SPE

SPE 10035
Society of Petroleum Engineers
Production Logging
by R.M. McKinley, * Exxon Production Research Co.
*Member SPE-AIME
Copyright 1982, Society of Petroleum n ~ n e e r s
This paper was presented at the International Petroleum Exhibition and Technical Symposium of the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in
8ejing, China, 1826 March, 1982. The material is subject to correction by the author. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not
more than 300 words. Write SPE, 6200 North Central Expressway, Dallas, Texas, 75206 USA. Telex 730989
ABSTRACT
Production logging denotes that area of well
logging concerned with two general goals: (1) prob-
lem well diagnosis, and (2) reservoir surveillance.
The purpose of logging is to track fluid movement
within or behind pipe or to monitor the movement of
reservoir fluid contacts. The logs have been,
traditionally, tools of the workover or subsurface
engineer and the reservoir engineer. However, with
the increasing hazards of drilling, the logs are
becoming of vital importance to the drilling engineer.
In many areas of the world, a suite of production
logs are obtained before a particular well is even
perforated for production. This is especially
important for wells drilled within or near produc-
ing fields. Successful completions through strata
with unequal pressures are difficult.
Because of the increasing importance of produc-
tion logs, a survey of the subject is appropriate.
In this paper, we review how the various logging
tools work, what they measure, and how these measure-
ments are related to flow. By example logs, we
wish to illustrate three important points. First,
production logs should be run in suites of comple-
menting devices. Seldom does one log alone give
satisfactory answers to a particular problem.
Second, the subtle features, rather than the
obvious anomalies, of a particular log often con-
tain the desired information. Finally, production
logging evolution has only recently turned in a
direction of attempting to deal with multiphase
flow of gases and liquids at low rates. As a
result, the technology in this area is still insuf-
ficient.
INTRODUCTION
Historically, the term "production log" was
used to designate a well log run after a well had
been placed on production. However, in modern
usage, the term has come to mean any borehole
Ref, md ill it It It ld ,f paper
563
survey used as an aid to either eliminating or
assisting production. Traditionally, it has been
the need to eliminate an unwanted flow that has
spurred the growth of production logging. For a
well being drilled, this flow is usually the result
of premature entry into the wellbore of oil, gas,
or water due to either mud pressure loss from frac-
turing and flow into a weak formation or to
abnormally high fluid pressure within the pore
of a formation. With drill' pipe in the hole,
logging device must be capable of detecting
flow in the annular space between the pipe and the
wellbore. For wells on production, the unwanted
flow is most likely to be a water flow accompanying
the hydrocarbon. This water may originate in the
completed interval or it may channel behind pipe
into the perforations from another formation or it
may enter the wellbore through holes in the casing.
The logging sonde should therefore respond to flow
either within or behind pipe. Finally, for injec-
tion wells, the unwanted flow would be that part
of the injection which is lost by leaks to zones
other than the designated injection zones. Again,
the unwanted flow can be within or behind pipe.
By the early 1940s, Ref. (1), downhole
recording thermometers were in use to track the
type of flows described above. During the 1940s,
downhole recording pressure gauges and flow meters
were added to thermometers as production logging
devices. The disadvantage of not knowing the
survey results until the device was retrieved from
the well became quickly apparent. The late 1940s
and early 1950s saw the development of surface
indicating thermometers, flow meters, and pressure
gauges, Refs. (2) and (3). Production logging
subsequently became a part of the repertoire of
service companies established in the field of open
hole logging. Because of the difficulty and hazard
of running an electric logging cable into a well
against pressure, the downhole recording devices -
run on small, solid wire lines - remained in wide-
spread use. The introduction of grease injection
control heads in the early 1960s resolved most of
the pressure difficulties. We shall therefore
discuss only those logging devices that are surface
recording.
2 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
Specifically, we will discuss temperature,
noise, cement bond and radioactive tracer surveys
along with flowmeter, fluid density, and fluid
capacitance surveys. These are the surveys most
widely used for problem diagnosis. Most of these
have been the subject of earlier production logging
discussions, Refs. (4) and (5), which the present
paper hopes to update.
With the increasing value of oil and gas, those
logs that assist in the economic production of a
reservoir are becoming equally important. These are
the cased hole nuclear logging devices that are
useful in monitoring fluid contacts for the reservoir
engineer and in locating new completion zones for the
workover engineer. Details of these logs would
lengthen the paper considerably. There is already an
extensive literature on these devices, Refs. (6),
(7), and (8), for example. Consequently, they are
discussed only peripherally in this paper.
Another very important aspect of production
logging is depth control. This will be discussed at
this point and then assumed to be a part of all the
other logs in the remainder of the paper. A new well
is usually completed from a perforation depth control
log, a PDC log, which is a cased hole nuclear log,
such as a gamma ray or neutron log plus a collar log.
The nuclear log is correlated to a similar log run
before casing the well. In this manner, the collar
depths are tied to the depth scale on the original
open hole logs. The collars on this PDC log then
serve as the depth reference for all subsequent
production logs, each of which should have its own
collar survey. Figure 1a shows that a collar locator
section consists of a coil of wire, with many turns,
placed between two cylindrical magnets whose poles
are reversed. As the locator is pulled past a collar
joining two sections of pipe, the increase in metal
thickness distorts the magnetic fields cutting the
coil. This induces opposite polarity voltages in the
coil as each end passes through the collar. These
voltages are recorded as Ittic
lt
marks at the surface.
Such collar records are absolutely essential when
logging deviated wells, where repeated reversals in
the direction of cable travel are necessary to work
the logging sonde into the well, or when repeated
passes are to be taken. Although the counter wheels
on modern production logging units are accurate to
about 5 feet out of 5000 feet, any reversal of
logging direction causes slippage between the cable
and counter wheel. For the two situations mentioned,
cumulative errors of 20 feet or more is not uncommon.
Furthermore, even 5 feet may be too much error in a
particular situation. Fig. 1b shows a collar record
recorded on both the run into and the run out of a
well completed with 2-7/8" pipe. A 3-foot "pup"
joint appears at 6018-21 feet depth as a reference
mark. On the run out, this joint appears about
three feet too high. A noise log, which is discussed
in detail later, appears on Fig. Ie. This log was
taken coming out of the hole and shows flow at a
liquid level at 7004 feet. A four foot shift upward
would place this level at the bottom of existing
perforations. Since this is a gas well, this is the
depth at which the liquid level should be located.
However, from the collar record, Ib, the depth at the
level should be shifted downward about three feet.
564
The flow is therefore associated with perforations
that have earlier been closed by "squeeze cementing"
to eliminate water production. These perforations
are now leaking. For larger diameter pipe, the
record from a small diameter collar locator may be of
such poor quali.ty that a separate run with a nuclear
logging tool is necessary. The logging cable can
then be marked at selected depths for subsequent
runs.
In what follows, any necessary depth corrections
on logs will be made without further elaboration.
The remaining discussion is divided into two major
classes - those devices which are useful in detecting
flow behind the pipe containing the logging tool and
those useful for the detection of flow within the
pipe.
Behind Pipe Flow: Temperature, Noise, Radio-
active Tracer, and Cement Bond Surveys. Of the
commercial devices, only the temperature and noise
surveys are capable of giving positive indications of
behind pipe flow in those situations where there is
no fluid connection with the outside environment.
These are complementary surveys that can be obtained
with one logging run. The temperature log is
obtained going into the well to prevent vertical
mixing of wellbore fluid, while the noise log is
obtained coming out.
Temperature Surveys - Although temperature
surveys in a wellbore are the oldest production
logging techniques, Refs. (1) and (9), they remain
exceedingly useful for problem well diagnosis. A
temperature log indicates the presence of flow by
causing a departure of the borehole fluid temperature
from its static or geothermal value. Under static
conditions, temperature increases gradually with
depth. Although quite variable with location, a
geothermal gradient of 0.017 F/ft is "typical" of
sand-shale sequences. While the local gradient may
not be known with great accuracy, an estimate is
usually sufficient.
The type of disturbance that a particular flow
situation produces, relative to geothermal tem-
perature, can be classed as one of three cases: an
injection gradient, a production gradient, or a
circulation gradient. Each flow situation produces
the type of temperature profile illustrated schema-
tically in . 2. Injected fluid is usually cooler
than temperature at some depth, such as A
in Fig. 2a. Below this depth, the flow cools the
wellbore below geothermal to the deepest point of
injection, the perforated zone C in the figure.
Below this depth, the temperature returns to geo-
by vertical conduction which gives a
profile that is concave toward geothermal. Once the
injection is stopped, those portions of the borehole
not coincident with injection zones will return to
geothermal fairly rapidly, leaving a cold anomaly at
an injection zone, location C on Fig. 2a. If the
injection has continued for several days, then the
injection cold anomaly will appear to "grow" in size
on sequential shut-in logs as the rest of the bore-
hole returns to geothermal. The behavior of the cold
spot at B in Fig. 2a shows sustained injection at
this location as well. This is the way in which an
injection problem shows up. If gas is injected,
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 3
then some expansion cooling may occur whenever the
gas pressure drops, such as at the injection zone C
of Fig. 2a.
1f a well is on production, then the flow heats
the borehole above the point of fluid entry, zone A
on Fig. 2b. Once the production ceases, the borehole
will return to geothermal from the hot side.
Figure 2b shows that flow continues at a lower rate
up to depth B after the well is shut-in. Gas pro-
duction can show cooling at the productive zone, due
to its expansion, as indicated on Fig. 2b. Finally,
a circulation profile is shown on Fig. 2c. The two
previous profiles have been either parallel to or
concave towards the geothermal gradient; however,
the profile is concave away in the
cooled portions of the wellbore.
Before actual logs are illustrated, a brief
description of how a moderrr, surface recording
thermometer operates is given. A sketch in
Fig. 3 shows that the resistive sensing element,
usually a wire coil, is in a cage at the bottom of
the device. The element is part of either a bridge
circuit or a constant current circuit such that a
voltage proportional to temperature can operate a
voltage controlled oscillator that transmits a
frequency modulated Signal (FM signal) to the
surface. This eliminates the attenuation influence
of varying cable lengths. At the surface, the FM
signal is reconverted to a voltage for recording as a
temperature. A continuous record of temperature is
obtained as the device is run into the well at
logging speeds of 20-30 feet per minute. This record
is called a "gradient" curve. Some form of amplifi-
cation is usually available on either the temperature
or its rate of change (differential curve). The
absolute accuracy of the device is usually only about
5F due to a combination of logging speed and
infrequent calibration. The resolution is, however,
quite good. Changes of the order of O.lF are easily
detectable. The customary depth scale of either one
inch or five inches of log per 100 feet of depth is
not all that satisfactory. From such a long strip of
paper, it is difficult to recognize the subtle trends
indicated on Fig. 2. Consequently, the depth scale
is greatly reduced on the examples that follow. The
diameter of these type of thermometers range from
7/B-inch to 1-11/16-inches.
Our Fig. 4 shows a sequence of temperature logs
run to determine the source of water in a gas well.
A total of 200 barrels of field salt water was
injected into the well at a rate of about 600 BPD.
On the log obtained while injecting, the temperature
begins its "conductive" return to geothermal tem-
perature just below the perforations. There is a
slight disruption in this return about 20 feet below
the perforations at depth A on Fig. 4. The shut-in
curves after 1 and 2 hours show that a small amount
of injection has occurred at this depth. Since there
is a water sand here, this is the most likely source
of water during production. The effect of injection
at A has practically disappeared from the 17-hr
shut-in log. This is a good illustration of the
sequential or "time-lapse" logging procedure where
time is obviously critical to successful interpre-
tation. Note also that the logs do not give the path
taken by the water in reaching depth A. The flow may
leave through a casing hole at this depth or travel
behind pipe from the perforations.
565
A recent evolution of the thermometer which will
help in determining the flow path is the radial
differential thermometer (RDT). In addition to the
section shown on Fig. 3, the RDT device has a section
which can be anchored by bow springs at a given
depth. Two arms containing the temperature sensing
elements are then extended to contact the casing
wall. The difference in the output of these sensors
is then recorded as they are rotated around the
circumference of the casing. If this device were
anchored about 10 feet below the perforations in the
example of Fig. 4, it should show one side of the
pipe preferentially cooler if the injected water is
flowing in a channel behind pipe. A most promising
feature of this device is its potential to orient a
perforating gun to shoot into the channel. A proto-
type of this thermometer has been demonstrated for
field use, Ref. (10), and it is avail-
able on a limited scale.
Other logging devices that would be useful for
determining the flow path are the radioactive tracer
and the noise logging tools. These are discussed
later.
Considerable effort has also gone into making
quantitative rate determinations (injection profiles)
from temperature logs such as those of Fig. 4. That
this is very difficult for the shut-in anomalies is
well illustrated by the model study of Ref. (11). It
is much easier to relate the rate to displacement of
the flowing curve from geothermal, Refs. (9) and
(12). The last reference summarizes the details of
rate estimation excellently.
The next example illustrates a typical produc-
tion profile. The temperature log in Fig. 5 was run
after a flowing oil well had been shut in for
24 hours. This particular well had pressure on both
the 2-3/8" - 5-1/2" annulus and the 5-1/2" - 9-5/8"
annulus. The log shows a return to geothermal tem-
perature only over the top 400 feet. Below this
depth, there is a large crossflow originating at the
perforations; there is an underground blowout in
progress. Several features of the log are worth
exam1n1ng. Above depth A, the CUrve shifts slightly
to lower temperatures. This can be looked upon as a
"shielding" effect that the tubing provides for the
thermometer once the flow shifts from inside to out-
side the tubing as illustrated in Fig. 5. Actually,
the shift occurs because the thermometer, traveling
downward, does not equilibrate with its surroundings
as rapidly in stagnant fluid as it does in moving
fluid. Proceeding up the hole, we see that the
production profile is altered above depth B. Yet the
temperature does not begin a conductive type decay
until above 600 feet, depth C on the figure. These
observations suggest the indicated circulation
between 1000 and 600 feet. Above 600 feet, the
temperature log shows some "anomalies" due to
lithology.
Lithology can have a pronounced effect on a
temperature log. In Table 1, various earth materials
and fluids are listed in Column A according to
decreasing thermal conductivity, k. This will also
be the order of increasing static geothermal
gradient. Groups of materials have similar con-
ductivities. , an increasing water content
accounts for the decreasing conductivities. The
dramatic difference between the static in
4 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
shale and salt is illustrated in Fig. 6a for a well
drilled into a salt dome. The large heat flux
upward through the salt causes a high gradient in
the poorer conducting shales above. Figure 6b
shows that a shale-sand sequence also produces a
non-linear gradient, which in fact somewhat
resembles an injection flow profile.
Most wells, however, are not at static condi-
tions when first logged. Lithology also plays a
role in the manner in which temperature returns to
geothermal. The larger the thermal diffusivity
k '
pc- , whe:e p is the density and c the heat
p capaclty, the more rapid is return to geo-
thermal temperature. In column B of Table 1
materials are listed in order of decreasing
diffusivity, which is the same as the order of
increasing lag time to get back to geothermal. While
a well is flowing, convective heat transfer produces
a profile nearly free of lithological detail. When
the flow is stopped, those portions of the wellbore
traversing high thermal diffusivity beds change
toward geothermal temperture most rapidly. The
lithological detail due to this radial heat flow
grows during the early stages of shut-in. This
creates high vertical temperature gradients which
oppose the radial heat flow. Consequently, the
lithological distortions die out with increased
shut-in times. This is illustrated in Fig. 7a
which shows a 6-hr shut-in log dominated by
lithology and a 24-hr shut-in log on which the
lithology effects are much more subdued. The
"cold" spikes are water sands that can be correlated
with a self potential or gamma ray log. Had this
been an injection well, the "anomolies" would reverse.
Water sands would show up as "hot" spikes.
The nature of the well completion also
influences the manner in which temperature returns
to its geothermal value. Fig. 7b is a montage of
illustrations from Ref. (13). After circulation is
stopped, the hole enlargement at depth A looks like
an injection zone with the exception that the
anomaly will first grow and then die out as shut-in
increases. The cemented casing, starting at B,
lnsulates the formation and prevents its cooling as
far away from the well as does the open hole. On
shut-in, the insulated portion therefore returns to
geothermal faster than the part below the casing.
The same insulating effect is provided by the wash-
out at C which is filled with cement. The direction
of these shielding anomalies assume that the well-
bore fluid temperature equalizes over the cross
section more rapidly than in the formation. This
may not be the case either for very short shut-in
times or for short flow periods. Referring back to
Fig. 4, we see that the shielding effect of the
tubing on the I-hr shut-in curve is the reverse of
that shown in Fig. 7b at depth B. Initially, the
tubing-annulus insulation slows the transfer of heat
to the fluid inside the tubing relative to that in
the casing below. By 2 hours shut-in this reverse
shielding anomaly has disappeared, while on the
17-hr profile the anomaly is in the proper direction
as shown on Fig. 7b. For very short flow periods,
the anomaly may remain reversed as it appears on the
1-hr profile of Fig. 4. In any case, the transient
distortions due to either lithology or completion
first grow and then die out on sequentially run
temperature logs. This contrasts to long-time flow
anomalies which continue to grow. In fact, zones
566
may continue to show temperature anomalies for years
after injection has ceased.
Finally, a standing liquid level produces a
shift similar to that illustrated at depth A in
Fig. 5 as the thermometer enters liquid from gas.
Our next example illustrates lithological
influences. Fig. 8a shows injection logs run 3
weeks after a massive hydraulic fracturing treatment
on the perforated interval indicated on the figure.
Before injection, the log on the right, labeled as
3 weeks, was obtained. It shows a residual from
fracturing that indicates fluid injection or fluid
redistribution over the entire interval. After this
log, 240 barrels of water was injected over a one-
hour period at 4 bbl/min rate. The profile during
injection is the leftmost curve on Fig. 8a. It
shows that the shallowest injection point is at the
top of the perforations. A second major injection
is at a depth of about 9160 feet. The 1-hr shut-in
is already beginning to show lithological influence
in the sand-shale sequence above the perforations.
The anomalies at 8750 and 8840 feet appear as
growing "cold" spots during the first 6 hours and
then begin to be subdued at later times. These
spots are at depths where the gamma ray log shows
shales between massive sands. According to column B
in Table 1, shales should not return to geothermal
temperature as rapidly as do sands. This accounts
for the "cold" spots. By contrast, the injection
anomalies at 9000 and 9160 feet continue to "grow"
at least during the first 12 hours of shut-in.
These logs were run to determine if any flow behind
pipe was going into the sands above the perfora-
tions. There is no indication of such flow. The
temperature logs immediately after are
also interesting. Two of these are shown on 8b
where we see the same cold injection interval
between 9100 and 9200 feet that appears on Fig. 8a.
By contrast, the 9000-ft injection zone at the top
of the perforations is showing up as a "hot" spot.
One would tend to say that no injection occurred
here. However, this behavior has been observed
before, Ref. (14), where it was speculated to be the
result of flow from one wing of the fracture through
the wellbore into the second wing as earth stresses
redistribute after fracturing. This flow, originat-
ing away from the wellbore, would be warmer.
As a final example of some of the subtle
features of temperature logs, there appears on
Fig. 9 a sequence of logs run on a new gas well that
was drilled as an infill well in an old gas field.
The log of Fig. 9a was run 20 days after the well
was cased to 5800 feet with 5-1/2" casing. Con-
sequently, the temperature should be near geothermal
values. There are two features to the log: a
"cold" anomaly at 5475 feet, and a "cold" interval
from 5560 to 5675 feet. The latter behavior in the
5500-5700 foot interval resembles the lithology
pattern of a shale-sand sequence as illustrated in
Fig. 6b, and is probably not indicative of cross-
flow between sands Band C. The "cold spike" at
5475, however, is not characteristic of a static
geothermal profile, being instead suggestive of gas
expansion cooling. This, in turn, suggests gas flow
from the higher pressured A-sand past a constriction
at 5475 to the lower pressured M-sands. This is,
however, undesirable since gas is being injected
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 5
into the A-sand for pressure maintenance. The size
of the "cold spot," :::: 1F, is related to the size
of the pressure drop at that location rather than
to the amount of flow. For methane, the adiabatic
(Joule-Thompson) cooling coefficient is typically
one Fahrenheit degree per 40 psi pressure drop.
Actually there is at least a 200-psi pressure dif-
ference between the A-sand and the M-sands. The
flow is not adiabatic and is, in fact, at a low
rate. This low rate is evident from the fact that
the cooling is not carried downstream from 5475
toward the M-sands. Figure 9b shows the two higher
frequency measurements on a noise log from this
well. This log, discussed more fully in the next
section, also shows crossflow in the 5400-5500 foot
interval, but does not indicate any flow between
the B- and C-sands below 5550 feet. The well was
then perforated and flowed for 28 hours for clean
up. Subsequent shut-in temperature logs are shown
on Fig. 9c. These logs show that all the gas
production came from the completed interval. The
growth of the small flow anomaly at 5475 feet depth
is evident.
The above examples illustrate the various
factors that influence a temperature survey. How-
ever, a temperature log alone seldom gives enough
information to completely diagnose a particular
problem. Therefore, it is prudent to run the tool
in combination with other devices such as the noise
log discussed next.
Borehole Sound Surveys - The detection of
sound generated by the turbulence associated with
behind-pipe flow was described early in the history
of production logging, Ref. (15). A more complete
discussion appeared in 1973, Ref. (16), shortly
after which the service became available commer-
cially, Ref. (17). Specialized applications are
described in Ref. (18). The logging device is a
hydrophone which is positioned at a particular
depth to record the sound level in the wellbore at
that depth. Commercial tools range in diameter
from 1 inch to 1-11/16 inches, and are capable of
oscillations as small as
10 psi in amplitude, Ref. (16). As indicated on
Fig. lOa, the device transmits an amplitude
modulated voltage to the surface where it is passed
through a sequence of high-pass filters that span
the frequency range from 200 Hz to 2000 Hz. Two
optional filters at 4000 and 6000 Hz are also
available. As discussed in Ref. (16), the audible
frequencies will usually be most sensitive to fluid
turbulence generated behind pipe. At each stop, at
least four readings are taken to give four curves
of noise amplitude versus depth on the completed
log. The way each of these curves should look is
illustrated in Fig. lab for the hypothetical
situation shown. Fluid accelerating from the
source sand at depth A produces a peak in the noise
record whose amplitude is proportional to the cube
of the velocity, Ref. (18), at that point. A
second peak in the record appears at depth B where
the fluid accelerates past a tight spot in the
cement. The peak amplitude will again reflect
localized velocity at depth B. If the fluid speeds
up to leave the channel at depth C, a third peak
will appear on the sound record at that depth.
Three points are illustrated in Fig. lOb. First,
the velocity of most leaks behind pipes will be
sufficiently large that there will be an increase
567
in noise level above ambient throughout the cross-
flow interval, A-C in the figure. Second, the
record will show peak noise levels at those depths
where the fluid accelerates. This may occur at
fluid sources, sinks, or at constrictions to flow.
Hence, the log's character reveals information about
the flow path. Finally, on either side of a peak,
there is a conductive carry-away of sound. In
contrast to the temperature log, several thousand
feet may be required for the lower frequency curves
to reach ambient noise level which is usually in
the range 0.1 - 4 millivolts. Because of the
randomly changing phases, this carry-away can hide
smaller peaks on the record. For example, any
peak in the interval between depths A and B on
Fig. lOb would need an amplitude exceeding the
carry-away amplitude at the peak location if it
is to be detected by the survey.
Four readings are taken at each stop to iden-
tify the frequency character of the sound source.
This, in turn, helps identify the type of leak. If
the flow in the confined environment behind pipe
consists of a single phase (gas or liquid) or a
mixture of liquids, then the turbulence generated by
the accelerating flow will have a relatively high
frequency, 1000 Hz or above. The individual filter
readings at the peak will be close together, at
least through the 1000-Hz cut, as illustrated in
Fig. 10c. If the flow consists, however, of gas
having to bubble or head through liquid, all the
peak readings will spread out as in Fig. lad. In
fact, the difference in amplitudes between the
200-and 600-Hz readings will generally exceed the
amplitude of the 1000-Hz This type of flow
generates considerable sound in the 200-Hz range.
For a given flow rate, the amplitude is much greater
than for single-phase flow. These concepts are
illustrated by the following examples which discuss
the combination temperature-noise survey.
Figure lla shows a temperature log run in the
drill pipe of a well shut in after a pressure surge
(kick) occurred at the surface six hours earlier.
The log shows a crossflow from the greatest depth
reached up to 15,600 feet. The log, however, does
not tell how the flow gets to the shallower depth.
The flow may take place inside the casing to a split
at 15,600 feet. Alternately, the flow may be behind
the casing if the pressure surge destroyed the
cement bonding. The remedial action required is
different in the two cases. The noise log,
Fig. lIb, helps decide the issue. The number of
peaks, starting at the casing shoe, on the log
indicates a very torturous flow path, i.e., a flow
behind pipe to the 15,600-foot sink sand. Further-
more, the crowding together of the three lowest
frequency curves shows a single-phase type of flow.
Since the well contained drilling mud, this single
phase requirement eliminates gas as a source fluid
for the underground blowout. Note from Fig. lIb
that ambient or dead well noise levels are reached
only above 13,000 feet which is some 2600 feet above
the sink sand. Also note that the highest frequency
curve, the 2000-Hz curve, attenuates most rapidly to
ambient level. Consequently, the optional 4000-Hz
and 6000-Hz measurements can often be used for
better vertical resolution.
6 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
The noise log of Fig. 12 should be contrasted
with that of Fig. lIb. The Fig. 12 log also shows
crossflow from 4800 feet to the 800-1000 foot level.
However, the lack of peaks other than statistical
in the intervening interval means that the flow is
inside pipe or above cement tops outside pipe.
According to the well completion sketch, the flow is
apparently entering the 9-5/8"-7" annulus at
4800 feet.
A noise log is particularly useful in detecting
small gas leaks into liquid. This is illustrated by
the logs on Fig. 13 from a well that developed
annulus gas pressure before completion. Fig. 13a
shows a temperature log obtained while venting about
50,000 scf/D of gas from the 13-3/8"-20" annulus.
This log is dominated by the heat generated by
curing cement as evidenced by the hot interval from
the bottom of the 20" casing at 560 feet to the
cement top in the annulus at about 170 feet. The
gas source is not evident on the log. By contrast,
the noise log of Fig. 13b shows a gas entry into
liquid at 2450 feet. This is the deepest gas source.
There is flow upward behind pipe from this depth.
It is not possible to determine from the log whether
the large peak at 1400 feet is an additional gas
source, a constriction, or a water sand being
charged by gas. In any case,the deepest source
should be eliminated first. This well was per-
forated at 2100 feet after which cement was pumped
behind the 13-3/8" pipe and allowed to set. The
well annulus would still flow gas but at a greatly
reduced rate. A second noise log, Fig. 13c, shows
that this gas source is in the vicinity of 1500 feet.
It is most likely the sand at 1400 feet in the log
of Fig. 13b. A charged water sand is now discharging.
The pressure drop associated with charging inter-
mediate sands can cause shut-in gas pressure at the
surface to be a deceptive indicator of the depth of
a gas source.
Flow rates within a factor of two to three can
be estimated from peak noise levels. Details appear
in Refs. (16) and (18). Briefly, for single-phase
flow, the noise amplitude is proportional to the
pump work creating the peak, i.e.,
where q and ~ p are the flow rate and pressure drop
creating the sound peak, C
1
is a calibration
constant, and Ninoo is the peak ~ o i s value from the
1000-Hz curve. TfilS latter read1ng must be cor-
rected for cable attenuation, tool gain, and well
completion. For example, if the reader will refer
back to Figs. 9a and 9b, he will recall that these
logs indicated a small gas flow from the A-sand to
the M-sands which were some 200 psi lower in pres-
sure. Using the methods outlined in Ref. 16 and the
1000-Hz noise level at 5475 feet depth, we estimate
the loss from the A-sand to be about 100 cu. ft/day
at bottomhole conditions or about 20,000 cu. ft/day
at standard conditions.
For small gas flow rates through liquid, the
flow rate is proportional to the noise in the
200-600 Hz band, Ref. (16)
where C
2
is a calibration constant.
568
Rates estimated from noise logs in the above fashion
are crude, but can be satisfactory in deciding the
seriousness of a particular problem.
Extraneous sOUrces of sound are the greatest
impediment to noise log quality control. These
extraneous SOurces may be surface equipment noise or
inadvertant flow past the sonde or continued move-
ment of the logging tool during measurement, as, for
example, happens when logging in heavy mud or from
floating vessels. Fig. 14a shows a noise log run
from a floating drill ship. The combined motion of
the ship and the telescoping of the pipe sections
attached to the ship have created a high noise level
throughout the section of free pipe above the cement
top at 5200 feet. Even below this depth, the noise
levels are high and erratic. As a second example,
Fig. 14b is a noise log obtained from a supposedly
shut-in oil well. There is actually a leak at the
wellhead which allows a small flow of gas through
liquid originating at the perforations below 5550
feet. This flow does not create much of a problem
until it enters the smaller diameter tubing. Here,
the clearance between the pipe wall and the sonde is
so small that the flow velocity becomes significant.
The problem becomes worse at shallow depths where
additional gas evolution occurs.
Another aspect of the noise log should also be
illustrated. If flow is occurring, then a standing
liquid level will show up dramatically on a noise
log since sound attenuation away from a source in a
liquid is much less than in a gas. The log on an
earlier figure, Fig. lc, shows a liquid level at
about 7005 feet depth. Because of the better sound
transmission away from the source at 7005 feet, the
part of the borehole below the liquid level is much
noisier than is a comparable section above the level.
Also, the character of the noise below the liquid
level is not due to flow behind pipe at these depths,
but results from variations in the source strength at
7005 feet.
The combination temperature-noise survey is the
primary detection procedure for flow purely behind
pipe. If the flow can be tagged with a radioactive
tracer in the wellbore and then pumped out perfora-
tions, then the radioactive tracer device is a very
effective tool for observing the flow of the tagged
fluid behind pipe.
Radioactive Tracer Surveys - The radioactive
tracer tool assembly is seen in Fig. 15a* to consist
of a casing collar locator (eCL) , a reservoir-
ejector assembly, and two gamma ray detectors. The
spacing between the detectors can be varied - up to,
typically, ten feet - to accommodate a range of
fluid velocities. The relative positioning of
detectors to ejector can also be changed. As
positioned in Fig. 15a, the detectors will time the
passage of a slug of tagged fluid flowing downward,
as illustrated in Fig. I5b, where the times of
maximum (peak) activity are used for timing. Since
the slugs can become dispersed, the times at one-
half peak value are sometimes employed. Usually, a
few seconds error is present in the timing. This
error determines the high velocity limitation of the
device. The device is excellent at low flow rates
*Courtesy of Schlumberger Wireline Services
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 7
if the density of the tagged fluid is closely matched
to that of the we1lbore fluid. The low flow rate
resolution is far better than any of the mechanical
flowmeters available.
A variety of tracers are available including
water soluble, oil. soluble, oil/water soluble, and
gaseous. Produced gas, however, will tend to strip
tracer from a liquid. Common fluid tracers are
Iodine-13I, with an 8-day half life, and Iridium-192,
with a 74-day half life. Both emit gamma rays at
roughly 0.4-0.5 Mev level.
To track flow behind pipe, the device is used as
illustrated in Fig. 16. The wellbore interval is
first logged with a detector sensitivity sufficient
to give a base log comparable to a cased hole gamma
ray log. The ejector is then located opposite the
perforations and a slug of tracer ejected with the
well shut in. A small amount of injection at the
surface is then used to displace the t:gged fluid
into the perforations. The interval is re10gged to
give the solid curve on Fig. 16 with peak activity at
the perforations. Additional injection is then made
from the surface to push the tracer into the forma-
tion or into any channel communicating with the
perforations. A subsequent log, the dashed curve of
Fig. 16, shows that some tagged fluid has moved up
outside the pipe to the 9000 foot level indicating
communication with gas sands at this depth.
Proper timing, acquired by experience, is
obviously important in the type of surveys
illustrated in Fig. 16. Also, the pressure dif-
ferences may be such that all the injection enters
the completed interval. Crossf1ow because of
pressure imbalance should appear on temperature-noise
surveys with the well shut in.
Most tracer devices eject the slug perpendicular
to the axis of the sonde. This is not satisfactory
in a borehole which contains fluid that exhibits
plastic or yield behavior, such as heavy drilling
muds or certain fluid emulsions. Most of the ejected
tracer remains in the stagnant zone at the pipe wall.
The device should be modified to concentrate the
tracer near the pipe center.
For flow surveys inside pipe, the device should
always be calibrated at a depth receiving 100% of the
total flow. This eliminates the question of what
velocity the device measures.
It is also common practice to coat with a tracer
the solid propants used in hydraulic fracturing,
Ref. (19), to help estimate vertical fracture exten-
sion. It is good policy to tag the entire batch of
solids rather than a portion, because most detectable
radiation will come from within a foot of the well-
bore. Since these tagged solids are introduced into
the well at the surface, collection within the
tubing-casing can be quite a problem, particularly at
collars or at the ends of tubing strings. After
fracturing, a short fluid injection or a short flow
period will help flush out the collected solids.
The success of the above procedures is pre-
dicated on tagging the fluid or solid inside the
pipe. A prototype device to create a tracer in
569
water beind pipe has also been demonstrated,
Ref. (20). This device uses a 14 Mev neutron
generator to activate oxygen to nitrogen-16 whose
decay gamma radiation can then be detected. This
method has the potential to detect very low water
flow rates. However, the device is not available
commercially at this time. Water flow behind casing
is also known to precipitate radioactive salts
leached from shales. A sequence of gamma ray logs
can sometimes be used to detect such flow, Ref. (21).
In addition to the primary devices discussed
above, a properly run cement bond log can give
information on the quality of a completion.
Cement Bond Logs - A cement bond log evaluates
the quality of a cementing operation by the fact,
amply illustrated in our earlier Fig. 14a, that sound
travels along free pipe much better than along pipe
to which cement is bonded. The logging device is
similar in operation to an open-hole velocity logger,
consisting of a pulsed transmitter and two receivers.
The log is presented in a format that indicates the
amplitude of the 20-30 KHz signal that travels along
the pipe from the transmitter to the first receiver.
This is an indicator of the lack of bonding of cement
to pipe. To identify signals traveling through the
formation - and hence, cement bond to formation -
some form of wavetrain display, such as the variable
density displays of Refs. (22) and (23), is also
presented. Sound amplitudes are, of course, highly
non-linear functions of the fraction of pipe cir-
cumference to which cement is bonded. Numerous
other completion factors also influence these
amplitudes, Ref. (24). It is still difficult to
relate bond log characteristics to the presence of
flow behind pipe with any more consistency than
one can anticipate completion problems from, say,
an open-hole caliper log. The author does not feel
that at the present time the bond log is a primary
production logging device. Opposing views are
expressed in Refs. (25) and (26).
The primary logging devices discussed above will
also respond to flow inside pipe. However, there are
specialized logging tools more appropriate to this
application. Modern practice is to run combination
tools (Ref. 27) including those above and those to be
discussed next.
making velOCity
see if flow is occurring at a given depth along with
fluid identification measurements to determine what
is flowing. The use of the radioactive tracer device
for velocity measurements has already been discussed.
The other popular flowmeter is the spinner-type
described next.
Spinner Flowmeter Surveys - The spinner flow-
meter consists of a propeller mounted on a jewel
supported shaft. The shaft has either magnetic keys
or opaque keys so that its rate of rotation can be
measured by pickup coils or by phototubes (optically)
Some devices have eccentrically located keys to sense
the direction of rotation. Early flowmeters were of
the diverting type, such as the packer flowmenter of
Fig. 17a, which diverted all the flow past the spinne
8 PRODUCTION LOGGING
SPE.10035
These devices are stopped in a perforation-free
section of casing, the packer element inflated, and a
measurement taken. They are excellent in the flow
range 15-2000 BPD. The interference of these tools
with normal flow, their inability to measure high
flow rates, or to profile in perforated intervals in
addition to the operational inconvenience brought
about the popularity of the non-diverting or con-
tinuous spinner illustrated in Fig. 17b. These
devices log continuously at a constant logging speed.
They are run centralized and obviously sample only a
portion of the flow field. Two calibration curves*
from a 6-inch flow loop appear on Fig. 18a for this
type of spinner. For calibration, the tool is held
stationary and fluid pumped past it. The calibration
line for water has a slope close to the non-slippage
slope for a propeller with a 4-inch pitch. However,
the tendency of low pressure, low momentum gas to
bypass the spinner without turning it causes the
slope of the gas curve on Fig. 18a to be much less
than that for the water curve. To improve this
cross-sectional sampling, spinner flowmeters whose
blades collapse while running through tubing and open
in casing are also available, Ref. (28). This device
is shown in Fig. 17c with the spinner vanes in both
the collapsed and opened position. Calibration
curves for this "fullbore" flowmeter in both water
and gas are given in Fig. 18b'/('/( where the gas curve
is seen to be similar in slope to the water curve.
The calibration response for all spinner-type
flowmeters are non-linear at low fluid velocities
(low spinner speeds); however, the extrapolations
shown in Fig. 18 serve to establish frictional
cutoff, or bypass, velocities, Vf' as indicated on
the figure. In 5-1/2" casing, tfie liquid cutoff
value, V
f
= 3.5 ft/min, is equivalent to about 110
BPD flow cutoff. The tools are run continuously in
an effort to improve on the low flow rate resolution
by keeping the spinner turning. As a practical
matter, however, the continuous spinners are high
flow rate devices for which this 3 ft/min cutoff
velocity is realistic for liquids. With the device
moving at constant speed, V
Q
, the calibration
equations relating spinner speed, S, to apparent
fluid velocity, V
sf
' are
(a) Logging against flow
(1)
(b) Logging with flow: V
Q
> V
sf
(2)
(c) Logging with flow: V
Q
< V
sf
S (3)
where a is the calibration slo.pe, expressed here in
RPS/(ft/min).
The spinner apparent is proportional to
the average fluid velocity V, i.e.,
* Courtesy of GO, Wireline Services
of Schlumberger Wireline Services
570
g = C V
A 1 sf
(4)
Various companies list calibration constants C
l
in
the range 0.73 to 0.84.
The use of a continuous flowmeter to obtain a
flow profile across a perforated interval in a water
injection well is illustrated in Fig. 19a. The
injection rate is 5000 BPD. There are two solid
curves on the figure, the left one being a run down,
in the direction of flow, at a logging speed of
200 ft/min. According to Eq. (2), the fluid velocity
subtracts from the line speed to give the lowest
spinner speed, 5 RPS, above the perforated intervals.
The right curve is a run up, against the flow, at the
same logging speed of 200 ft/min. In this case, the
fluid velocity adds to the logging speed, Eq. (1), to
give maximum speed above the perforations. The zero
fluid velocity OCcurs where the two runs overlay,
that is, where only logging speed is influencing
spinner speed. This dynamic zero occurs at the
bottom of the top set of perforations; within spinner
resolution, all the injected fluid is leaving the
wellbore at the top set of perforations. Note on
Fig. 19a, that the two runs are not symmetrical about
a vertical extension of the zero-flow line. This
results from the combination of high logging speed
and finite response time of the device. On the up
run, the apparent zero is shifted about 6 feet up the
hole while a similar shift downward occurs on the
down run. This is illustrated by the dashed line on
Fig. 19a which is the up-run shifted down by 12 feet
to give a symmetrical opening. This total shift is
determined by tracing one run, turning it over and
moving it vertically until it overlays the other.
The result is that the actual zero flow depth is
about 6 feet from the bottom of the perforations.
The difference between the two depth adjusted
traces, obviously, is free of the common logging
speed and frictional cutoff velocity. This dif-
ference is therefore proportional to fluid velocity
and can be divided by the difference at 100% flow to
give the reasonably uniform injection profile of
Fig. 19b. Successive differences in the percentages
shown on Fig. 19b can be used to construct the
percent injection profile of Fig. 19c. Such a
presentation, however, amplifies noise in the survey.
Temperature logs from this well, Fig. 19d, show
that some injected water is reaching the second set
of perforations, although at a much reduced rate.
This flow is either less than the flowmeter resolu-
tion or is taking place behind pipe. A noise log
showed that the latter was the case.
If different fluids enter the wellbore at
different depths, then a wide range of viscosities
may be encountered. The two-pass profiling technique
described above tends to compensate somewhat for this
since both the up and down runs are influenced. It
is good practice, however, to calibrate a continuous
spinner by making a number of runs at various logging
speeds, thereby constructing a response curve at
various depths in the well, Ref. (28). This is
crucial to quantitative interpretation and will be
illustrated later.
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 9
Increasing demands to measure low rates of flow
of mixtures of gas, oil, and water are causing the
reappearance of spinners similar to the packer types
of Fig. 17a. These newer devices have motorized
vanes .or bonnets that can be extended to touch the
casing wall. This diverts most of the flow through
the tool throat past the spinner. These sondes are
usually kept stationary for readings, but they can
operate up to 4000 BPD and apparently give satisfac-
tory profiles in perforated intervals. A calibra-
tion curve for such a flow meter over the high-rate
range appears on Fig. 20.* The flow loop has a
6.S-inch diameter while the flowmeter diameter is
2-1/8-inches. The flowmeter to handle the
higher flowrates without leakage around
the diverting elements.
Wellbore turbulence, i.e., velocity components
perpendicular to the wellbore axis, definitely
interferes with the operation of the continuous
spinner flowmeters. These velocity components also
exert their momentum on the spinner. In high
production rate wells, this turbulence may persist
for a hundred or so feet above the perforations.
Wellbore turbulence becomes very intense in
wells producing more than one phase. Because of
buoyancy forces, the less dense phases rise faster
than the heavy phase. The lighter phases flow as
discontinuous bubbles or slugs so that their passage
at a particular depth causes first an uplift of the
heavy phase followed by a fall back. The heavy
phase therefore sets up localized circulation cells.
These circulation patterns maintain a holdup volume
fraction of heavy in the wellbore that is much
greater than the net fractional production rate of
the heavy phase. In fact, the percentage holdup of
a phase does not approach its percentage flow rate
until the average flow velocity becomes several
times greater than the buoyant or slip velocity for
that phase. At about 10 times the slip velocity,
the phases travel together. These slip velocities
are large relative to typical flow rates. Gas, at
typical downhole pressures, has a slip velocity
through water of about 40 ft/min. At pressures near
atmospheric, the apparent slip velocity can exceed
100 ft/min, Ref. (29). Typical slip velocity for
gas in oil is 20 ft/min and for oil in water is
10-20 ft/min.
Such chaotic flow will, of course, cause con-
siderable noise in a spinner record. Fig. 21
contains spinner surveys from a well flowing oil,
water, and gas at the rates indicated. At bottom-
hole temperature and pressure, the total liquid rate
is about 400 BPD while the gas rate is about
500 BPD. In 5-1/2" casing, the combined flow
produces an average fluid velocity of about
30 ft/min, less than the gas-liquid slip velocity.
The top figure in Fig. 21a shows an up and down
pass, each at a logging speed of 26 ft/min. The
noise above the perforations, relative to that
below, is apparent. On the up-log, the relative
velocity of the tool to the fluid is less than on
the down-log; consequently, the noise level on the
up-log is worse. Also, since on the up-run at
26 ft/min, the spinner does not go to zero speed or
reverse direction, the apparent average fluid
Dresser Atlas Wireline Services
571
velocity does not exceed 26 ft/min. The two runs fi
the zero velocity point at a depth below the top of
the lower set of perforations, shown in black, which
had been cemented to eliminate water production. An
area of very strong turbulence is evident at the top
of the cemented perforations, which indicates a high
velocity entry at that depth. This turbulence is
even more pronounced on the lower figure which is a
logging run down at 4 ft/min. The survey gives at
least qualitative information; namely, the cemented
perforations are leaking. Figure 21b is a calibra-
tion curve obtained in 100% flow at 7100 feet depth.
A plot of spinner speed versus logging speed for
eight passes is given. The spinner speeds are visual
averages from each pass. The response is reasonably
linear with a s16pe near the liquid response slope
shown on Fig. 18a. The response line on Fig. 21b
extrapolates to a zero spinner speed at a logging
speed upward of
Vi = 14.5 ft/min
This would be the speed necessary for the logging
tool to keep up, within frictional velocity, with the
flow stream. If S is set equal zero in our previous
Eq. (3), then the resulting fluid velocity is
V
sf
V1 + V
f
= 14.5 + 3.5 = 18 ft/min
If this value is taken equal to the average fluid
velocity, V, then
0.131 x 18 2.36 cu. ft/min
q = 2.36 x = 605 BPD
while the actual flow is closer to 900 BPD. From the
gas response curve of Fig. 18a, one would expect the
gas flow to be underestimated. Another
curve similar to that of Fig. 21b is at a
depth between the two sets of perforations in order
to estimate flow from the lower set. It is evident
from Fig. 21a that such a curve is not available
because of wellbore turbulence. This is often the
si tua tion throughout the completed interval. In
fact, flow loop data given in Ref. (29), Fig. 14,
shows that for low pressure gas slugging through
water, there is almost no correlation between a
continuous spinner reading and the average flow
velocity. If the tool is stopped and readings are
time averaged, then a correlation does exist as shown
on Fig. 20 of Ref. (29). This suggests that the
practice of racing up and down the well with the
device may be counterproductive.
Other possible solutions will be discussed after
describing fluid identification devices, but we
should point out that continuous flowmeter surveys
are not meaningful in deviated or inclined wells
where the lighter phases segregate and flow along the
top of the well. On the other hand, the diverting
meters, such as the basket flowmeter of Fig. 20,
operate in inclined wells with little or no error due
to deviation angle.
Borehole Fluid Density Surveys - Two types of
density logging devices are available that give a
continuous record of borehole fluid density with
10 PRODUCTION LOGGING SPE 10035
depth. The first is a pressure gradient tool, called
a gradiomanometer, illustrated on Fig. 22a. With a
sequence of three bellows, this device measures the
pressure difference across a two-foot distance in the
wellbore. For a vertical well without significant
flowing frictional losses, the tool output is
directly proportional to fluid density. It should
also give a representative cross-sectional sample.
The second type of density logger is a gamma ray
absorption device that consists of an open cage
through which wellbore fluid can flow. At the base
of the cage there is a gamma ray source, typically
Cesium-137, focused along the axis of the cage.
Focused detectors at the top of the cage measure the
activity of the radiation. As the calibration curve
of Fig. 22b shows, the logarithm of the activity is
inversely proportional to fluid density. Since this
is a statistical measurement, stop readings are
advisable. The device also samples near the pipe
center which is where the lighter phases tend to
flow. We also want to again emphasize that densities
are indicative of wellbore fluid holdups, not flow
rates, that is,
p (5 )
(6)
where p is the mixture density, p. and y. are the
pure phase densities and phase holdups, the sub-
scripts w, 0, and g meaning water, oil, and gas,
respectively. Since the holdup is weighted towards
the highest density phase, water, the mixture
density will be even more heavily weighted towards
water.
A gradiomanometer and fullbore spinner survey is
illustrated in Fig. 23 for a well flowing 5000 BPD
oil and 5000 BPD water. These rates correspond to an
average fluid velocity of 190 ft/min; consequently,
the oil and water should travel together. The
spinner survey on the right shows that the perfora-
tions centered around 7150 feet are not contributing
to production. In fact, most production is coming
from the perforations below 7180 feet. The spinner
survey shows strong turbulence in the bottom 5 feet
of perforations as well as a large flow entry over
this interval. The density log on the left has two
traces. The solid trace goes with the gm/cc scale at
the bottom while the dashed trace is a five-fold
amplification. Above 7180 feet, the is
constant indicating no additional fluid entry above
this depth. The 1 gm/cc below the perforations
indicates water as antiCipated. From the base of the
perforations upward, the fluid density progressively
decreases which implies a progressively larger
accumulation of oil in the wellbore. Conversely, the
water must enter at the bottom, probably within the
same interval showing high wellbore turbulence on the
spinner survey.
A density survey run with a gamma-ray device is
shown on Fig. 24a. This well produces from the two
intervals at a total of 2520 BPD of oil and water at
62% by volume of oil. In the 5-1/2" casing, this
production causes an average fluid velocity of
75 ft/min while in the 2-1/2" tubing, the velocity is
350 ft/min. Therefore, the water holdup in the
tubing should be lower than in the casing. This
means that the mixture density should be less in the
572
tubing string than in the casing. The flowing
survey, the solid curve in Fig. 24a, does show a
decrease in density as the flow enters the tubing.
At a 350 ft/min velocity, the oil and water should b
flowing together in the tubing. The flowing curve
does indeed cross the shut-in oil-water contact at
8250 feet at about 60% of the total separation
between oil and water. A short shut-in period
following the flowing survey is good practice. The
dashed curve on Fig. 24a was obtained after a
two-hour shut-in period. This log checks tool
operation and provides estimates of phase
if the phases separate rapidly. It also a
base against which the flowing run may be compared.
Such a comparison in Fig. 24a shows that practically
all of the oil is coming from the top set of per-
forations. It is difficult to tell whether the
bottom perforations flow any oil.
The density contrast between oil and water is
quite small for many heavy crude oils. Moreover,
many wells produce only small amounts of one phase
relative to the other phase. This gives small
density contrasts. Another fluid identification
tool that shows greater contrast between water and
hydrocarbon is the capacitance logger. This device
consists of a hollow insulated
from the tool sheath surrounds the
Holes in the sheath allow wellbore fluid to flow in
the annular space between the cylinder and the
sheath. The inner cylinder is part of an oscil-
lating circuit whose frequency is a function of the
capacitance of the fluid in the annular space. The
dielectric constant for gas and oil is about 1 and 2
MRS units, respectively, while for water it is about
80 units. This contrast is not actually achieved
since the device measures capacitance from an inner
electrode to ground. However, as Fig. 24b shows,
this device is apparently more sensitive to the
presence of small amounts of one phase than is the
density logger. 24b is a capacitance log from
the previous well for both flowing and shut.in con-
ditions. The lower perforations are produclng some
oil which was not evident from the density survey of
Fig: 24a. If the logger is linear, then.this
tion amounts to more than 16% of total flow
the oil rate percent would exceed the oil holdup.
The position of the flowing trace on the oil/water
contact indicates linear operation. Calibration of
this device is apparently not yet complete. Also,
heavy oils tend to form films on the electrode
which causes shifts in the water base Its
performance in viscous crudes is disappointing to
date. In any case, the logger should be calibrated
in-situ as is shown in Fig. 24b.
In stagnant gas the output response of the
capacitance meter is about 10% greate: than in oil.
This difference will be increased flow due to
center line sampling. The capacitance tool has the
potential to give a value for wate: holdup,
directly. This may then be used a dens1ty
reading in Eqs. (5) and (6) to obtain oil and gas
holdups, y and y , respectively.
o g
It is possible to derive flow equations for the
individual phases since the total rate is the sum of
the individual rates, i.e.,
(7)
SPE 10035 R. M. McKinley 11
or
where V. is the velocity of the i-phase in its
y.A, of the pipe cross-section. Since each
light velocity consists of the water velocity
plus the buoyant or slip veocity for that phase,
v V
+ Vb
0 w
0
V
+ Vb
w
g
Eq. (8) can be solved for the flow rate of each
phase, for example, the oil and gas rates are
- y V ]
g b
g
(9)
q Y A [V + (l-y ) Vb - Yo Vb] (10)
g g g g 0
If one assumes that a survey gives the
average fluid velocity, V, for the composite flow
while fluid identification surveys give the holdups,
y and y , then Eqs. (7), (9), and (10) establish the
i&dividuBl rates, provided the necessary slip
velocities are known.
One problem with this approach is that these
slip velocities, not known with any great precision,
are significant contributions to Eqs. (9) and (10).
A second problem is that the continuous survey data
quality is often poor. This last point is
illustrated with the next suite of logs.
The gradiomanometer and fullbore spinner surveys
on Fig. 25a are from a well flowing 1.2 x 10
6
cu. ft/D
gas and 200 BPD water. At downhole conditions, the
gas flow is about 1800 BPD, which with the water give
an average flow velocity of 40 ft/min - much less
than that required for the phases to travel together.
The spinner survey on the right side of Fig. 25a
places the zero flow point at 17,240 feet depth while
the density log shows a little gas entry down to
17,250 feet, the base of the perforations. The
spinner survey is asymmetric about the zero flow
line. This implies problems with wellbore turbulence
or foaming problems or flow instabilities. On the
up-survey there are possibly significant entries at
17,210, 17,175, and 17,030 feet respectively. Taken
literally, the down-survey shows an entry beginning
in the unperforated casing at 17,080 feet, while the
entry at 17,030 is not nearly as large as on the
up-run. The density log shows that the first sig-
nificant gas entry is at 17,210. Tangential
velocities here are sufficient to create a turbulence
spike. The next major gas entry is at 17,175 feet.
These two entries agree with the spinner up-survey.
However, the density log shows absolutely no indica-
tion of entry at 17,030 feet. If the up and down
spinner readings at 16,950 are used with the
calibration slope from Fig. 18b in the spinner
Eqs. (1) and (2), one obtains fluid velocities of 140
and 190 ft/min, respectively. These are obviously
gas heading velocities since the average flow
velocity is about 40 ft/min. But where then is the
573
water entry? Since fluid density never increases
from the base of the perforations upward, the water
could be entering any place from the bottom per-
forations up to 17,210 feet where the first major gas
entry occurs. High quality rate data are needed to
proceed further with the analysis. A flow of 200 BPD
would give an average fluid velocity of about
4 ft/min. According to Eqs. (1) and (2), this
velocity would give an up-down spinner separation of
2aV 2
sf
X 0.043 x 4 0.34 RPS,
a value well within the noise level of the surveys of
Fig. 25a.
Temperature surveys from this well appear on
Fig. 2Sb. The shut-in log is strongly influenced by
recent stimulation treatments. Particularly, the
cooling below 17,300 feet does not signal gas flow
behind pipe from this depth. If this were the case,
the tracking of the shut-in and flowing temperatures
up to 17,260 feet implies that this flow continues at
the same rate after shut in, which is improbable and
which noise logs show not to happen. The temperature
logs show that the base of production is at the
17,260-foot depth where the flowing survey diverges
as a production gradient from the shut-in survey. We
had already surmised that the water might come from
the lower perforations. The flowing temperature
also shows shifts due to the mixing in the wellbore
of fluid streams at different temperatures, i.e.,
fluid entry points, at 17,220, 17,175, and 17,040
feet respectively. These are the entry points
recognized on the previous logs.
A flowing noise log from this well appears on
25c. There is what appears to be a standing
liquid level at 17,210 feet depth. This is a
pseudo-level in the sense that there is not just gas
above this depth. Whenever gas is dispersed in
liquid, then the liquid becomes a poor conductor of
sound. A pseudo-level will therefore appear at the
first depth of a significant gas entry. Below this
depth, there will be insignificant gas production.
The log also shows production at two locations in the
perforations from 17,150 to 17,180 feet as well as at
three locations in the top perforated interval.
Ref. (18) demonstrates that water entrained in a gas
jet onto the logging tool raises the higher frequency
content of the sound, which draws the 2000-Hz curve
closer to the others. Peaks may be examined relative
to each other for this crowding effect. On Fig. 2sc,
the 2000-600 Hz spacing is reasonably uniform for all
the jets above the pseudo-level, again indicating
water production at or below the level.
After 3.5 hours shut in, this well was still
200 psi below static pressure. A noise log run at
this time, Fig. 25d, shows a liquid level at the base
of the perforations without any indication of
channeling from below. All evidence implies a gas-
water contact in the vicinity of the bottom perfora-
tions with water coning during production. Over 90%
of the water was, in fact, eliminated by shutting off
the perforations below 17,210 feet.
There is an obvious need for more quantitative
surveys for the type of problem described above.
tin, lUUj)
This can most likely be achieved only through the
utilization of the diverting-type devices with all
sensors located in the throat of the tool. This will
speed up and homogenize the flow. A flow of about
50 MCF/D gas and 10 BPD water through a I"-diameter
pipe would give a velocity of about 60 ft/min at
typical downhole conditions. Certainly one would
expect emulsion and foaming problems, but these Can
be duplicated in flow loop experiments.
There is even room for qualitative improvement.
As we have seen, the flowmeter is probably the most
deficient. It may be possible to better determine
qualitatively which perforations are flowing by
utilizing a horizontal spinner, Ref. 30, that
responds only to tangential jets. An application of
this device is illustrated in the next suite of logs.
The well in Fig. 26 has a top section of per-
forations that had been cemented to stop excessive
gas production. After the workover, the well still
produced at a gas/oil ratio of 17,000 m
3
/m
3
,
Fig. 26a shows capacitance surveys from the well. On
the shut-in run, the dashed curve, there is an oil/
water contact just below 1800 meters depth and a
gas/oil contact at 1785 meters. The flowing run
shows gas production beginning at about 1795 meters
depth. Since this is in the interval of cemented
perforations, the log indicates that the squeeze
workover was unsuccessful. The horizontal spinner
survey of Fig. 26b verifies this. Flow is coming
from the entire bottom half of the cemented interval.
Note that the device gives very good vertical resolu-
tion. At present, the logger gives only qualitative
results in multiphase flow, but it could possibly be
calibrated in a fashion similar to that discussed in
Ref. (18). Also, the low velocity cut-off point has
not been clearly established.
r.ONr.LlTS10NS
This review describes the commonly available
production logging devices in use for problem well
diagnosis. Individual log discussions have been
primarily qualitative. However, the quality control
on any log should be such that it can also be used
quantitatively if necessary. Also, log headings
should detail the sequence of events occurring during
the logging operations along with pressure and rate
data obtained at the surface. The purpose of logging
should be stated. These logs become part of the file
on a well and may be reviewed again years in the
future.
The discussion has centered around how the
various devices work, what they measure, and how this
is, or is not, related to underground flow. There
are numerous specialty tools that have not been
discussed since these must be calibrated for each
environment. The review has also demonstrated that
logs run in suites are much more effective than any
single log. Furthermore, it is shown that the subtle
characteristics of a log are often as informative as
are the obvious anomalies. Finally, the last several
examples illustrate that additional technology is
needed for multiphase flow problems.
574
NOMENCLATURE
a
A
c
p
k
q
s
V
slope of spinner calibration line,
RPS/(ft/min)
cross sectional area of pipe, sq ft
calibration constants
specific heat capacity at constant
pressure, Btu/lb-oF
thermal conductivity, Btu/hr-ft
2
(OF/ft)
standardized noise log reading at
frequency f, peak-to-peak millivolts
pressure drop, psi
flow rate, cu ft/D or cu ft/min
individual phase flow rates, cu ft/
min, for water, oil, or gas
spinner speed, rev. per sec.
9.
A
average fluid velocity, ft/min
slip or buoyant velocity relative to
water, ft/min, for oil or gas
spinner frictional cutoff or bypass
speed, ft/min
logging or line speed, ft/min
yi(i::::.w,o,g) ::::
P
Pi(i=w,o,g)
ACKNOWLK'1Gm: NT::>
spinner indicated fluid velocity
volume fraction holdup in wellbore
of water, oil or gas, dimensionless
mixture density, Ib/cu ft
pure phase density, lb/cu ft, for
water, oil, or gas
I wish to thank the many individuals from
various wireline service companies, from Exxon,
U.S.A., and from our affiliates, especially Esso
Resources Canada, who not only provided many of the
logs for this paper but also gave valuable follow-up
information. I also thank the management of Exxon
Production Research Company for allowing publication
of this paper.
SPE 10035 K. l."l. l."lcJ.\.lnley
.LJ
REFERENCES
1. Millikan, C. V.: "Temperature Surveys in Oil
Wells," Trans. AIME 142 (1941), 15-23.
2" Dale, C. R.; "Bottom Hole Flow Surveys for
Determination of Fluid and Gas Movements in
Wells," Trans. AIME 186 (1949), 205-210.
3. Riordan, M. B.: "Surface Indicating Pressure,
Temperature and Flow Equipment," Trans. AIME
192 (1951), 257-262.
4. Wade, R. T., Cantrell, R. C., Poupon, A., and
Moulin, J.; "Production Logging - The Key to
Optimal Well Performance," J. Pet. Tech.
" (February, 1965), 137-144.
5. Petovello, B. G.: "Evaluation of Well Perfor-
mance through Produ<;tion Logging," presented at
5th Formation Evaluation Symposium of the
Canadian Well Logging Society, Calgary, Canada,
May 5-7, 1975.
6. Alger, R. P., Locke, S., Nagel, W. A., and
Sherman, H.: "The Dual-Spacing Neutron
Log -CNL," J. Pet. Tech. (September, 1972),
1073-1083.
7. Hoyer, W. A., et al.: "Pulsed Neutron Logging, ff
Soc. of Profession Well Log Analysts Reprint
Volume (March, 1976).
8. Jameson, J. B., McGhee, B. F., Blackburn,
J. S., and Leach, B. C.: IfDual-SpacingTDT
Applications in Marginal Conditions,1I J. Pet.
Tech. (September, 1977) 1067-1077.
9. Novak, T. J.: "The Estimation of Water Injec-
tion Profiles from Temperature Surveys," J.
Pet. Tech. (August, 1953) 203-212.
10. Cooke, C. E., Jr.: "Radial Differential
Temperature (RDT) Logging - A New Tool for
Detecting and Treating Flow Behind Casing," J.
Pet. Tech (June 1979), 676-682.
11. Smith, R. C., and Steffensen, R. J.: "Computer
Study of Factors Affecting Temperature Profiles
in Water Injection Wells," J. Pet. Tech.
(November, 1970), 1447-1458.
12. Curtis, M. R., and Witterholt, E. J.: IIUse of
the Temperature Log for Determining Flow Rates
in Producing Wells," SPE 4637 presented at 48th
Annual Fall Meeting of the SOCiety of Petroleum
Engineers, Las Vegas, Nevada, Sept. 30-0ct. 3,
1973 .
13. Smith, R. C., and Steffensen, R. J.: "Inter-
pretation of Temperature Profiles in Water
Injection Wells," J. Pet. Tech. (June, 1975),
777-784.
14. Dobkin, T. A.: "Improved Methods to Determine
Fracture Height," J. Pet. Tech. (April, 1981),
719-726.
15. Enright, R. J.: "Sleuth for Down-Hole Leaks, ff
Oil and Gas J. (Feb. 38, 1955) 78-79.
575
16. McKinley, R. M., Bower, F. M., and Rumble, R.
C.: "The Structure and Interpretation of Noise
from Flow Behind Cemented Casing," J. Pet.
Tech. (March, 1973), 329-338.
17. Robinson, W. S., "Field Results from the Noise-
Logging Technique," J. Pet. Tech. (November,
1976), 1370-1376.
18. McKinley, R. M., and Bower, F. M.: "Specialized
Applications of Noise Logging, fI J. Pet. Tech.
(November, 1979), 1387-1395.
19. Moon, K. E.: "An Improved Radioactive Tagging
System for Stimulation Evaluation," Presented
at the Southwestern Petroleum Short Course,
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas,
April 20-21, 1978.
20. Arnold, D. M., and Paap, H. J.,: "Quantitative
Monitoring of Water Flow Behind and in Wellbore
Casing," J. Pet. Tech. (January, 1979),
121-130.
21. Killion, H. W., "Fluid Migration Behind Casing
Revealed by Gamma Ray Logs," The Log Analyst
(Jan.-Mar., 1966).
22. Brown, H. D., Grijalva, V. E., and Raymer, L.
L.: "New Developments in Sonic Wavetrain
Display and Analysis in Cased Holes," The Log
Analyst (Jan.-Feb., 1971) 27-40.
23. Walker, T.: "A Full-Wave Display of Acoustic
Signal in Cased Holes," J. Pet. Tech. (August,
1968), 811-824.
24. Pardue, G. H., Morris, R. L., Gollwitzer,
L. H., and Moran, J. H.: "Cement Bond Log - A
Study of Cement and Casing Variables,!f J. Pet.
Tech. (May, 1963),545-555.
25. McNeely, W. E.: !fA Statistical Analysis of the
Cement Bond Log," SPWLA Fourteenth Annual
Logging Symposium, May 6-9, 1973.
26. Fertl, W. H., Pilkington, P. E., and Scott,
J. B.: "A Look at Cement Bond Logs," J.
Pet. Tech. (June, 1974), 607-617.
27. Anderson, R. A., Smolen, J. J., Laverdiere, L.,
and DaVis, J. A.: !fA Production Logging Tool
with Simultaneous Measurements," J. Pet. Tech.
(February, 1980), 191-198.
28. Leach, B. C., Jameson, J. B., Smolen, J. J.,
and Nicolas, Y.: "The Fullbore Flowmeter," SPE
5089 presented at Annual Fall Meeting held in
Houston, Texas, Oct. 6-9, 1974.
29. Cmelik, H.; "A Controlled Environment for
Measurements in Multiphase Vertical Flow,"
SPWLA Twentieth Annual Logging Symposium, June
3-6, 1979, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
30. Kading, H. W.: !fHorizontal-Spinner, A New
Production Logging Technique," Southwestern
Petroleum Short Course, Texas Tech University,
Lubbock, Texas, April 17-18, 1975.
Materials in Order
of Decreasing
Thermal Conductivity
Quartzite
Salt
Anhydrite
Dolomite
Limestone
Sandstone
Shale
Gypsum
Cement
Water
Oil
Gas
A
TABLE 1
LITHOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON TEMPERATURE LOGS
Increasing Static
Geothermal Gradient
576
Materials in Order
of Decreasing
Thermal Diffus
Quartzite
Salt
Anhydrite
Dolomite
Limestone
Sandstone
Shale
Gypsum
Cement
Gas
Water
Oil
B
Increasing Lag
Time
Fig. 1a - Collar locator section
6900
6940



..

6980
I" r r
t
II I
J
1 I
< ti
2 7 /B"
- c....
LoU
o

Y iJl)
)

7060

I
21


f! II
7100
c::J c::J
c::JN
c::J c::J c::J::r
c::J to c::J
c::J s= e-.J
e-.J
71410 100 1000
PEAK-PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE
Fig. 1c-Noise log from shut-in gas well that will produce
excessive water
577
-A- COLLAR LOG RUN GOING INTO HOLE
FOR TEMPERATURE LOG.
-6- COLLAR LOG RUN COMMING OUT OF
HOLE FOR NOISE LOG.
Fig. 1 b - Typical collar record
F-----""
(A) INJECTION PROFILE
(C) CIRCULATION PROFILE
::r
Ii:
LLJ
o
!


l
\
F-
(6) PRODUCTION PROFILE





\
\
\
DF-
Fig. 2 - Typical temperature profiles
FREQUENCY
CONTROLLED
VOLTAGE
SOURCE
RECORDER
RESISTIVE SENSING
ELEMENT
GRADIENT CURVE
(TEMP,)
DIFFERENTIAL CURVE
Fig. 3 - A surface recording thermometer
~
3300
I
I
3400
C""l
0
I
I-
5
!
LJ..i
~ UJ
u..
~
I ~
g3
I l-
e..
I
UJ
c::l
3500
I
l
3600 L-_-L-_-.l. __ ---L--_---'-__ -!.-.....-..-----::l .......
90 95 100 105 110 115 120
TEMPERATURE. OF
Fig. 4 - Logs from an injection test for the water source in a gas well
578
0000
9 5/8" J
limoo
\
\
\
\
\
t
\
\
t
2000
\
t
I-

L.U

L.U
t
3000

I-

t
c...
\'
L.U
C
t
\
4000
\
t
\
t
\
\
2 3/8"
t 5000
\
\
\
5 1/2"
PERFS.
\
6000
75 125 150 175
TEMPERATURE, OF
Fig. 5- Temperature log from shutin oil well

1000
2000 1--------1--
3000
50001----+----+---l--+
60001--_+--_G __ Rt-AD_IE_N_T-t--_--t-_
7000 I------!----I--- .-+---1------'1-
BOOO L....-_-'--__ ----''---_.....L-_-.L. __ ..I-_....J
80 100 120 140 160 180 200
TEMPERATURE, OF
(A) A SHALE-SALT SEQUENCE
ti:i
L.U
u..
4500 ""..---,------..---y-------r---.-------.
4600
4700
4800
S;
c
4900
SP LOG
5000 1-----4----+--+---1--
51 00 '------'--_--L __
130 132 134 136 138 140 142
TEMPERATURE, OF
(8) A SHALE-MASSIVE SAND SEQUENCE
Fig. 6 - Lithological influence on static temperature gradient
579
I-
UJ
UJ
u..
o
::r.-- 4000
Ii:
UJ
c
9" HOLE
6000
8000 '---__ "'--__ -'--__ -L--__ -'-----::..._--...J
100 120 140 160 180 200
TEMPERATURE, OF
Fig. 78 - Lithology influence on return to geothermal temperature in
sandshale sequences
,
,
C "
-- , ---+----+-----1------1
tu
UJ
u..
::C 9000
Ii:
u.J
c
10,000 I----_+__
11,000 1-----4--
CEMENT "
LUMP ,
! I 'f<2>.
CASING SHOE

-+----+---- " ---+---1
I',
HOLE ENLARG6MENT',
---+----+---, ---I
,
,
,
"
12,000 _____
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
TEMPERATURE, of
Fig. 7b - Well completion influence on return to geothermal temperature
580
8600
8700
8800
i:B 8900
u....
=r:.'
I:i:
9000
9100
9200
9300
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
TEMPERATURE, DF
Fig. 8a -Injection temperature profile for a hydraulically fractured well
I-
LU
LU
8900t----
9000
b:
LU
CI
9100
9200
160 220
Fig. 8b - Shutin temperature logs after fracturing
581
~
~
5300 ,----,-----..-----.-----.---.----
5400
r . ~ 5500
fu
c
5500 1-----" .. ---+-------l
5600
5600 '---- -- - - - r - - - - - - ~
5700
5700 L.----L....L---i----'-------L--l....---.J
146 148 150 152 156 158 154
TEMPERATURE, of 5800 2000'1000
0.1 1 10 100
Fig. 9a - Temperature log from an unperforated well 20 days after
completion
NOISE LEVEl, PEAK M.v.
tu
LLJ
u..
5300
5400
r . ~ 5500
Ii:
LLJ
C
5600
~
5700
130
Fig. 9b - Noise log from well of Fig. 9a
~ f\ -
~
, ~
I .
~
\ ~
S
\S
k
\
~
,
I
\
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
I
I
t
,...--
-------..
~
..... ---- ...
-
I
140 150 160
TEMPERATURE, OF
Fig. 9c Temperature logs after perforating well of Fig. 9a and producing
gas for 24 hours
582
5 1/2"
PIEZOELECTRIC
CRYSTAL
MICROPHONE
SPEAKER
HIGH-PASS METERS
FILTERS
Fig. 10a - Noise logging sonde
2 3 4 6 B 10
NOISE LEVEL
PEAK-TO-PEAK MILLIVOLTS
Fig. 10c - Frequency character of a
singlephase leak
::::c:
b:
LU
CJ
583
C
I. . : ..... _ A
::::c:
5:
UJ
c
,
I
I-
I
I
I
,-
I
I
I-
I
I
I
,-
I
I
I-
I
I
NOISE LEVEL ----'tIIo-
Fig. 10b - Hypothetical response of noise logger to flow behind casing
Fig. 10d - Frequency character of gas into
liquid leak
12.000 ...r----,-----.---.,.-----,------r---.,---__.
13,000
DIFFERENTIAL

14,000

:::t:
b: 15,000
w
0
16,000
17,000
18,000 '---_--i...-_-..I..._--I __ .....L.-_-""--_------Io._---'
220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290
TEMPERATURE, of
Fig. 11a - Temperature log from a well shut-in for 6 hours after pressure surge at
surface
12.000
13,000
17,000
18,000
1
, 4 4

N
,
Q


::x:
Q
c:::::
Q
0

N
-
.,

,-
-
-
I 1
I
I
I
.
I I
1:+
TI
I ,
I I I .:!':
I 1-
_II'
,.."...- . '- -=::
-L -L ::::::::IIe-
11'-':: -t-
I I ..
---


--
.--
...... .,..
I I
2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100
PEAK-IO-PEAK MllllVOllS
Fig. 11 b - Noise log from well of Fig. 11 a
584
18 5/8" J L 0
;,
13 3/8" "r
9 5/8" "
7"
1000
2000
3000 tij

:::t:
l:i:
'; 4000
:' 5000
6000
7000
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE
Fig. 12 - Noise log from an oil well shutein 12 hours
20" J
, '; 0500
, .
I,'
j: 2000
"
2500
13 3/8"
0.1 1.0 10 100
PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE
Fig. 13b- Noise log while venting gas from well of Fig, 13a
,'.
, ,
"""
" ,
20" , "
' . .'
"

'"
2000
13 3/B"
2500
70
TEMPERATURE, of
Fig, 13a - Temperature log from new well venting gas from annulus
20"
13 3/B"
1000
585
,',
I t.
, ....
N
:::t:
0000
.----......--g-hHs----.-----.
t 0500
" 1-1000
, LU
" LU
u...
...
l:i:
. LU
:;: 1500
2000
2500
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
PEAK MILLIVOLTS NOISE
Fig. 13c - Noise log after squeeze cementing at 2100 feet
4000
4200
4400
4800
I-
u.J
u.J
U-
9
5/8"
::r:
I-
5000
c...
u.J
Cl
5200

','
, : ".
5400
:.,
.'
:'
:.!
.\
5600
'\
500
,', \.
"
. ',
..
..
'.,
5800
1000
0.1 1000
1500
Fig. 14a - Noise log run from a floating drill ship
2000
I-
u.J
u.J
U-
::x:
2500
5:
u.J
Cl
Cl
3000 u.J
a:
:;::,
en

3500
:!:
4000
4500
5000
0.1 1000
Fig. 14b - NOise log from a shut-in oil well
586
6
~ - C C l
EJECTOR
PORT
~
.....
I
SWITCH
\
--- EJECT
-
-
SWIT&
g (A) LOGGING TOOL
8900
50
-
2
9000
~ 0
i=
u
50
LU
~
.....,
LU
LU
-- ~
a:
,
0
u..
LU
cc
9100
C!l
r--
0
.....I
LU
en
<C
50
f---
~ I
9200
t
o
,...
......
~
-
-
-
-
-
"
I
)
\
I
FIRST DETECTOR
- - ~ !
--- 10.5 SECONDS
~ T
SECOND DETECTOR
(B) TIMING OF SLUG PASSAGE
Fig. 15 - Radioactive tracer logging
115 BBl. INJECTION-
-
I
1\
---
5 BBlS. INJECTION
.. .,
'"
... '
"
- - - ~ - - - - - ....
I c---
I
I
~
_--:.It I
s----j .:::..
"
1 DO 200 300 400 500 600 700
API GAMMA RAY UNITS
Fig. 16 - Behind-pipe flow detected by radioactive tracer survey
587
CCL
ELECTRIC CARTRIDGE
-SPINNER SECTION
PACKER SPRING
PACKER BAG
PICKUP COIL
MAGNET
TUBING
CASING
HYDRAULIC
CONTROL SECTION
SPINNER
CENTRALIZER
ARMS
PUMP SPINNER
'Z?
g FILTER PROTECTIVE
otl t) CENTRALIZER
DO o
o
!) CAGE
,r, n
(A) DIVERTING TYPE SPINNER, (B) CONTINUOUS TYPE SPINNER, (C) FULLBORE SPINNER REF. (28)
REF. (4) REF. (4)
Fig. 17 Spinner type flowmeters
c...:i 10
w
CI)
-.
:>-
8
w
a:
CI)
c..
6
(A) CONTINUOUS
a:

FLOWMETER
w
w
4 c..
CI)
a:
w
2
z
z
c::
CI)
40 280 320
10

8
a:
(B) FULLBORE
c:::r
w
6
CONTINUOUS
w
c..
FLOWMETER
en
a:
4 w
z
z
c::
2
CI)
0
0 240 280
Fig. 18 - Spinner flowmeter calibration lines
588
l:i:i
It!
15,600
650
w
CI
SPINNER SPEED, RPS
5 10 15
15,700 1----+---
20
750 --+---1
\'
}:i
Fig. 19a - Fullbore spinner survey in an
injection well
o 5 10 15 20 25%
IC) PERCENT INJECTED
o 20 40 60 80 100%
(B) PERCENT OF FLOW IN WEllBORE
Fig. 19b,c - Flow profiles from spinner survey of Fig. 19a
15,600
650
15,7001----
750 L....-__ .L..-__ -'--__ --'--__
100 110 120 130 140 150
TEMPERATURE, of
Fig. 19d - Temperature logs from injection well of Fig. 19a
589
30
I
01
~
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
~
20
0
0
a:
Cl
L.U
0
0
L.U
0...
15 en
a:
L.U
z
z
a:
10 en
5
o
o
1000 2000 3000 4000
WATER FLOW RATE, BPD
Fig. 20 - Calibration curve for a basket diverting flowmeter
7100
z
(
~
""..,.
t:
cc
<;;'"
C'-..I
<
!ci:
.:!:
0...
.... ",
<",
::::J
." Cl
L.U
50
I
c.!:I
~
c.!:I
<::)
-I
~
....
:..
c. ... I
1 ..
ti:i
1-"\--...
L.U
u...
: r ~
I-
7200
c....
L.U
Q
7150 0
0.5
7200
Fig. 21a Continuous spinner survey from a well
flowing 300 BPD water, 40 BPD Oil, and 400,000 cu
ftlD gas
1.8
1.6
en
0...
ex::
1.4
C l ~
L.U
1.2 L.U
0...
Cf.)
1.0
ex::
SLOPE=0.040 RPS/(FT/MIN)
L.U
z
0.8 z
a:
Cf.)
0.6
~ 4
o 0.2
", 0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
(UP)
-0.2
FT/MIN LOGGING SPEED mOWN)
Fig. 21b -In-situ flowmeter calibration above perforations in well of Fig. 21a
590
CCl
ELECTRIC
CARTRIDGE
DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER
100DOO
80,000
60,000
MEASURING
I-- 0
B4S
w
I-
::::l
Z
:E
a:
w
a..
en
I-
lOADING 1------+'I'"..a::.
BEllOWS 40,000 z
::::l
VV'
41
tll
SPRING
UPPER SENSING
BEllOWS
lOWER SENSING
BELLOWS
Cl
u
lOG
10
(COUNTS) DENSITY
I I I I I I
(A) GRADIOMANOMETER DEVICE, 20,000
REF. (4) 0
0.5 1.0
FLUID DENSITY, GM/C.C.
(B) CALIBRATION FOR A GAMMA RAY
ABSORPTION DEVICE
Fig. 22 Borehole fluid density measurement
SCALE
C---i--
<... ... _-
r
... _:=It--
\

,
\
\--+--
\
/'
DENSITY
X 5
o 0.5 1.0
DENSITY, GM/C.C.
40
7150
60
70
80
90
7200
10
20
30
Z
3:-
Cl
c
c
W
tg-

5 10 15
SPINNER SPEED. RPS
Fig. 23 Fluid density and flowmeter survey from a well flowing
5,000 BPD water and 5,000 BPD oil
591
1.3
5 1/2"
tE
LL
::r:,"
Ii:
LLI
C
5 1/2"
8200
....-- FLOWING
....----l__

8300 I----t--
I IN
--+---)
8400 I-----+--_f__
)
'\
,

,
,
\
J
- , -t------1
,
8500 """-----'_---'-_--'-_______ ....,
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
FLUID DENSITY, GM/CC
Fig. 24a - Fluid density survey (gamma-ray type) from a well
flowing 2520 BPD total fluid at 62% oil
8200
LLI
i OIW CONTACT
8300
tu
z
I'
LLI
t-
LL
::::::>
::r:, ...
:J:
Ii:
Cf.)
....I
LLI ....I
C LLI
8400
3:
8500 __ ........... _-.l. __ ....!.__---i-__ ..a....-_--"'-_---'
1600 1800 2000 2200
OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY Hz.
Fig. 24b - Capacitance survey from well of Fig. 24b
592
0
==
+------1 17.000 .. --
:: LOGGED
; UP AT 221
-1-------117.050 FT IMIN
I-
UJ
UJ
u...
-
""
c
250
=
(I)
u..
a::
UJ
e..
300
350
0.5 1.0 0 5
GM/CC
Fig. 25a - Density and flowmeter surveys from a well flowing 1.2 X 10
6
cu. ft.lD gas and 200 BOPD water
17,000
17,050
17,100
I-
UJ
UJ
u..

17,150
l-
e..
LU
c
17,200
17 ,250 'I"---+----+---ILfI-+---#----l
17 ,300 H---f----+-",It-H-+--+----l
5 1/2"
17 ,350 ____
0.1 1 10 100
PEAK-la-PEAK MILLIVOLTS
Fig. 25c - Flowing noise log from well of Fig. 25a
593
16,950
=
17,000 =
FLOW RATES:
----1-1.2 MMSCF/O
17,050
17,'00
I-
UJ
UJ
u...

17,'50
Ii:
UJ
C
17,200
17,250
17,300
-

=
=
-
-
'"
=
19B BWPD
AT 700 PSI
17,350
245 250
Fig. 25b - Temperature surveys from well of Fig. 25a
tu
UJ
u..
16,950
17.000
17.050
17,100
17,150
Ii:
UJ
c
17,200
17,250
17,300
17,350
-
1
-
,.J. ..
= t4
l
!!!

t
S

U
.,
,
t




I.


I


f
- r ?
V

, ... :,4'J.4 ItN
881g
c::I
CICICI
c::I
0.1 1 10 100 1000
PEAK-la-PEAK MILLIVOLTS
Fig. 25d - 3.5-hr shut-in noise log from well of Fig.
25a
260
tl
SQUEEZED
PERFS :
-L
OPEN PERFS
T:
S Q U Z ~ "
PERFSl '
OPEN PERFS
T
4
, ,
I
1100
-
-
FLOWING
,-
1150
r-
, -
I
SHUT -IN (_.I
t-;
-
1800
1/2" I I I 1
1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
FREQUENCY, Hz.
Fig. 26a - Capacitance survey from well flowing 4 m
3
/D oil at
a GOR of 17,000 m
3
/m
3
TIME AFTER STARTING FLOW
26 MIN. 65 MIN. 85 MIN.
RUN 1 RUN 2 RUN 3
AT 300 CPI AT 200 CPI AT 200 CPI
I I
, "
,,'1=,_====--
.:-
-

.
-

Fig. 26b - Horizontal spinner survey from well of Fig, 26a
594
120 MIN.
RUN 4
AT 200 CPI