceral functions: breathing, heart
beating, swallowing, vomiting and digestion.
„ Pons:
„ Centers for breathing regulation.
„ Cerebellum:
„ Learning and remembering motor responses:
providing autonomic coordination of movements
and balance.
21/27
 Brainstem Brainstem
„ Alsocalled the “lower brain”.
„ Three parts of the brain:
„ Medulla oblongata
„ Pons

„ Midbrain

„ Functions in homeostasis, coordination of

movements, conduction of information to
higher brain center.

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f15-20a_pons_longitudin_c.jpg

Spinal cord Spinal cord

http://www.merck.com/media/mmhe2/figures/fg076_2_2.gif
http://trc.ucdavis.edu/biosci10v/bis10v/week10/spinalcordstruc.gif

22/27
 Spinal cord Spinal cord
„ Main pathway
http://bioweb.usc.edu/courses/2004-spring/documents/bisc221-baudry_lecture29.pdf

http://bioweb.usc.edu/courses/2004-spring/documents/bisc221-baudry_lecture29.pdf
connecting the
brain and
peripheral
nervous system.
„ Several reflex
reactions.
„ Central canal.
„ Gray matter
(inside).
„ White matter
(outside).
http://www.becomehealthynow.com/images/organs/nervous/sp_cord_section.jpg

Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system

„ Cranial nerves
„ Originated in the brain
„ Innervate organs of head
and upper body
„ 12 pairs in mammals
„ Spinal nerves
„ Originated in spinal cord.
„ Innervate in the entire
body
„ 31 pairs in mammals.
„ Both contain sensory
and motor neurons.
Campbell & Reece, 2005
http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f16-4_neuron_pathways_a_c.jpg 23/27
 http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f15-24l_cranial_nerves_c.jpg
Cranial nerves Cranial nerves
I. Olfactory* I. Olfactory*
II. Optic* II. Optic*

http://www1.appstate.edu/~clarkhm/swallow_distance/images/cranial%20nerves.jpg
III. Oculomotor III. Oculomotor
IV. Trochlear IV. Trochlear
V. Trigeminal V. Trigeminal
VI. Abducens VI. Abducens
VII. Facial VII. Facial
VIII. Auditory* VIII. Auditory*
IX. Glossopharyngeal IX. Glossopharyngeal
X. Vagus X. Vagus
XI. Spinal accessory XI. Spinal accessory
XII. Hypoglossal XII. Hypoglossal

Spinal nerves Peripheral nervous system

31 pairs:
„ 8 cervical
„ 12 thoracic
„ 5 lumbar
„ 5 sacral
„ 1 coccygeal

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f16-1a_gross_anatomy_of_c.jpg Campbell & Reece, 2005 24/27

Peripheral nervous system Autonomous nervous system

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f14-2_functional_organi_c.jpg http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f18-2_components_of_the_c.jpg

Sym-parasympathetic nerves

Parasympathetic division

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f18-5_overview_of_paras_c.jpg
„ Act on body
organs with
opposing
effects.

Campbell & Reece, 2005 25/27

 Sympathetic division

Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine

Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f18-4_anatomic_differen_c.jpg http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f18-6_overview_of_sympa_c.jpg
Sym-parasympathetic nerves

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/table18-2_comparison_of.jpg

26/27
 Sympathetic nerves Parasympathetic nerves
„ Arousal and energy generation in response to „ Calming and returning to self-maintenance
stress: functions:
„ The heart beats faster. „ Decreases heart rate.
„ The liver converts glycogen to glucose. „ Constriction of bronchi in lungs.

„ Bronchi of the lungs dilate and support increased „ Stimulate digestion.

gas exchanged.
„ Digestion is inhibited.

„ Secretion of adrenaline from adrenal medulla is

stimulated.

Campbell & Reece, 2005 Campbell & Reece, 2005

27/27