Mountain Accident Research Report

STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING
MOUNTAIN SAFETY

REPORT OF A RESEARCH STUDY
SPONSORED BY THE

THE LEVERHULME TRUST

Dr. Bob Sharp
University of Strathclyde

September 2001

FOREWORD

There is nothing new about mountain safety. As long ago as 1871, Edward Whymper
advised mountaineers to - Do nothing in haste, look well to each step, and from the
beginning think what might be the end. Over 100 years later, the British Mountaineering
Council reminded hillgoers that - The true satisfaction is to be found not in courting
unknown dangers for which you are ill-prepared, but in matching your own skill and
experience and the danger and difficulties of which you are aware. Mountain safety has
a long history and is a matter which concerns many organisations and individuals. It
permeates every aspect of mountaineering from clothing and equipment to technical
skills, judgement and leadership. It will not go away, nor should it. The presence of risk
in mountaineering is its very essence; woe betide anyone with desires to sanitise the
sport and attempts to eliminate the hazards and risks which provide challenges for so
many people.

However, there is a case for understanding more about mountain safety and addressing
some of the many unanswered questions. For example, what are the most effective ways
to promote mountain safety? Who is responsible for mountain safety and how do they
know whether their efforts to sell the safety message work? Is mountain safety
targeted at those who are most at risk? And who are these people? Is it possible to
identify the at risk people, and if so, exactly what are their characteristics? These are
fundamental questions for which there should be reasonably clear answers. This was the
starting point for the present investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A very sincere thankyou to the Leverhulme Trust for supporting this project. Without
the Trusts support and confidence in the subject, this research would never have been
undertaken. Certainly, the momentum for continuing study in such an important subject
would not have been established had financial support not been forthcoming.

A special thank you to John Donohoe (President of the Mountaineering Council of
Scotland), Drew Michie (Chairman of the Scottish Advisory Panel in Outdoor Education
and Tim Walker (Director of the sportscotland National Centre Glenmore Lodge) whose
support for the initial application to the Trust was so positive. A number of my
colleagues at the University of Strathclyde took on an extra burden in my absence. I
am grateful for their support and patience.

Many hundreds of people from various sectors of the outdoor industry responded to
various questionnaires, interviews, letters and telephone calls. I will do my best to
ensure they receive information about the project. I am particularly indebted to the
hundred or so people involved in mountain incidents who took the time to respond -
sometimes at great length - to my request for information about their accident. Their
comments showed there is exceptional respect for the mountain rescue service in
Scotland and appreciation for the work it does.

A final thank you to my colleagues in mountain rescue. Several, especially John Hinde
(Statistician of the Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland), played a pivotal role
through the provision of feedback and information.

Bob Sharp
1
st
September 2001
CONTENTS

PAGE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1
History 1
Aims of the study 2
Rationale 2
Aims 2
Objectives 2
Achievement of the aims/objectives 3
Achievements of the research 5
Professional benefits 5
Personal benefits 5

DEFINITIONS AND ISSUES 9
Introduction 9
Hazards 9
Risk 10
Real and perceived risk 12
Risk assessment 13
Risk management 15
Safety 16
The safety culture 17
The importance of risk 17
The culture of fear 18
Reactions to the fear culture 21
References 22

POLICIES ON MOUNTAIN SAFETY 26
Introduction 26
Policies on mountain safety 26
Mountain rescue committee of Scotland 26
Mountaineering council of Scotland 28
Union International des Associations dAlpinisme 29
Scottish mountain safety forum 30
Boots across Scotland 30
Adventure activities licensing authority 30
Scottish avalanche information service 31
Scottish mountain leader training board 31

PROMOTION AND PUBLICATIONS 33
Introduction 33
Messages in campaigns 34
Promotion tools 35
Importance of co-ordination 36
Issues 37
Target audience 37
Content and tone of messages 38
Media used to promote safety 38
Evaluation of promotional campaigns 39
Changing attitudes and behaviour 40
Mountain safety publications 42
Mountaineering councils 52
Scottish mountain safety forum 43
Mountain rescue organisations 44
Mountain leader training boards 44
Other organisations 44
Sportscotland avalanche information service 45
Other publications 45
Books 46
Mountain rescue publications 48
Videos 48
CDs 49
Magazines 49
Catalogues 49
Relevant websites 49
References 53

THE PROMOTION OF MOUNTAIN SAFETY FIRST SURVEY 55
METHODOLOGY
Target groups 55
Manufacturers 55
Retailers 55
Course providers 56
Other organisations 56
Outdoor press 57
Users/participants 57
Final groups 58
Questionnaire design 58
Procedure 59
Return rate 59

THE PROMOTION OF MOUNTAIN SAFETY FIRST SURVEY - RESULTS 61
Views of manufacturers 61
The importance of mountain safety 61
How manufacturers promote mountain safety 62
The effectiveness of safety promotion 64
Summary and conclusions 65
Views of retailers 67
Introduction 67
Purchasing policy 67
How retailers promote safety 68
The effectiveness of safety promotion 69
Accident rate 69
Areas in need of development 69
Strategies for developing weaknesses 69
Views of course providers 71
How safety is reflected in the work of providers 71
The effectiveness of safety measures 73
Accident rate 73
Strategies for developing weaknesses 75
Views of other agencies 78
The importance of mountain safety 78
Accident rate 79
The areas in need of most development 79
Views of the outdoor magazines 80
Introduction 80
Provision of information 82
Features 83
Advertising 85
Views of mountaineering clubs 88
Introduction 88
Promotion of mountain safety 88
Summary 92
Conclusions 94
References 95

THE PROMOTION OF MOUNTAIN SAFETY SECOND SURVEY RESULTS 96
Methodology 96
Results 96
Introduction 96
Skills development 97
Navigation 97
Self/Mountain awareness 98
Winter skills 99
Safety promotion 99
Summary 101
Conclusions 102
The promotion of mountain safety summary and recommendations 104
Summary 104
Recommendations 105

ANALYSIS OF SCOTTISH MOUNTAIN ACCIDENTS 107
Introduction 107
Overall trends 109
Gender of the casualty 109
Age of the casualty 111
Experience of the casualty 114
Affiliation of the casualty 116
Occupation of the casualty 117
Country of domicile 118
Month of the year 119
Activity 121
Injuries 123
Terrain and weather 126
Causes and outcomes 127
Causes of incidents 128
Outcomes of incidents 130
Slips 131
Gender of the casualty 132
Age of the casualty 132
Experience of the casualty 134
Country of domicile 135
Month of the year 135
Activity 137
Injuries 137
Terrain and weather 139
Causes of incidents 140
Outcomes of incidents 143
Summary 143
Type of activity/gender 144
Other findings 145
Incident profile 145
Causes 146
Slips 147
Conclusions and recommendations 148
Safety messages 148
Skills training 150
Further research 150
Recommendation 151
References 151
COMPARATIVE ACCIDENT RATES 155
Participation 155
Accidents 155
Accident rates 155
Comparison with other activities 156
Comparison with other sports 156
Comparison with other outdoor activities in Scotland 159
Conclusions 160
References 161

PARTICIPATION IN MOUNTAINEERING 163
Introduction 163
Participation 164
Trend surveys 164
Snapshot surveys 170
Views of experts 171
Other indicators of participation 171
Incidents 173
Summary 176
References 176

USE OF WALKING POLES IN WINTER 182
Feedback from mountain rescue personnel 182
General 182
When are poles appropriate? 182
When are poles inappropriate? 183
Using poles and axes together - when to switch 183
Feedback from suppliers 183
Provision of information 183
Advice on winter use/transfer to axe 184
Views of other authorities 184
Fatal and other accidents 185
Conclusions 186
Recommendations 187
References 187
Information received from: 187
Postscript 188

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN MOUNTAINEERING 189
Introduction 189
Safety and technology 189
Electronic instruments 190
Mobile phones 190
Electronic compasses 191
Avalanche transceivers 191
GPSs 192
PLBs 192
Altimeter watches 193
Radios 194
Avalungs 194
Multifunction instruments 195
Windwatches 195
Ground probing radar 196
Leaflet design 196
Key quotations 197

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 199
Overall perspective 199
The promotion of safety 200
The stakeholders 200
Evaluation of safety promotion 201
Strategies and methods 202
Skills: the weak areas 203
Navigation 203
Self/mountain awareness 203
Winter skills 204
Mountain accidents 204
Who is at risk 205
The causes of mountain accidents 206
Slips 207
Safety messages 207
Recommendations 209
Safety promotion 209
Skill development 210
Public relations 211
Participation in mountaineering 211
Accident reporting 212
Mountain incidents: remaining questions 212
General 213

APPENDICES
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

HISTORY

My interest in mountain safety stems primarily from long term involvement in mountain
rescue as well as active involvement in climbing and walking for over 30 years. Mountain
rescue work brings me in regular contact with incidents where less than adequate regard
has been paid to safety by those involved. In addition, through my professional work
with undergraduate students in outdoor education and the national body for outdoor
education in Scotland (Scottish Advisory Panel in Outdoor Education) I am acutely
conscious of the safety initiatives central to the outdoor industry.

It occurred to me that whilst excellent data was available about mountain accidents over
very many years, little was known about the underlying causes or casualty profile. It was
also clear that little was known about the various attempts by different organisations to
promote mountain safety. These two matters are clearly linked; if something is known
about who is most at risk then constructive attempts can be made to target appropriate
safety messages to those people. It seemed therefore that this provided a clear
justification for a major study in the area. Knowing that the Leverhulme Trust
considers worthy research projects in all subjects, laid the foundations for an
application to gain leave from my professional work for a whole year to investigate this
subject. The University was supportive of the idea along with a number of key
organisations in Scotland. Most important, the study received full support and backing
from numerous key agencies, viz.,

Mountaineering Council of Scotland
Scottish Mountain Leader Training Board
Adventure Activities Licensing Authority
Benmore Centre for Outdoor Education
Central Scotland Police
Northern Constabulary
Tayside Police
Emergency Planning Departments - various
National Centre at Glenmore Lodge
Local Councils - various
Meteorological Office
Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland
Scottish Advisory Panel in Outdoor Education
Scottish Avalanche Information Service
Scottish Cave Rescue Organisation
sportscotland

Three of these organisations, viz., the Mountaineering Council of Scotland, sportscotland
National Centre at Glenmore Lodge and the Scottish Advisory Panel in Outdoor
Education agreed to serve as referees for the project (see Appendix I). The following
paragraph is taken from the application paper and describes the projects justification.

Hundreds of thousands of people take to the Scottish mountains for
recreation and adventure each year. The risks associated with all mountain
activities are reflected in rising accident rates together with new initiatives
to promote safe practice. A full-scale survey to examine causes of mountain
accidents, identify those at risk and assess the steps for promoting mountain
safety and which embraces all of the relevant agencies (rescue, training,
youth, medical, military, media, etc.) has never been undertaken. This study is
designed to provide benchmark evidence and a clear framework for taking
forwards the central issue of mountain safety into the new millennium.

The application was successful (full copy is given in Appendix II) and work began on July
1
st
, 2000. A period of one month was lost during the project for a variety of reasons
and so the end date was extended to August 31
st
. 2001.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

Rationale

The study was justified on the basis that little was known about the causes of mountain
accidents, those at risk and the methods used to promote mountain safety. Further,
information on these matters would provide a benchmark for taking forwards the issue
of mountain safety into the new millennium.

Aims

The overall purpose of the study was to provide a complete understanding of mountain
accidents and accident prevention which would provide a framework for co-ordinating
and developing strategies for promoting mountain awareness/safety.

Objectives

The project identified six specific objectives which, if achieved would lead to the
realisation of the projects aim. The following list is taken directly from the application
paper.

1. The study will attempt to tease out the exact causes of mountain
accidents. This is not an easy task since the locus of many incidents is
confounded by other factors. It will be vital to acquire primary evidence
from casualties and others.
2. The study will attempt to identify trends in terms of groups or individuals
who may be at particular risk. Comparisons will be made with other sports
and outdoor pursuits.

3. The study will question unsupported assertions which centre around
mountain accidents (e.g., most casualties make serious mistakes; youth
groups are ill-prepared).

4. The study will assess current initiatives undertaken by those agencies
which promote mountain safety.

5. The study will make recommendations on how accidents may be avoided or
reduced and publish this widely to all concerned agencies. Particular
efforts will be directed to the press and media in an attempt to inculcate
a more objective treatment of the subject.

6. The study will establish a long-term strategy for continued research in
the area.

ACHIEVEMENT OF THE AIMS/OBJECTIVES

The project achieved its overall aim to provide a full understanding of mountain
accidents and accident prevention. In these regards a comprehensive analysis was
undertaken of over 1000 Scottish mountain incidents together with a two surveys of
around 400 agencies/individuals with an interest in the promotion of mountain safety.
The incident survey stands as the most comprehensive one of its kind undertaken in
Scotland and one of the most complete studies ever undertaken in the UK. It stands as
a valuable and significant basis for comparison with statistics from other countries as
well as similar studies in the future. Similarly, the safety promotion surveys were unique
in their focus and scope and also provide a basis for developing promotional strategies
for the future.

Interestingly, whilst the aim of the study was realised the objectives met with varying
success. A significant inroad was made to meeting the first objective, although
limitations were encountered in terms of the primary data available. The Incident
Reports which accompany mountain accidents do not always make it clear what are the
exact causes of an accident. In most cases the Report only lists contributory causes.
In numerous cases, a variety of reasons are given, making it difficult to pinpoint cause
and effect. However, one clear conclusion is that very few incidents are the result of
wilful negligence, lack of skill or awareness or poor equipment. The great majority
appear to be genuine accidents where it would be wrong to cite a specific cause. They
result quite simply because mountaineering is a risk activity and it is impossible (and
undesirable) to eliminate all risks.

The second objective was also met, but with certain reservations. It was possible to
profile the at risk people in terms of the variables given in the Incident Reports (eg,
age, gender, occupation, experience), but it was not possible to be categorical since
information on participation was largely absent. For example, whilst it was shown that
men are three times more likely than women to be involved in an incident suggesting they
are three times more at risk, such statements have to be made against a backcloth of
participation profiles. If there are three times as many men involved in mountaineering
then males are clearly no more at risk than females. The implication of this is that to
provide a complete and valid profile of those at risk, also means profiling the population
of hillgoers. This is a major study which has yet to be undertaken and is a logical follow
- on from the present investigation.

The third objective was wholly met. There is very little evidence to suggest that youth
groups are ill-prepared and that many accidents are caused through silly mistakes. The
fact is that the majority of incidents are pure accidents. Also, youth groups and other
organised groups generate very few incidents. There is now a need to find ways to
convince the public at large as well as the media community that this is the case.

The fourth objective was wholly met. All the stakeholders connected with
mountaineering in Scotland (and beyond) were involved in the study and responded to
two surveys about safety promotion. One of the key findings here was that very few
actively monitor the effectiveness of their safety promotion strategies. There is much
work to be done here.

The fifth objective is ongoing. Much has already been accomplished to publish the
results of this research through publications in academic and the popular climbing press,
presentations to various groups and invitations to supply information to relevant
agencies. For example, an invitation was received from the Editor of The Great
Outdoors magazine (one of the UKs most popular monthly magazines for hillgoers) to
write an article emphasising the dangers of using trekking poles. This was based on a
subsidiary piece of research undertaken during the latter half of the Fellowship. Some
contact has been made with the press in general (BBC Scotland has recently invited me
to advise them on safety matters) but this an ongoing matter. Plans are in progress to
contact the Editors of all the major/local daily and weekly newspapers in an attempt to
inculcate a more objective treatment of the subject. There is also an opportunity to
advise Scottish Ministers about key issues through the Scottish Mountain Safety
Forum, to which I have recently been appointed as Chairman.

The sixth objective has been met and is fully described in the Conclusions to this
report.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH

Achievement of the Aims

The project met the main aim and largely met the objectives related to it (see before).
The backbone to the project was the two major surveys which would not have been
possible in the time available without the support of the Leverhulme Trust. Most
importantly, it has laid a foundation for further research and has made it possible to be
much more specific about the areas which are in need of further investigation. Overall,
the study has provided a substantial backcloth for other organisations and individuals to
use as a reference point. For example, I have recently been approached by a major
insurance company for advice on accident rates in mountaineering for use by their
actuarial department. I have also been asked to suggest safety advice for inclusion in
new editions of the Scottish climbing guides published by the Scottish Mountaineering
Trust. The accident survey carried out as part of the present project provided an
objective and reliable set of data which was essential for these purposes. The research
has also moved the subject of mountain safety much higher up the academic agenda in
UK terms and may well stimulate thinking, discussion and further research elsewhere in
the country. This has certainly been the case in Scotland. Furthermore, the research,
through the numerous publications, presentations and informal contacts made across the
past year, has greatly informed wide sectors of the mountaineering fraternity on
mountain safety issues. And it will continue to fulfil this objective. I would like to think
this may have a positive benefit in reducing accidents in some way.

Professional Benefits

The project has brought a new credibility and focus in the wider field of outdoor
education to my department (Scottish School of Sport Studies). It has also provided a
momentum which will continue through the development of many, more specific projects
which will be undertaken by undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as myself.
At the time of writing, an application has been submitted for funding from a substantial
bequest to establish a Centre for Research in Mountain Safety within my department at
the University (see Appendix III). This was initiated following a request from the
solicitor/executors acting on behalf of the bequest for guidance on how it could be used
to support the cause of mountain safety in Scotland. If this application is unsuccessful,
funding from other sources will be sought in order to maintain the momentum realised by
the present research. In any case, research will continue in the area bringing a new
research focus to the Department and source of information for student projects.

Personal Benefits

The research has allowed me to re - gain an expertise in research which I had lost many
years ago when work commitments dictated that I spend more time teaching instead of
research. I plan to seek outside funding to redress the balance between my teaching
and research commitments to maintain this expertise. I expect too that the opportunity
to carry out research for a whole year, together with the numerous publications which
have resulted and contacts established, has raised my profile within the academic
community not only within my Department but also the field of outdoor education in
general.

The research has generated many publications, some of which are in press whilst others
are still under review. The following lists those to date:

Journal of Safety Research
Mountain Safety: Key Messages

Health Promotion International
How should mountain safety be promoted?

J. of Ageing and Physical Activity
Walking and climbing: Changing risks with gender and age

Accident analysis and prevention
Mountaineering in Scotland: accident analysis and safety promotion

European Journal of Physical Education
Men climb and women walk!

The Great Outdoors
Observation on the use of trekking poles in winter

The Scottish Mountaineer
The quick way off the mountain

Boots Across Scotland Newsletter
Strategies for improving mountain safety

MC of S website
Strategies for improving mountain safety
<http://www.mountaineering-scotland.org.uk/safety/bobsharp.html>

In addition to these publications, a proposal has been submitted to The Scottish
Mountaineering Trust, to publish a book (Mountain rescue: Tales and Techniques) which
will be partly based on the mountain incident survey carried out as a major part of the
present research. The Scottish Mountaineering Trust is a highly respected publisher of
mountaineering books (mainly technical) and I am very hopeful that the proposal will be
successful.
Further to these publications, I have been invited to make several presentations to
relevant bodies over the past year (and continuing) - see list below:

Scottish Mountain Safety Forum (SMSF)
This is a national body which meets twice each year and comprises
representatives of all the major safety/training/mountaineering organisations
in Scotland. It is a highly influential body and advises the Scottish Minister
for Sport annually on safety issues. I was seconded to this body from the
Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland and made presentations at each of
the two meetings. This role will continue (see below).

Scottish Education Research Association
I have been accepted to present the findings of my research at the annual
conference held in Dundee in September.

BA Degree in Outdoor Education
I was invited to speak to the outdoor education undergraduates on my
research in January.

Mountaineering Council of Scotland (MC of S)
I was invited to present some findings at the annual conference in May.

MC of S Safety & Training Committee
The Safety and Training Committee is one of three sub - committees of the
MC of S and I was invited to join this committee for the year of my studies
and made presentations at each meeting. This proved to be very fruitful and
bought me in close contact with the Mountain Safety Adviser of the MC of S
who was able to take on board several key findings from the research.

Scottish Advisory Panel in Outdoor Education
As a member of this group, I was asked to provide all members with regular
updates.

Boots Across Scotland
This is a voluntary organisation which exists to support the cause of mountain
safety and also to provide financial help to those injured in the mountains. I
was asked to make a presentation to this group in March and will be helping to
organise the annual Mountain Safety Awareness day for the public to be held
in Stirling in September.

Health & Safety Executive
The Health and Safety Executive through the Adventure Activity Advisory
Committee has been aware of my research from the start and has invited me
to make a full presentation in Cardiff in October.

At the AGM of the MC of S, I was elected to the post of Vice President. This post
carries two responsibilities; one is to Chair the Safety and Training Committee and the
other is to Chair the Scottish Mountain Safety Forum. Both of these tasks are time
consuming (to add to my work as Director of the Scottish Mountain Leader Training
Board and Secretary to the Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland!). Chairmanship of
the SMSF is very prestigious and I follow in the footsteps of Eric Langmuir and Alan
Blackshaw amongst others. These appointments stem directly from my involvement in
mountain safety research over the past year.

I have been asked for advice/information from numerous individuals and organisations
over the past year, eg, Association of Mountain Instructors, Association of British
Mountain Guides, BBC Scotland, various walking clubs, Boots Across Scotland,
Northwestern Insurance Company, Scottish Mountaineering Trust, Adventure Activities
Licensing Authority. I also secured free membership of the Royal Institute of
Navigation and was invited to become the Scottish representative.

DEFINITIONS AND ISSUES

INTRODUCTION

A number of definitions and issues are central to this study. Topics such as risk,
hazards and safety are used frequently. It is important to define their exact meaning
as well as other related words/expressions to establish a common basis for discussion
and to clarify their meaning within the context of the present study. There are also a
number of issues surrounding these topics, one in particular which is worthy of some
discussion. The whole question of risk and the balance between risk and challenge is
topical at the present time. There is an increasing body of opinion which considers that
the trend in todays society to reduce risk and control safety to almost clinical levels,
stifles initiative, creativity and adventure to an extent that the normal development of
children and others to cope with the everyday hazards in life, is being severely
compromised. It is important to examine this matter in more detail, especially as the
present study may be seen by some to support a policy of risk reduction and control.
This would be contrary to my own views. First of all some definitions.

Hazards

Hazards are the kinds of things which cause or have the potential to cause some of kind
of difficulty, injury or accident (Wharton, 1995). The Oxford Dictionary (1992)
describes a hazard as - an event that happens unexpectedly and causes damage,
injury, etc. The Health and Safety Executive (1999) presents a similarly broad view
by suggesting a hazard is anything that can cause harm to the individual. It gives
examples such as chemicals, electricity, working from ladders and so on. The Ordnance
Survey (1998) lists examples such as allergies and diseases from domestic rubbish,
injury from working near highways, exposure to weather. It also adds that a hazardous
environment can be one where assistance is difficult to obtain or where there is a lack
of first aid. Roberts (2000) describes a hazard as a situation that is potentially
dangerous . He cites examples such as living close to a store of explosives or in an
earthquake zone.

In the context of outdoor activities an example of a hazard would be a fast moving river.
Someone attempting to wade across the river would be at risk from being carried
downstream if they lost their footing. It might even result in the person becoming
trapped underwater because of a submerged tree, in which the case that person could
loose their life. Another example is a steep, boulder strewn mountain slope. This would
be a hazard to those walking below, especially if the boulders are loose. Putnam (1994)
suggests that a hazard is -

A situation or set of circumstances which can cause harm to people, e.g.,
a river in spate, a crevassed glacier, a hidden reef at sea; an electrical
storm, etc..

Hazards may be known or unknown. For example, an experienced winter mountaineer will
know and understand how avalanches take place, their types and the weather/terrain
conditions which predispose a slope to avalanche. He/she might also be aware that the
short daylight in winter means that anyone with poor time management could find
themselves navigating down dangerous terrain in the dark. In contrast, a hillwalker who
is experienced in summer conditions may be unaware of avalanche difficulties or the
special navigation problems of winter. A hazard which is unknown, unforeseen or not
recognised presents a greater risk than one which is known.

Risk

Hazards are defined in absolute terms (e.g., cliff faces, avalanche prone slopes, fast
moving water, electricity, sharp knives) but they have different meanings and generate
different levels of risk depending on their context and the individual who is confronted
by the hazard. Risk is the likelihood that harm from the hazard will be realised
(Wharton, 1995). The Oxford English Dictionary defines risk as - the possibility of
meeting danger or suffering injury or loss. The British Medical Association (1990)
defines risk as - an expression of the probability (the likelihood) that something
unpleasant will happen. The Health & Safety Executive (1998) notes that - Risk is the
chance, high or low, that somebody will be harmed by the hazard. Similarly, Putnam
(1994) suggests that - risk is a chance that someone will be harmed by a hazard.
Once a hazard has been identified then the risks can be assessed and quantified.
Roberts (2000) similarly indicates that The risk associated with that hazard is the
chance of it causing a defined amount of harm within a specified period.

Risk is concerned therefore with probability or chance and the likelihood that danger or
harm will result from exposure to a hazard. The British Medical Association (1990)
suggests that everything we do, or that is done to us, carries some risk to our health
and welfare; there is no such thing as zero risk or absolute safety. A hazard may
present a high or low degree of risk or danger to a person depending on, for example,
how competent they are in dealing with that hazard. Risk is therefore dependent on the
individual person. It is a function of how a person sees a situation. Thus, The Royal
Society (1983) suggests -

.. risk.. is not always perceived to be the same for each individual
member of society as a whole, even though the measured risks may be
identical in size.

For example, a novice attempting to paddle down a fast flowing river places themselves
at a greater risk (to life) than an experienced paddler who is properly equipped and
experienced in dealing with white water.

Because risk is concerned with probability, attempts have been made to quantify risk.
One method uses Fatal Accident Rates (FARs) per million hours spent on an activity to
quantify the relative danger of different activities. Table 1 (Turner, 1994) suggests

Table 1 Fatal accident rates for different activities

Activity FAR

Smoking 20.00
Climbing/Mountaineering 7.93
Motorsport 1.46
Driving 0.83
Fishing 0.37
Skiing 0.20

that rock climbing is a high risk activity compared to say fishing. The Health & Safety
Executive has proposed a maximum tolerable FAR of 0.48 for workers in all occupations,
below which no action is required by the employer to reduce risks further (Loynes,
1995). One would expect there to be more injuries than fatalities and indeed this is
shown in Table 2 below (Liddle & Storck, 1995) which shows the injury rate per million
hours of activity in different sports.

Table 2 Injury rates for different activities

Activity Injury rate

Recreational games 485.8
Downhill skiing 273.3
Climbing (rock and ice) 97.3
Ski touring 76.1
Backpacking 48.3
Swimming 44.5
Camping 15.7

Another way to quantify risk is to look at the combined influence of likelihood of harm
and severity of that harm (Barnes, 1997), i.e.,

Risk = Likelihood of harm x Severity of that harm

To illustrate this using an arbitrary scale of 1 - 10, take rock climbing and gorge walking
as undertaken by say school pupils at an Outdoor Centre.

Risk from rock climbing = 1 (low risk) x 9 (severe injury) = 9
Risk from gorge walking = 4 (modest risk) x 6 (moderate injury) = 24

This suggests that gorge walking places pupils at a higher risk than rock climbing, which
is opposite to common perception. Barnes suggests it is not unusual for so - called low
level activities such as mountain biking and ropes courses, to be viewed as less risky,
when in fact the opposite is often true.

It follows that hazards and risks go together, but whilst hazards are clear and objective
(if known), risks are subjective and variable. Barak, Hedrich and Albrechtsen (2000)
emphasise that risk is highly personal and individual. Furthermore, it can have physical,
psychological or social connotations. They suggest that physical risk (the most commonly
understood aspect of risk) is perceived when there is risk of physical danger to the
individual, e.g., falling off a rock face, being swept away by an avalanche, suffering from
hypothermia. Quite separately, psychological risk is related to fear. An example would
be the feeling experienced when alone in the dark or lost in white - out conditions.
Social risk is perceived when the individual feels they are acting outside their assigned
or normal social role such as when a shy person is asked to adopt a leadership role. The
HSE endorses this distinction by suggesting that risk encompasses more than physical
harm. It says that a full analysis of risk should take account of ethical and social
factors.

Grainger-Jones (1999) suggests risk is a function of three factors; probability, severity
and frequency. Probability refers to the number of times an accident is likely to happen
to an individual over a period of time. Severity relates to the damage caused by a given
accident (greatest = death, least = no injury). Frequency refers to the proportion of
people involved in an activity likely to be injured in a given period. This is clearly an
extension to the model highlighted by Barnes (1997).

Real and Perceived Risk

The British Medical Association (1990) suggests that peoples perception of risk often
bears no relation to the real risk; people respond to hazards as they are perceived.
Loynes (1995) distinguishes between three kinds of risk. Perceived risk is something
that seems risky but in actual fact is fully controlled (e.g., top rope climbing).
Subjective real risk is something that is risky but can be controlled with equipment,
skill, judgement (e.g., lead climbing). Objective real risk is something that is risky and
cannot be controlled (e.g., rockfall, avalanche). Barnes (1997) makes two distinctions.
Perceived risk is how the risk involved in an activity is felt by the person doing the
activity, whilst actual risk is the risk that is present in reality. He also distinguishes
between objective and subjective risk. The first is concerned with risks which are
outside the control of a group leader, whilst the second can usually be controlled.

The topic of real versus perceived risk is a matter which is well documented in the
outdoor education literature. One of the concerns for outdoor educationists is how to
structure outdoor activities which yields risk levels that do not cause harm, but which
still generate challenge, motivation and learning. The way to do this is to create a sense
of perceived risk which is meaningful and does not detract from the nature of the
activity in question. A compounding difficulty is that the level of perceived risk differs
from one person to the next. This creates enormous practical difficulties for someone
leading a group of people. The problem is therefore matching the individual to the
situation (Hopkins and Putnam, 1993) so that everyone operates within their challenge
zone and none flounder in their comfort or panic zones (Tuson, 1994).

Risk Assessment

Risk assessment has assumed a much higher profile in recent years, particularly as it
affects employers and the workplace. This has arisen through a change in society which
is more inclined to place blame on people when accidents happen. The increased threat
of litigation (which mirrors the trend in North American) has highlighted the need for
people - particularly employers, to look carefully at how they deal with risks through
insurance, control and assessment of risk generated by hazards in the workplace. Risk
assessment is concerned largely with evaluating the degree of risk associated with a
particular hazard or set of hazards and a weighing - up as to whether enough
precautions have been taken to prevent harm. To give a broad example, a risk
assessment of say a group of retired people playing bowls would probably yield few
hazards and little risk to life and limb. In contrast a risk assessment of a large group of
novices involved in a charity abseiling event might yield more hazards and a greater
degree of risk to the health and safety of the participants. This would involve the
organiser or leader adopting a variety of measures to ensure that nobody came to any
harm. An example of a risk assessment carried out by one of Scotlands mountain rescue
teams is given in Appendix IV.

One of the key aims is to ensure that people (such as employees) do not come to harm or
suffer ill health unnecessarily, because the influence of particular hazards has not been
given due consideration. The Royal Society (1983) notes this is not always a
straightforward process. It suggests that quantification of risk is often uncertain and
that once risk is quantified, important decisions still have to be made about the possible
reduction of risk and about the acceptability of the existing or reduced risk. There are
often financial factors to be considered along with an examination of costs versus
benefits.

It is common to break risk assessment down into a number of identifiable parts. The
Health & Safety Executive (1999) suggests five steps to risk assessment, viz.,

Identification of the hazards which are present

List those individuals who might be harmed and how

Evaluation of the degree of risk associated with each hazard and decisions about
what must be done to reduce those risks to acceptable levels (risk management)

Recording of the hazards and what has been done to reduce risks as well as
publication of these matters to those who may be affected

Periodical review and revision of all assessments

Employers (including those who are self employed) are bound by the Health & Safety at
Work etc. Act (1974) to carry out risk assessments relevant to their workplace. The
law makes it clear they must ensure that as far as is reasonably practical, the health,
safety and welfare of employees is protected when they are at work. In practical terms
this means employers must ensure that their workplace is safe and without risks, safe
methods of working are set and followed, machinery and equipment is properly
maintained and safe to use, equipment and harmful substances are used properly and
stored safely, and the welfare of employees is not affected by noise, dust or fumes.
The Health & Safety regulations were formulated to govern the activities of people
operating in a hierarchical situation, where a person with managerial responsibility and
authority directs the activities of others in a work place. They do not therefore apply
to mountaineering clubs or groups involved in mountaineering activities for pleasure (with
the exception of professional Mountain Guides and Instructors). The Mountaineering
Council of Scotland (1997) however, does recommend that because clubs are concerned
with the safety of its members, they should give consideration to some aspects of the
regulations, particularly the provision of information and the opportunities for club
members to develop knowledge of and recognise hazards. The Health & Safety
Executive does work with some National Governing Bodies to develop guidance on the
approach to risks likely to affect employers or members of the public, including club
members (English Sports Council, 1998).

Some providers of courses in outdoor activities (those which provide adventure
activities within the scheme to young people under the age of 18, in return for payment)
are required to operate within the law as defined by the Adventure Activities Licensing
Authority (The Activity Centres - Young Persons Safety - Act, 1995). In these cases,
risk assessment is examined within the context of the environment in which the provider
works and focuses on those hazards which if not managed or avoided, could foreseeably
result in death or disabling injury. The Adventure Activities Licensing Authority looks
for ways in which participants are safeguarded as well as instructors.

Whilst risk assessment is a fact of life, it is not acceptable to all concerned. McDonald
(1997) is highly skeptical of the paperwork, administration and form filling which
accompanies risk assessment. He questions whether risk assessment is a good product
of exemplary professional practice, or is - woolly and generalist, conveyor belt safety,
the product of an academic view of a complex human process with the practical
usefulness of Esperanto.!

Risk Management

Risk management is concerned with how risk is dealt with (i.e., reduced) once hazards
have been identified and risks quantified. It is the operational stage of risk
assessment. Risk can be managed in a variety of ways, but there are essentially two
approaches. In the first place a risk can be reduced by removing the hazard (risk
avoidance). For example, if it were felt that a two - day expedition would be physically
too demanding for a group of unfit youngsters which could lead to errors in navigation,
fatigue or illness, a decision could be made to change the plans to a single day hill walk.
Similarly, if it were judged that to cross a steep snow slope presented too high a risk of
avalanche danger, a change of route to climb an adjacent ridge would eliminate that risk.
In both these cases, the risk is controlled by eliminating the hazard. However, it might
be more appropriate to retain the hazard but reduce the risk (risk reduction). Risk
reduction can be achieved in a variety of ways such as protecting people more
effectively, supervising an activity more closely or modifying the design of the activity.
The following situation demonstrates some of these. Consider the case of a group that
has reached the top of a rock climb and is ready to descend a steep slope. The slope is
a hazard as soon as the descent begins and various factors will increase the risk
involved. For example, it starts to rain and the ground becomes slippery; the terrain
changes from solid to loose rock or grass; it starts to get dark; the group complain of
tiredness, cold, etc.. The overall risk can be reduced if the leader takes a number of
actions, viz., he decides that the group should change into appropriate footwear;
headtorches are used; the group puts on warm clothing and waterproofs; a decision is
made to use ropes in the descent etc.. By taking these actions, the hazard (and hence
the challenge) remains, but the risk has been reduced to an acceptable level.

Grainger-Jones (1999) suggests four principles, all or some of which may assist the
process of risk reduction. Firstly, he says it is important to seek external expert
assistance whenever possible. In the example above, this would involve discussing the
problem with a colleague or co - leader. Secondly, good practice procedures should be
adopted in all aspects of operation. In the example, this would include keeping the group
close together so that if a rock was dislodged by a party member, it would not gain too
much momentum before it struck someone. Thirdly, risks must be reduced to levels
which those at risk may reasonably anticipate. This would involve careful observation of
group members and perhaps some dialogue to ensure all members were happy with the
descent, once a descent procedure was established. Fourthly, the nature of the risk
should be fully explained to the at risk persons.
In broad terms, these principles are underlined by the Mountaineering Council of
Scotland in the advice given to clubs.. The Council emphasises the need for club
members to be made aware of the Union Internationale des Associations dAlpinisme
(UIAA) participation statement, viz.,

Climbing and mountaineering are activities with a danger of personal injury or
death. Participants in these activities should be aware of and accept these
risks and be responsible for their own actions and involvement.

The Council suggests further that clubs should emphasise the importance of self
reliance and that members should be always responsible for their themselves and their
actions; clubs should, in no way, take responsibility for the safety of members on club
meets. In addition, the Council suggests clubs should fully inform members of the kinds
of hazards that may be encountered during club meets, and they should also engender a
sharing of knowledge and expertise.

The important and often critical nature of risk management is highlighted by Ogilvie
(1989). He explains that risk management is an ongoing process of evaluation involving
an assessment of the leaders ability, the groups ability and the complex interaction of
these two factors with external factors within the outdoor environment. Priest (1990)
talks about the accident equation in terms of managing risk. In this model, risk is a
combination of environmental and human factors. For example, in kayaking,
environmental factors would include rocks, low water, bends, fallen trees. Human
factors would include experience of the paddler, type of boat in use, size of party, and
so on. Each of these factors can exist in a variety of different ways. It is the task of
the leader to assess how these factors combine and at what level, to decide a strategy
for managing risk from moment to moment.

Safety

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1969) defines safety as Being safe, freedom from
danger or risks being sure or likely to bring no danger. It is therefore very much
bound up with discussions about hazards and risks. It is also a multi - faceted subject
and as Baillie (1996) points out, it is not a theoretical subject; safe practice involves a
consideration of factors such as equipment and clothing, leader and individual
responsibility, legislation, leadership, attitudes, technical competence and procedures

A common view of mountain safety is that is concerned largely with the identification of
mountain hazards and methods for reducing the risks those hazards present. The
promotion of mountain safety is therefore concerned with expanding peoples knowledge
about mountain hazards and the adoption of methods to reduce risks.

THE SAFETY CULTURE

The Importance of Risk

A number of tragic incidents affecting children (e.g., the Lyme Bay and Cairngorm
disasters) and critical media reports have focused public attention on the kinds of
hazards involved in outdoor activities (Putnam, 1994). These incidents and others have
generated discussion on a variety of critical matters such as the qualifications of
leaders and teachers and the difficulty of striking a balance between safety on the one
hand and challenge on the other. There are, of course, risks associated with most
things. Everything we do carries some risk to our health or welfare, particularly outdoor
activities such as skiing and rock climbing. Indeed, the British Medical Association
(1990) suggests that -

Nobody sincerely believes that all recreational activities can be made free of
risk. Indeed, some degree of risk is manifestly one of the attractions of
many kinds of recreation.

It is widely accepted that the element of danger which is inherent in many adventure
sports is a significant attraction for many participants (Mortlock, 1984; Miles, 1990;
Csikszentmilhalyi, 1990). Mortlock (1984) argues that all members of the human race
have a yearning for excitement, risk and challenge. Houston (1967) has even
suggested that for some climbers, the urge to participate is an attraction to the risk of
death. However, there are alternative views. Loynes (1996) suggests that for most
climbers, risk is not the central factor behind participation, but rather a consequence
which has to be minimised rather celebrated; it has to be controlled and contained or it
may detract from enjoyment of the activity.

Generally, within the context of mountaineering it is well accepted that hazards such as
altitude, steep rock, changing light, avalanche and poor weather, added to elements such
as the scenery, exercise, mountaineering history, create an experience which defines
the very essence of the activity. Walker (1988) illustrates this very well. He argues
that an element of risk is an important part of adventure and enjoyment of the
mountains and is equally true whether the person visit the hills to climb, scramble or
simply walk. He says that without an element of risk, adventure would be reduced to the
commonplace and the experience made less worthwhile. He notes that -

the element of risk is essential - but so is the assessment of that risk, and
to my mind one of the most enjoyable aspects of the art of mountaincraft is
solving the puzzle of how to stay safe, of striking a happy balance between
danger and safety.

Hunt (quoted in Barry & Jepson, 1988) is of a similar view. He notes that:

The true satisfaction is to be found not in courting unknown dangers for
which you are ill-prepared, but in matching your own skill and experience and
the danger and difficulties of which you are aware.

And Walker (1995) notes -

An element of risk is an important part of adventure and enjoyment of the
mountains and this holds equally true whether you visit the hills to climb,
scramble or simply walk. Without an element of risk, the adventure would be
reduced to the commonplace and the experience made less worthwhile. So
the element of risk is essential - but so is the assessment of that risk, and to
my mind one of the most enjoyable aspects of the art of mountaincraft is
solving the puzzle of how to stay safe, of striking a happy balance between
danger and safety.

Further to this Gibson (2001) argues the need for hillgoers to make mistakes and not to
be warned off the hill by signs, etc.. He is very opposed to the Nanny Culture. He says

I too have encountered some rather scared people on Crib Goch but Im sure
they went home with a tale to tell. Everybody starts as a novice, everybody
has an epic to recount. Most people learn from these events, some unlucky
people have accidents. Thats life - signs wont stop that.

Howett (2001) takes an extreme view when he suggests that -

we should be giving as little help to people as possible. Instead we should
be instilling in them a sense of responsibility and an adventurous nature.

Furthermore, he feels

The threat to freedom to undertake risk is always there, it is pernicious, it
comes from all sorts of guises, even from within the mountaineering
fraternity itself sometimes. And if we let it take hold of any aspect of our
activity then it will destroy it.

These and other authors clearly see risk as a positive element; something which has
individual meaning and which has to be assessed by the person within a mountain context.

The Culture of Fear

However, there is an emerging culture of fear in modern society (Furedi, 2000) which
looks at risk as something which has to be eliminated or at least reduced. Furedi has
explored this matter in some detail. His research shows that more and more simple
experiences in everyday life such as a child walking to the shop are becoming rare
events; childhood experiences are becoming highly diminished. There are strong cultural
pressures to continually protect children compared to say 40 years ago when the
concept of children at risk never existed; childhood is essentially a period of survival
when children do not take risks or are given the opportunity to manage risks themselves.
Parents tend to see most things as risky and face the constant dilemma where they keep
putting off the moment when they let the child begin to take the risk and manage it
themselves. Furedi suggests that, paradoxically, this over protection is viewed by
society as a sign of responsible parental behaviour. Within the world of adventurous
activities he suggests this will eventually become an alien world. He suggests that
society tends to see adventure as associated with risks which need to be avoided and
that the fear culture is magnified through generalisation from well publicised tragedies.
He acknowledges that such events will occur, but the low level of real danger should not
lead society to the conclusion that adventure is bad for children. Furedi suggests the
fear culture developed has developed for several reasons, viz.,

There is tendency in society to exaggerate risk in all aspects of life.

Adults have ceased to trust one another. Adult solidarity has broken down. Adults
tend to back off when they see others having problems.

Adults find it increasingly difficult to discipline children. They are too scared to
discipline.

Parents have become disempowered through the professionalism of parenting. They
are less able to make sensible decisions.

Furedi says the crux of the problem is adult anxiety. The often expressed view that I
could not live with myself . suggests people are thinking more about themselves than
their children. A consequence of this philosophy is that ..it makes it more difficult for
children to live with themselves. Hobbs (2000) expresses similar views. He says there
is a growing failure of courage amongst adults; there is always a need to find a victim or
scapegoat. In the same way, parents seem to take less responsibility for teaching their
children, but are more worried about what happens when they are at school. Hobbs also
feels strongly that the media tend to hype - up and often simplify complex events which
are in fact quite simple; as a consequence, great distortion about risk takes place.
Linden (1999) has explored these issues in regard to the way adults treat matters of
risk and safety with young children. She says:

Young children have only a limited understanding of the risks that surround
them, so they bang their heads, scrape their knees, burn their fingers, and
worse. A popular response is to try to create a risk - free environment for
them, and never let them out of sight. But this isnt necessarily the best
solution. It leaves children without the skills to manage risk and makes it
difficult for them to judge situations for themselves.

She goes on to say that:

Adults who analyse every situation in terms of what could go wrong risk
creating anxiety in some children and recklessness in others. Children who
are fearful will be unable to learn and those who are more confident may
have few ideas on how to handle risk because their play environment and been
over - managed and sanitised.

Within the sphere of outdoor activities the fear factor has heightened significantly
since the Lyme Bay tragedy of 1993 (Geary, 1995; Harris, 1999; Wharton, 1995) and the
advent of accreditation and licensing (Spencer, 1996). Spencer suggests that the
enforcement of the Adventure Activities Licensing Regulations (1996) has highlighted
concerns over the possibility of accidents and injury to those taking part in outdoor
activities. Everard (2000c) argues that use of the expression minimisation of risk by
several bodies (e.g., the Adventure Activities Licensing Authority) has the potential for
some leaders or providers to curtail or dilute opportunities for people to learn to, and
how to, manage their own safety. He suggests that use of words such as risk
management, control or regulation (as used by Guen, 2000) are preferable. Putnam
(2000) argues that the current concern to protect people from harm stifles enterprise
and natural creativity. The current need to identify hazards and assess risk,
particularly physical risk, and to hold to account those who fail to do this when carrying
responsibility for others has, he argues, led to an increasingly restrictive approach to
life where every hazard is seen as something to be avoided and risk taking regarded as
unacceptable.

Geary (1995) suggests that the criminal trial involving the Activity Centre responsible
for the deaths of four teenagers at Lyme Bay was legal recognition of a long term
change in cultural and social values in favour of attributing blame for health and safety
deaths rather than to view them as accidents or the work of fate. This is summarised
very clearly in the words of Everard (2000a) who says that -

Many outdoor practitioners are concerned about the creeping sanitisation of
adventure, as societal influences seem to be increasing public aversion to risk,
and to be intensifying the pursuit of someone to blame when things go wrong.
The idea of ill luck and bad fortune has gone out of the window, and an
accident in the sense of an unforeseen contingency is taken to imply
incompetence on the part of someone who has failed to read the future
correctly.

Brown (2000a) suggests that the current emphasis on risk assessment (note the Five
Steps strategy referred to before) has contributed to the negative way risks are
viewed by many. She indicates for example, that attention to the environment or
activity (the hazards) ensures that the individual has only a passive role to play. She
argues that people factors should be considered before an evaluation is made of the
environment or activity. Her research (Brown, 2000b) shows that in practice, leaders of
groups consider a number of things such as their own level of confidence, the desired
outcomes for the group such as personal development, environmental awareness and
skills to be learned, and the amount of responsibility for an activity that participants
within the group are ready to take. She argues further that risk assessment implies a
perfect answer can be found when clearly this is rarely the case. And that because it
values highly notions of risk management/control, it generates a mindset that risk
should be contained or eliminated.

The Health & Safety Commission takes a different view to this. Whilst the Commission
accepts that risk is something which can only be addressed or assessed and cannot be
eliminated, it also proclaims that risk must be balanced against benefits. What is
tolerable depends in part on the expectations of society; a risk may not be acceptable
but it may be tolerated given that it is judged acceptable against the securing of certain
benefits. The HSE makes the vital point that risk taking must take place within a
framework where the expectations of those taking part in an activity as well as society
as a whole are taken into account. It also recognises the need to avoid the imposition of
unnecessary restrictions on the freedom of the individual. This is reflected in a
statutory statement recently issued by the Commission in regard to how school pupils
are taught about managing safety. This statement, which applies to science, technology,
art and design and physical education indicates that when working in practical
environments including those that are unfamiliar, pupils should be taught:

about hazards, risks, risk control

to recognise hazards, assess consequent risks and take steps to control the risks to
themselves and others

to use information to assess the immediate and cumulative risks

to manage their environment to ensure the health and safety of themselves and
others

to explain the steps they take to control risks

The whole emphasis of the statement is to give pupils the responsibility to look after
themselves rather than expecting teachers to protect them. It recognises further that
safety management is a generic transferable skill (Everard, 2000b). It is interesting to
question however, whether initiatives like this will help to magnify the fear culture (by
further highlighting hazards and risks), or reduce it through education and information!

Reactions to the Fear Culture

A number of opinions have been expressed about how the culture of fear should be
addressed. Purves (2000) suggests there needs to be greater acceptance of the
presence of risks and that society also needs to be much more open and stand up to be
counted when a pure accident happens. There should not be so much effort in trying to
apportion blame every time something goes wrong. Barton (2000) suggests we need to
re - think the current over - dependence on paper management which accompanies risk
assessment. He believes there should be a change of focus so that children (and others)
should be provided with the tools of risk management (topics such as the weakest link
principle or the importance of not making false assumptions), rather than have the
outcomes of risk management imposed on them. A recent conference devoted to this
topic - A Question of Balance (see Reed, 2001) concluded that the task of re -
instating the importance of adventure and challenge through outdoor activities will not
be simple. At the very least, there is a need to quell societys focus on risk and remind
the public that the risks in outdoor activities are minimal compared to those taken in
daily life. An initiative designed to fulfil these objectives has been coined the
Campaign for Adventure (Putnam, 2000). This is a national initiative
1
which has arisen
from the current over concern to protect people from harm. One of its aims is to
promote the message that unnecessary pessimism, over - caution and an unadventurous
approach to life leads to low expectations, lack of creativity and under - achievement.

REFERENCES

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Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership. 1, 3, 6 - 7.

Barnes, P. (1997). Theory into practice: The complete practical theory of outdoor
education and personal development. Glasgow: University of Strathclyde.

Barry, J. & Jepson, T. (1988). Safety on mountains. Manchester: The British
Mountaineering Council.

Barton, B. (2000). New routes to China: Risk management as opportunity. Paper
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British Medical Association, (1990). Living with Risk. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

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English Sports Council. (1997). Health and safety. London: The English Sports Council.

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Everard, B. (2000c). Book reviews. Horizons, 8, 69.

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Geary, R. (1995). The Lyme Bay canoeing tragedy and the criminal law. Journal of
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Gibson, A. (2001). Cocooned world, The Great Outdoors, 23, 4, 120.

Guen, J. (2000). Reducing risks, Protecting people. London: Health and Safety
Executive.

Harris, I. (1999). Outdoor education in secondary schools: What future? Horizons, 4,
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Health and Safety Executive. (1999). Five steps to risk assessment. London: The Heath
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Hobbs, M. (2000). Mind the gap. Paper presented at the Conference on Risk and
Adventure in Society (Association for Outdoor Learning). London.

Hopkins, D. & Putnam, R. (1993). Personal growth through adventure.

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Loynes, C. (1995). The public perception of risk. NAOE Newsletter, 15, 1.

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POLICIES ON MOUNTAIN SAFETY

INTRODUCTION

At the start of the research project is was decided to obtain information from key
agencies which would permit a description of the safety culture which exists in the
world of mountaineering. This would provide an objective backcloth which would in turn
enable relevant questions to be asked throughout the research.

The world of mountaineering is a very wide one indeed comprising not only the vast body
of people involved in the activity, but also many organisations with interests in education,
training, equipment, safety, and so on. The following sectors were identified -

Manufacturers of clothing. equipment and footwear
The retail industry
Providers of courses - commercial, local authority, charitable, etc
Outdoor publications
Safety organisations
Mountaineering clubs
The Press
Safety publications
Mountain rescue

POLICIES ON MOUNTAIN SAFETY

The following sections provide summaries of the stated polices on mountain safety of
some of these organisations.

Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland (MRC of S)

The Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland (MRC of S) is the co-ordinating body
responsible for the provision of a civilian mountain rescue service in Scotland. To this
end it liaises closely with the Police, Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, HM Coastgaurd,
Scottish Ambulance Service, Scottish Home and Health Department and many other
voluntary and statutory organisations which are concerned for the health and well being
of climbers and walkers. Whilst it actively promotes and encourages the advancement
and knowledge of mountain rescue skills amongst its members it also promotes safe
practice in the mountains. To this end, the MRC of S has representation on the Scottish
Mountain Safety Forum which it advises on a variety of safety related matters. In
practical terms, the promotion of safe practice is handled by individual mountain rescue
teams (MRTs) as they feel fit. Most MRTs (23 civilian, 2 RAF, 3 Police) are involved one
way or another in promoting good practice in the Scottish mountains. They do this
through lectures by individual members to various groups (youth, community, hillwalking
clubs, etc.) as well as displays and presentations of various kinds at public events. Some
teams deliver courses in navigation, etc., to the public at large.

The MRC of S, although supporting any initiative to improve safety in the
mountains, does not itself actively do much to promote safety; that is not its
business. One area it may contribute to an improvement in safety is by the
annual publication of accident statistics which raise the awareness of the
risks involved in mountaineering (Chairman, MRC of S)

The promotional effort by MRTs is low priority and is
often associated with fund-raising. Its emphasis does
not compare with that devoted to training and
operational work. It is also important to note that whilst
some rescues involve dealing with those who may have
made stupid mistakes in the hills, MRTs do not, by and
large, castigate people for their errors. For some, the
fact they have to be rescued is punishment enough. The
fact is that MRTs are mandated to assist the Police
authorities in their land search and rescue function and
not to do anything else. They provide the expertise,
manpower and organisational skills to assist the Police
carry out their statutory obligations for search and
rescue. It is the Police authorities who may (or may not) comment on any mistakes that
may have been made.

One of the key functions of the MRC of S is to record the incidents which take place in
the Scottish mountains and produce annual summaries for public consumption. The
annual report has been published for many years in the Scottish Mountaineering Club
Journal. The summary report lists every incident that takes place with information
about the person/s involved, nature of the accident, location, services deployed, etc.. It
provides a very good basis for assessing reliably the kinds of things which go wrong in
the hills, who are the most accident prone etc. The records extend back to the mid -
60s and show clear trends over the past 35 years (see Figure overleaf). It is notable
that the accident figures have plateaued over the past 10 years or so. This finding is
mirrored in England and Wales and suggests therefore that the safety message may be
getting across the general hillgoing public. A degree of caution is necessary however,
since it is not known whether the numbers of people taking to the hills and mountains of
this same period has also stabilised. This matter is examined in more detail in a later
chapter.

Statistics (Scotland) 1964 - 2000
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Year
Frequency
Incidents
Casualties
Fatalities

Mountaineering Council of Scotland (MC of S)

The Mountaineering Council of Scotland (MC of S) represents at national level the
interests of those walking and climbing in the mountains of Scotland. Its membership is
composed of mountaineering, hillwalking and ski - touring clubs and of individual
mountaineers. It receives grant support from the sportscotland in recognition of its
role as the governing body for mountaineering in Scotland. As such, one of its prime
concerns is the safety of those going to the hills.

The MC of S recognises and underlines the fact that mountaineering is a risk sport and
that risks cannot be eliminated. Assessment of them, planning how best to meet them
and coping with them are an integral and challenging part of mountaineering. It is the
overcoming of risk that provides the special stimulus and satisfaction. It is the MC of S
policy to initiate, encourage and undertake whatever action it considers will increase the
safety of those going to walk, climb or ski off piste in the mountains. It pursues safety
in a variety of ways but sees education (increasing awareness, knowledge and skills), in
its widest sense, as the vital key to improved safety. To this end it has developed a
series of skills - based courses for club members in the hope that those attending will
pass on the safety message to fellow members. In recent years it has offered courses
in winter skills, navigation, avalanche awareness and first aid. It recognises that skills in
self rescue and qualities of self reliance and mountain judgement will arise from these
courses and the manner in which they are delivered. The MC of S recognises the value
of good leadership and leadership training. To this end it works closely with and has
representation on the Scottish and UK Mountain Leader Training Boards. It also
recognises the expertise and role of the British Mountain Guides Association (BMGA)
and Association of Mountain Instructors (AMI).
In addition to skills courses and its work with leadership/instruction agencies, the MC of
S has worked to communicate the safety message in other ways. It recognises however
that reaching the vast number of people who do not belong to clubs or organisations is
not an easy task. It supports the use of leaflets/posters in regard to hill safety, the
importance of navigation, avalanche awareness etc., which as distributed widely, and it
produces its own quarterly magazine (The Scottish Mountaineer) targeted at club
members and others. It also supports club lectures (through its National and Mountain
Safety Officers and other experienced personnel) and is actively involved in influencing
the format and running of various weather forecasting services. It also supports the
Scottish Avalanche Information Service (SAIS) and its research remit as a means to
greater understanding to avalanche awareness. The Council also provides an information
and consultancy service to members as well as a small reference library for members and
the public.

The MC of S is concerned that those going to the hills should have the right clothing,
footwear and equipment for the terrain, time of the year and likely weather conditions
and that they should have the skills to use that equipment - especially those items such
as ice axes and crampons which have a special function in winter. Through its courses,
lectures and publications it attempts to create an awareness that these matters are
important. In recent times it has issued a policy on the use of mobile telephones, GPSs,
etc.. The MC of S accepts that their use will become more widespread with the risk
people will misuse and rely on them at the expense of basic skills. It states therefore
that items which rely on technology should be used only when required (e.g., mobile
phones only used in extreme emergencies) and should never be seen as a substitute for
the practice and application of basic skills in navigation, self reliance, and so on.

The MC of S has recently appointed a part - time Mountain Safety Adviser (MSA) whose
remit is to promote and develop various mountain safety initiatives in Scotland. The
MSA is directly involved in developing the safety leaflets (avalanche safety, navigation
advice, etc.), organising winter lecture series, navigation and avalanche awareness
courses and development of a new water hazards video. In addition, the MSA is
responsible for administering the work of the Scottish Mountain Safety Forum.

Union Internationale des Associations dAlpinisme (UIAA)

The UIAA is the world organisation which oversees mountaineering. It has a clear policy
on mountain safety which is:

Mountaineering is a risk sport with a danger of personal injury or death.
Participants in these activities should be aware of and accept the risks, as
they cannot be eliminated. Assessments of them, planning how best to meet
them and coping with them are an integral part of mountaineering. It is the
overcoming of risk that provides the special stimulus and satisfaction.
Participants should take responsibility for their own actions and involvement.
Scottish Mountain Safety Forum (SMSF)

The Scottish Mountain Safety Forum (SMSF) is an umbrella organisation concerned with
promoting and education the public on mountain safety issues in Scotland. It comprises
a wide spectrum of organisations and bodies (25 in total) including sportscotland, AMI,
Boots Across Scotland, MRC of S, SAPOE and the SMLTB. It developed from the
Scottish Mountain Safety Group which was an initiative of the MC of S, in 1988. The
Forum is funded directly by the Scottish Executive and all finances are ring - fenced to
be used for education in mountain safety. In 1998, the Scottish Office and
sportscotland agreed to transfer the operation of the forum to the MC of S. The
administration of the SMSF is carried out by the MSA. Initiatives of the Forum include
the production of leaflets and posters, advice to Ministers regarding mountain safety
statements. Present initiatives include the production of an interactive package to help
improve navigation skills (Glen Arna) and a CD ROM for navigation. (Note that it is this
organisation to which I have recently been appointed as Chair).

Boots Across Scotland (Boots)

Boots Across Scotland (Boots) was established in 1988 and has three, clear terms of
reference. It supports injured hillgoers with equipment or services designed to maintain
or enhance their quality of life; it supports MRTs in Scotland with finance to help them
work effectively; and it effects or supports actions and causes connected with the
promotion of mountain safety. In recent times it has organised and funded
mountaineering and hillwalking initiatives such as winter safety lectures, mountain
awareness days, skills courses, first aid seminars and navigation courses. It works
closely with other organisations including the SMSF, MC of S and the MRC of S. It
raises funds through membership, donations and sponsored events such as the
simultaneous ascent of all of Scotlands Munros.

Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA)

The AALA was established in 1996 as a result of government support to license certain
adventure activities. This came about as a result of the Lyme Bay Canoeing Tragedy.
The aim of the licensing scheme is to:

give assurance that good safety management practice is being followed so
that young people can continue to have opportunities to experience exciting
and stimulating outdoor activities while not being exposed to avoidable risks
of death and disabling injury (Activity Centres - Young Persons Safety Act,
1995).

In practice, it considers applications for licenses, receives reports from inspectors,
makes judgements about whether to grant licenses and revokes licenses where it sees a
need. Operation of the AALA is overseen by the Adventure Activities Industry
Advisory Committee for (AAIAC). The scheme only applies to certain activities and
certain providers. It is aimed at those organisations which provide adventure activities
(including climbing, abseiling and hillwalking) to young people under 18 years of age within
schools and to the public.

The AALA has a clear interest in mountain safety and promotes this through regulating
the manner in which mountaineering activities are delivered and led to young people.
Particular emphasis is placed on the qualifications of group leaders.

Scottish Avalanche Information Service (SAIS)

The SAIS was established in the late 1980s as a response to the number of people who
had been involved in avalanches (in the winter of 1988/89, 22 hillgoers were involved in
avalanches and there were 2 fatalities). The SAIS is involved in research in avalanche
prediction and employs a number of avalanche reporters (Northern Cairngorms,
Lochaber, Lochnagar/Glenshee, Glencoe, Creag Meagaidh) whose on-the-hill observations
are used to prepare daily avalanche reports. Snow and avalanche reports are issued
every day mid - December to mid - April and are available from local and national radio,
national and regional newspapers, a dedicated website and notice boards at strategic
sites. Reports contain information on conditions observed on that day (five - point rising
scale) along with an avalanche hazard outlook for the following day.

The SAIS is administered and funded by sportscotland and employs a full time co -
ordinator who works from Glenmore Lodge near Aviemore.

Scottish Mountain Leader Training Board (SMLTB)

The SMLTB was established in 1974 and oversees the scheme of training and
assessment whereby people can become mountain leaders and instructors. It also
administers the Single Pitch Award for those who wish to supervise groups taking part in
single pitch rock climbing/abseiling. The scheme recognises that safety in the
mountains, particularly the safety of novices being led by others, is enhanced if leaders
have particular skills in group management, use of equipment, recognition of hazards,
emergency procedures, etc.. The scheme embodies all of these and other subjects in an
integrated programme of training and assessment for those who wish to lead in summer
or winter conditions, or who wish to work as an instructor in mountaineering skills. The
National Guidelines (1993) make this very clear -

The mountains and uplands of the UK and particularly those in Scotland,
provide a wealth of opportunity for education and recreational use. However,
the use of these magnificent resources is not without potential hazard and
risk. The volume of people using the hills has grown over the years and
continues to do so. Unfortunately there have been a number of incidents.
Some of these have been serious, particularly those involving young people,
and have resulted in tragic and unnecessary loss of life. Many of these
incidents should have been avoided. With the increasing use of mountain
areas for educational experiences, and the occurrence of some serious
accidents, it became evident that a system of training and assessment of
leaders and instructors was required.

Safety is therefore a central feature of the whole scheme.

PROMOTION AND PUBLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Only a cursory examination was undertaken of promotional strategies adopted by other
organisations. There is a need to carry out a much fuller and critical review in this area.
The following notes describe a few campaigns which serve to highlight the key issues
which are relevant to the current study.

A wide variety of agencies see promotion as a key part of their operation. In Scotland,
the Scottish Executive and the Health Education Board for Scotland (HEBS) are
involved in extensive and ongoing campaigns to alter the way people eat, exercise or
smoke. Other campaigns are concerned with smoking, drug taking, road safety, healthy
eating, active lifestyles and so on. At a UK level the Royal Society for the Prevention of
Accidents (ROSPA) and the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) sponsor a variety of
promotional campaigns to reduce accidents at home, in the workplace, on the road and on
the water.

It is worth taking a look at some key campaigns. The HEBS launched a campaign on
healthy eating in 1997 (HEBS, 1997) which involved contacting every household in
Scotland. The key element was a booklet (Eating for Health) which was backed up by a
TV advertisement shown nationally together with a free telephone Helpline. The
campaign was based on the results of a Government enquiry which described the action
required to improve the nations health. That enquiry showed that current information
available to the public about diet and healthy eating was fragmented and inconsistent.
The booklet contained advice on what to do to improve diet and health without spending
money, how to initiate local community projects as well as direct information on the right
quantities of different kinds of food to eat. Both the booklet and the TV advert
highlighted the ease with which it is to change diet and how small differences can make
significant differences to health. The advert featured ordinary people from different
walks of life offering tips on how people who are not experts can save lives through
sensible diet. The HEBS introduced a different campaign in 1999 (HEBS, 1999)
designed to counter Scotlands growing heroin problem. This initiative consisted of a
hard - edged 50 second TV advertisement together with the distribution of over one
million information booklets for parents and those who work with young children. The
TV advertisement showed graphically how easy it is to slide into despair for individuals
and their families. The campaign was based on extensive consultation with national and
local drug agencies, plus experts from communities, the voluntary sector and the health
service. Most important, the advertisement did not adopt a lecturing and finger
wagging approach; rather it emphasised a non-patronising view that teenagers have to
make their own decisions.

The HEBS is a Government agency and is accountable for all of its promotional
campaigns. It therefore adopts procedures to measure the effectiveness of these
campaigns. In one study, it examined the impact of a national mass media campaign to
encourage people in Scotland to walk more often (Wimbush, MacGregor & Fraser, 1998).
This campaign involved a 40 second TV advertisement and telephone Helpline and was
targeted at people aged 30 - 55 years who were not regular exercisers. The campaign
impact was assessed in terms of awareness of the campaign, changes in knowledge and
beliefs about walking and actual walking behaviour. The evaluation involved two
population surveys carried out for the HEBs by the Centre for Social Marketing at
Strathclyde University. In each case, samples of around 800 people living in Scotland
were personally interviewed. The overall evaluation showed the campaign had had a
positive impact on knowledge about walking as a form of exercise but no impact on
walking behaviour itself. However, there was a significant change in intention to walk
more often.

MESSAGES IN CAMPAIGNS

Wimbush et al (1998) show that the style of the message is important if the campaign is
to achieve its desired goals. The HEBS campaigns adopted a positive tone which did not
patronise or punish but which emphasised individual control and personal responsibility.
Positive aspects to a problem were highlighted as well as the negative ones. Wimbush et
al (1998) make a number of observations about the style of successful campaigns. They
say -

An important reason why the HEBS walking TV campaign advertisement has
attained high awareness levels and has popular appeal is that it presents
surprising new information and achievable goals in an encouraging, friendly
and conversational tone which helps draw people in. In this sense, the
advertisement runs counter to prevailing expectations of health education
advertising as authoritarian, didactic, moralistic and expecting people to
make drastic changes in lifestyle and give up enjoyable behaviour.

In another HEBS campaign designed to reduce smoking amongst young Scots (HEBS,
1997) information was presented about the dangers, but it also highlighted the fact that
stopping smoking makes one healthier, feel fitter and more glamorous. In contrast, the
ROSPA adopts a direct and more informative approach as seen in their water safety
documentation -

Drowning is a final and deadly condition. There is little chance for those who
get into difficulties on water, especially water which is deep or fast flowing
and cold. Most of those who cannot swim will drown in a few seconds. They
may not be seen again or recovered for many days. ROSPA (2000).

The ROSPA water safety code focuses on the dangers and how to avoid those dangers,
but also, what to do if caught out. The same approach is used with their guide to safety
in the home (ROSPA, 2001). Here, ROSPA present clear facts and figures about
accidents and fatalities, the kinds of accidents and injuries which take place and who is
most vulnerable. The guide also presents a series of questions (projects) designed to
encourage people to exam how safe is their home. It also makes a number of
suggestions about what people can do to make things safer in the home and garden (eg,
plan escape routes in the event of a fire; arrange to visit a local fire station).

The Scottish Executive has carried out a series of research projects to assess the
impact/success of various road safety campaigns (Scottish Executive, 2001). One study
examined the deterrent effects of enforcement in comparison to their influences on
individual drivers behaviour in respect of a range of driving offences. It found that
enforcement has a different deterrent effect according to the type of offence; for
drink and dangerous driving it has a strong effect, but for speeding the effect is very
limited. Weiss (1994) found similarly that legislative initiatives to increase the use the
number of bicyclists who use safety helmets, failed to have a significant impact. In
another study, the effectiveness of leaflets aimed at drivers and general road users as
a means of disseminating information on road safety and their role played compared to
other road safety campaigns media was assessed. The study showed they were not well
- received; there was confusion as to who they were aimed at and criticism of style and
presentation. It was also noted that potential effectiveness was undermined by the
method by which the leaflets were distributed (postal) as they were associated with
junk mail. A further study looked at young teenagers and road safety. It showed that
whilst road safety knowledge was generally high, the application of that knowledge was
low. Young people felt that shock tactics were the only way of impacting on their
behaviour; road safety campaigns should focus on real - life approaches, stressing the
impact of suffering a pedestrian road accident. An American study examined changes in
attitude to seat belt wearing as a function of the tone of the message (Moss, 1998).
The biggest change in attitude (positive) occurred when the message evoked a fear -
anxiety reaction within the subjects. This study therefore supports the shock tactics
approach noted before.

PROMOTION TOOLS

A variety of methods/tools are used to promote safety, health, etc.. Much depends on
financial considerations because the cost of some methods is prohibitive for
organisations with limited budgets. The HEBS benefits from Government funding and is
able therefore to use TV media. TV advertising offers the advantage of contacting the
public at large at peak viewing times. It has the potential therefore to sell messages to
vast numbers of people. The HEBS also uses mass distribution of leaflets/booklets and
free telephone Helplines (eg, Smokeline) to support its campaigns. In its walking
campaign it used a back up telephone line Fitline to its series of 40 second TV
commercials. Those who used the Helpline were sent a free information pack. HEBS
also encouraged local radios to run programmes on walking to fit in with the TV
advertising schedule.
A very common approach is to use leaflets and small booklets to inform and hopefully sell
certain messages. For example, as part of their anti-smoking campaign, HEBS used
leaflets to list the dangers to people, statistics on numbers stopping and dying and what
to do about them (action plans, statement of the key principles to success). The
Scottish Executive used travel packs (activity book, audio tape, competition postcard,
pen) as part of their Scottish Road Safety campaign. The ROSPA issues prohibition,
warning and mandatory signs, particularly in regard to water safety. They also
distribute teaching packs for schoolchildren and teachers and offer courses at various
levels for those who manage water leisure resources. In addition, they offer an
inspection/consultancy service for those who wish their premises audited for safety.

In terms of mountain safety, there are a wide variety of resources available, including
leaflets (Read This or Get Lost), videos (Mountain Rescue and Safety), books
(Mountain Safety), cards (Accident Procedures) and CDs (Water Hazards).
Occasionally, TV series are dedicated to mountain rescue/safety and the popular BBC
programme 999 often presents reconstructions of mountain based incidents. A small
number of national magazines dedicated to the hillgoing public include safety
features/advice and a number of telephone helplines and websites provide up-to-date
information about the weather and avalanche risk in winter. In addition, there are
numerous organisations and individuals who offer courses in technical skills, first aid,
mountain leadership etc.. A number of individuals including the Mountain Safety Adviser
(employee of the Mountaineering Council of Scotland), mountain guides, instructors and
mountain rescue personnel, deliver lectures on mountain safety to targeted and
interested groups at key times of the year (usually over the winter period). A
comprehensive listing of these and other resources is given later in this section.

IMPORTANCE OF CO-ORDINATION

A factor which seems to play a central role in the success of some promotional
initiatives is the need for co-operation and integration between the relevant agencies.
For example, the Scottish Executive has established a series of interdepartmental
working parties to develop guidelines for action on home safety, road safety, accidents
among the elderly. Dowswell, Towner, Simpson and Jarvis (1996) investigating the
procedures adopted to prevent childhood unintentional injuries and concluded that -

For community based campaigns, the key to success has been the sustained
use of surveillance systems, the commitment of interagency co-operation and
the time need to develop networks

The Leave No Trace (LNT) educational programme adopted in the USA to minimise the
impact of visitors to protected recreational resources is based very strongly on
partnership. It involves the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) as a key
partner as well as Federal land agencies, outdoor product manufacturers, retailers,
outfitters, user groups and others to promote educational efforts and conduct
marketing and fund raising. Marion & Reid (2000) report that -

The partnership triangle between the Federal land agencies, NOLS and LNT
Inc., with its corporate and retail supporters, has been an exceptionally
successful model that continues to serve the program well.

Wimbush & Watson (2000) suggest the principle of involving key stakeholders in the
evaluation (of frameworks for health promotion) process is critical.

Finally, Whitty, Boyack & Law, (2000) in their announcement of a new UK road safety
campaign suggest that -

Safety is the most important responsibility of anyone involved in transport,
whatever mode we are talking about. It is no different on the roads. But
there everyone has a stake. Government, local authorities, police officers,
civil engineers, car makers all have a role in creating the conditions for safe
travel, telling us about them and enforcing them to then benefit of us all.
New technology too will continue to play an important role..

If the partnership model were applied to the promotion of mountain safety it would
include co-operation and discussion between numerous agencies, statutory, commercial
and voluntary. The Scottish Mountain Safety Forum (see previous section) would seem
to be ideally placed to facilitate such a development since it includes representatives
from organisations such as the Association of Mountain Instructors, British Association
of Ski Patrollers, Mountaineering Council of Scotland, Police, Scottish Advisory Panel in
Outdoor Education, sportscotland and the Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland.
However, the Forum would need to consider its resources and priorities in regard to any
new initiative on safety.

ISSUES

The campaigns described above serve to highlight some of the parameters which have to
be considered if a promotional strategy is to be successful.

Target Audience

By definition, any kind of promotional exercise is targeted at a particular group of
people or sector of the community. That group may comprise a small number of people
(eg, a campaign to recruit final year undergraduates into the military services) or a very
large group (eg, a campaign to change the dietary habits of people living in the West of
Scotland). In either case, the exact numbers may be uncertain and their whereabouts
unknown. There may be logistical and financial difficulties which make it difficult or
impossible to make contact. For example, any attempt to contact the hillgoing public at
large is thwart by not knowing who they are or where they are located at any point in
time. This group of people are spread geographically in such a diverse manner that it is
impossible to make contact with each and every one, and very difficult to sample in a
reliable fashion. There is a real challenge is determining the best way to identify and
locate the hillgoing public at large as a target group for any kind of promotional
campaign. It would also be important to identify those within the overall community
most at risk who would then be the specific target.

Content and Tone of Messages

Any message must be technically accurate and relevant. For example, a safety leaflet
published by the Mountaineering Council of Scotland (Learn To Read Or Get Lost)
suggests that -

If you become unsure of your position, either retrace your tracks to the last
known position, or, after working out roughly where you are and if the terrain
is safe, head in the direction that will take you back on course.

Care must clearly be taken to ensure messages like this are correct. They must also be
relevant to the target audience and understandable. Tone may also be relevant. Some
campaigns (see before) adopt a friendly, non-patronising style whereas others are based
on hard hitting, shock strategies. In the context of mountain safety, where lives are at
stake, it may be appropriate to present graphic detail and statistics which present stern
warnings

Media used to Promote Safety

There are obviously many different ways to present information and to sell a particular
safety message. TV programmes, newspaper and magazine articles, leaflets, posters,
video films, colour slides, booklets, swing tags, CDs, books, websites, telephone helplines,
radio broadcasts, instructional courses, lectures and talks, presentations, etc.. Some of
these may be more suitable depending on the circumstances and available resources. For
example, simple leaflets are relatively straightforward to devise and produce and can be
printed cheaply in large numbers. They can also be distributed widely and easily. They
are able to carry clear and informative messages, but there are a number of key
concerns. Firstly, do they work? Do people read leaflets and if so, do they transfer the
written word into actual practice? Furthermore, is it possible to distribute leaflets to
those who need their message? And how can this be monitored? In contrast,
instructional courses which people chose to attend permit the individual to experience
something in a variety of ways, over a longer period and with repeated physical practice
(eg, how to take a compass bearing in poor weather conditions). Targeting is not a
problem, but cost and accessibility may create difficulties. And it may be that more
than one approach provides the best way to sell a particular message. This is certainly
the approach adopted by the HEBS and reflects the fact that different people learn in
different ways and/or have varying access to different media. Some research has been
undertake to examine the effectiveness of mass media techniques used to change
peoples health and safety habits. Wilde (1993) suggests a number of important
principles for effective communication. Firstly, he says any change which is being
advocated should not exceed the recipients latitude of acceptability. In other words,
the advocated message should not be too dissimilar from the behaviour/attitude already
possessed by the person being targeted. If it is, then no change will take place, or even
worse, change may take place in the opposite direction! Secondly, he indicates that
paternalistic or lecturing approaches which can be insulting or patronising should be
avoided. Thirdly, he says that messages should always carry concrete instructions.
General slogans such as safety first, safety is no accident have no effect since they do
not indicate what specific behaviours are being advocated. Fourthly, he says that
messages should enhance the processes of modelling and imitation. They should portray
the target and not the undesired behaviour. He also advocates that messages should
never use humour, but also consider critically how the concept of fear is used. Strong
fear appeals are aversive and turn peoples attention away from the message, whilst mild
or intermediate fear appeals can be useful, but their success depends on how quickly the
individual has the opportunity to practice the desired behaviour. The reinforcing
properties are enhanced if the time gap is minimal. Finally, he says that messages must
be attention gabbing. This is achieved by presenting novel information or in the case of
information which is not new, presenting it in an original manner.

There would appear to be some sound advice here for the design of leaflets, etc. used to
promote mountain safety. This is examined in a later section.

Evaluation of Promotional Campaigns

The effectiveness of a promotional campaign can only be established its effect is
measured. This sounds obvious, but in the case of the various approaches used to
promote mountain safety, it would appear that little or nothing is done by way of
monitoring or evaluation. This is not unusual. Wilde (1993) reports that only a relatively
small proportion of mass media communication programmes for health and safety have
ever been subjected to effective evaluation. He goes on to say that systematic
evaluations of media health education materials are the exception rather than the rule.
In contrast, the HEBS evaluates all of its campaigns. With the walking campaign a
variety of population and target sample methods were used. To do this, HEBS took
advantage of a nation-wide survey carried out by the Centre for Social Marketing at the
University of Strathclyde. This involved interviews with approximately 800 people
across Scotland over the period of the TV campaign. It particular survey examined
awareness levels of the campaign. HEBS also took advantage of the System Three
monthly omnibus survey carried each month and this was used to assess knowledge,
beliefs, motivations as well as intentions to exercise and walk. HEBS also questioned
those involved in the campaign by contacting those who responded to the telephone
Helpline (Wimbush et al, 1998).
The Scottish Executive (2000) examined the effectiveness of a nation-wide campaign to
deliver the road safety message to children. The focus of the campaign was a travel
pack consisting of a booklet, journey activity book, audio-tape and competition postcard.
The research, which was based largely on interviews with samples of children in
different parts of Scotland, found that recall of the message was very high with the
audio-tape being the most favoured part of the pack.

In both of the above cases, public funds were used to stage the campaigns which were
delivered by government agencies. It is expected therefore that attempts should be
made to measure the usefulness of those campaigns. However, in cases where
Government policy and funding does not drive the promotional campaign and where
resources are minimal or based on voluntary effort, it may be appropriate not to expect
any formal attempt to monitor effectiveness. It may also be that many of the
organisations which do attempt to sell safety do not have the resources or knowledge to
establish valid evaluation studies.

A key point is made by Towner (1995) when he says, albeit in regard to health education
that:

It is important to be able to identify successful and unsuccessful
components of campaigns and understand why a programme works in specific
circumstances or localities and not others.

Changing Attitudes and Behaviour

A detailed examination of attitude/behaviour change was not an objective of this study
but, of course, the success of any strategy to promote safety may well hinge on changing
both of these variables. The following notes describe briefly some examples of
research that have looked into this matter.

Sarri (1994) examined how peoples attitudes and behaviour can be changed in relation to
safety in the workplace (eg, wearing personal protective equipment, use of ventilators
when welding/painting, climbing ladders). He showed that reinforcement of safe
behaviour through positive feedback is one of the most successful ways to bring about
change in safety behaviour. He referred to this technique as behaviour modification.
Basically, this approach hinges on breaking a task down into small behavioural units
where desirable behaviour can be specified, communicating those behaviours to people,
and then providing regular and continued feedback about the level of performance
achieved. Saari suggests that when there are positive consequences of correct
behaviour, it becomes more frequent. And unsafe behaviours diminish by getting safe
ones to become more prevalent. Whether this technique would work in the context of
mountain safety is open to question since there is firstly a requirement to specify
clearly the tasks where safety is paramount (this is possible with many of the technical
skills such as navigation, use of an ice axe in winter), and secondly there is a need to
provide individuals with feedback on a regular basis. This is where the technique would
break down since, unlike the industrial workplace, mountaineering takes place in a leisure
context where no one has a formal responsibility to provide the kind and amount of
feedback required for success. It may be however that this technique would work in an
instructional or club context where responsibility to provide feedback is available.

Makin and Sutherland (1994) continue the discussion about behaviour modification and
propose three criteria that are important in assisting the development of safe practice.
They say firstly that attempts to explain and change behaviour should concentrate on
the situation and the behaviour it encourages, rather than the personality or attitudes
of the person involved. They base this idea on the natural tendency which people display
to underestimate the power of a situation to influence behaviour (often placing blame on
the person instead). Secondly, they propose that attention should be focused on
specific, observable behaviour rather than ultimate objectives. And thirdly, the suggest
that any safety initiative or scheme should concentrate on the encouragement of
desirable behaviour rather than using discipline to eliminate the undesirables. They
base this on the observation that people (particulary managers in the workplace) rarely
congratulate or reward compliance, but easily discipline and punish those who fail to
comply. Again, it is not easy to see how these principles can be applied easily to the
mountaineering context, except in those cases where people are being led or instructed
by others who are familiar with the principles and prepared to apply them in practice.

Paczolt (1992) examined the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that govern seat belt
use among adolescents. The survey showed a significant relationship between safety
belt use and significant others safety belt use; children were more likely to wear safety
belts when in the company of parents who wore belts as opposed to others who wore
belts. The suggestion here is that imitation can play a major role is changing behaviour.

Towner (1995) describes three different philosophies of health education each of which
may apply to safety promotion. He says:

The preventive model is an individually focused and medically dominated form
of education. It tends to be politically and ideologically favoured in an era of
individualised culture. It provides people with information on which they are
expected to act, assuming individual responsibility for their own health. This
model seeks approved behavioural outcomes and has been criticised because
of its tendency to blame the victim. The radical model, in contrast is more
collectivist in outlook. It is an environmental upstream model that challenges
the view that the individual is to blame for his/her own health. It stresses
social and environmental rather than individual factors. It seeks social
change rather than individual change. Within the empowerment models,
process is more important than outcomes. Value is placed on voluntarism, in
which the learner must understand the process by which he or she is learning.
It enhances self esteem and a willingness to take control.

Within the context of mountain safety, the preventive model does not apply.
Mountaineering is not controlled in any way through political or ideological forces.
Whilst the public at large (convinced perhaps through media reports) may have a view
about what should be done to curtail accidents in the mountains, the fact is that
individual freedom still reigns. The radical model is also inappropriate since blame
cannot be attached to the mountains for accidents; hazards are a fact of life and cannot
be altered only in so far as the individual chooses not to take part. The third model is
probably relevant since it highlights principles such as process, learning, self esteem and
personal control.

MOUNTAIN SAFETY PUBLICATIONS

There are very many resources (books, leaflets, videos, magazines, cards, CDs, charts,
etc.) which are concerned with mountain safety. There is a wider array of publications
(mainly books) which focus on mountain skills and techniques (e.g., Hill & Johnson, 2000;
Cliff, 1986) and in these cases the importance of safety and the link between skills and
safety is made implicit. In many cases it is difficult to disentangle the safety element
from the skill element since they are inextricably related. The resources described
here are those published in the last 10 years or so which are designed solely to promote
safety in the mountains rather than teach skills.

Mountaineering Councils

The British Mountaineering Council (BMC) has a long standing publication Safety on
Mountains which has seen several editions. The latest edition (BMC, 2000) includes
both a video and booklet. The BMC makes a number of points, viz.,

the hills are a risky environment and no amount of reading, training or
experience will make them 100% safe; the recognition of risk and the
possibility of mishap has to be accepted before taking part; exposure to
potentially life-threatening situations has to be accepted; skills alone are of
little value unless linked with practical experience and judgement that arises
from it.

The booklet/video package is intended mainly for those venturing into the hills for the
first time, but includes additional topics for those with more experience. The booklet
focuses mainly on skills required of a novice or seasoned walker. It emphasises the
importance of experience and practical learning alone, with a friend, club or course. It
includes sections on equipment (footwear, clothing, winter items, navigation aids, group
items, sacs, mobiles/GPS), hazards (weather, steep ground, water hazards), hillwalking
skills (movement, navigation), winter topics (weather, avalanches, movement, ice, skills),
camping, environment & access, emergency procedures (first aid, benighting, mountain
rescue) and a final section on additional resources.

The book/video package is an excellent and affordable resource. The book examines the
key skills in a clear manner with excellent illustrations. The text is concise and to the
point. Whilst the book covers many topics in some detail, the video emphasises the
importance of navigation and route finding. It also demonstrates the value of team
work, experience, practice as well as the value of taking courses in technical matters
such as navigation. But it does not overplay this aspect.

There were two previous versions of Safety on Mountains, both promoting the same
message in regard to safety, viz.,

in accepting the element of risk it is important to be quite clear about the
nature of the dangers inherent in mountain travel and to go prepared. (BMC,
1975)

The true satisfaction is to be found not in courting unknown dangers for
which you are ill-prepared, but in matching your own skill and experience and
the danger and difficulties of which you are aware. (BMC, 1988)

Both the BMC and the Mountaineering Council of Scotland (MC of S) publish their own in
- house magazines (Summit and The Scottish Mountaineer, respectively) which are
described elsewhere in this report. The MC of S produces a variety of safety leaflets
in conjunction with the Scottish Mountain Safety Forum (SMSF). Learn to Read or Get
Lost focuses in route planning, navigation, special problems in winter and what to do if
lost. Enjoy the Scottish Hills in Safety focuses on planning, importance of weather
information, clothing and equipment and navigation. Winter Essentials examines the
specific problems of winter travel and skills such as using the ice axe and crampons and
movement on snow. This Leaflet Could Stop an Avalanche looks at avalanche types,
prediction in terms of weather and terrain and assessment techniques on the hill. The
MC of S also produces posters illustrating the same kinds of information.

Scottish Mountain Safety Forum

Present initiatives include the production of an interactive package to help improve
navigation skills (Glen Arna), a water hazards video and a CD ROM for navigation. Glen
Arna is essentially a home - study course which assumes no previous knowledge.

The SMSF organised a mountain safety conference in 1994 attended by many 100s of
key figures. The report includes topics related to mountain rescue, participation levels,
statistics and perspectives from different groups such as media and NGBs. The seminar
concluded there is a need to keep communicating about safety issues (and maintaining
correct level of public debate) to show that something can be done to improve matters.
It suggested there is a risk to the freedoms of mountaineering from public concern
about accidents, based on cost to society of lost lives but also cost of rescue. It was
hoped the seminar would lead to ongoing monitoring and analysis and to further
research, especially into the real causes of accidents -

. there was a need to get a much better understanding than we have at the
moment, not so much on the fact that someone slipped, but as to what was the
nature of the slip and why it happened. Only then will we be in a position to
think of ways in which that particular type of slip might be avoided
(Scottish Sports Council, 1994)

Mountain Rescue Organisations

Mountain rescue organisations do not actively promote mountain safety (as mentioned
before), although many teams deliver talks and presentations which convey the safety
message to hillgoers and others. Some teams (England and Wales) produce Safety
leaflets which examine things like equipment, emergency procedures, clothing, and so on
(e.g., Llanberis MRT). The MRC of S publishes an annual report of incidents in the
Scottish Mountaineering Club Journal in which statements are often made about
particular hazards.

Mountain Leader Training Boards

The mountain leader training boards are responsible for the schemes of training and
assessment for mountain leaders and instructors and those who wish to supervise single
pitch rock climbing. Ever since the scheme was initiated in the early 70s it has been
accompanied by the book Mountaincraft and Leadership (Langmuir, 1995) which is now in
its 3
rd
edition. The latest edition takes a comprehensive look at all relevant technical
aspects required for safe travel in the mountains such as navigation, security on steep
ground, techniques on snow and ice. The training Boards are currently working on the
production of a water hazards video to accompany the book, as well as other methods to
disseminate methods/skills for good practice.

Other Organisations

Various organisations (e.g., Local Authorities, Ordnance Survey, Duke of Edinburghs
Award) produce leaflets and other resources which focus on safety in the mountains.
On a broader front, organisations which are concerned specifically with young people and
the mountains (and other activities) have produced booklets which provide guidance on
safety matters. The Department of Education and Science (1989) booklet looks at safe
practice on land, in the water and in the air and is targeted at providers and leaders of
outdoor activities. The Young Explorers publication (Putnam, 1994) examines safety,
risk assessment within the context of expeditions for young people. The Duke of
Edinburghs Award (1998) describes both safety and environmental considerations for
good practice in outdoor education. The University of Strathclyde (1997) produced a
video examining the work of the Scottish mountain rescue service and the Search and
Rescue Dog Association (SARDA) within the context of mountain safety.

sportscotland Avalanche I nf ormation Service

As well as providing daily reports throughout the winter period, the SAIS produces
leaflets and cards for use by the general hillwalking public. The cards describe the
scaling system used to denote severity of avalanche risk and also the criteria to use to
recognise avalanche conditions. The leaflets describe the work of the SAIS as well the
items given in the cards.

Other Publications

There are a few publications written by interested individuals available to hillgoers.
Safety on the Hills (Walker, 1995) is a current publication which focuses on mountain
safety. As the author says, it is not a book about how to avoid risks; rather, it is
concerned with the appreciation and assessment of risk. He says that mountaincraft is
an art, so it is impossible to become proficient simply by reading a book. As with any art
one can only learn the skills through practical experience. The book includes topics on
standard items such as navigation, route planning, equipment, etc.. Horizons is the
official Journal of the Association for Outdoor Learning (AfOL). It regularly examines
matters connected with risk assessment and safety in the outdoors, and often reports
on lessons learned from near misses.

A research project carried out by Sellars (1990) directly connected with safety in the
mountains. Sellars noted twin problems of identifying the target audience and then
reaching them. He considered that the use of leaflets provided locally was no good as it
is too late - there is a need to distribute them earlier when people have time to digest
(e.g., dry ski slopes, shops, hire facilities, hotels, police stations, ski press and media as a
whole). He noted that some organisations publish codes of conduct on trail and piste
maps, drinks containers in cafes, free badges. Visitor information (tourist leaflets,
brochures, magazines all contain safety messages such as slogans, logos, avalanche info
telephone numbers, articles by local experts) was also provided by many tourist oriented
agencies. Some of these authorities (e.g., parks) produced their own detailed leaflets
particular to their area which were very impressive. Talks, seminars and lectures by
experts given to local groups play a major part in safety promotion. In regard to wider
audience, he considered that national campaigns need to be plugged, e.g., manufacturers
of outdoor equipment. There is a need not just to sponsor the top end (which gives good
press) but add safety slogans etc. to existing advertising blurbs. Sellars found that co-
ordinated efforts involved different agencies were particularly successful. He
suggested that the SMSF should organise joint efforts with e.g., Scot Tourist Board,
HIDB and Travel agents. He felt the press should continue articles on safety subjects
and noted that local radio and TV play a key role in N. America as does promotion
through schools. Some of these strategies starting from an early age to instill a need to
look after oneself and others in the outdoors. Sellars suggests that as outdoor
recreation is so popular in the UK, it makes sense to move the subject into classrooms.
Finally, he concluded that as safety promotion is such a major subject it must be tackled
by many bodies working together.

Compass Companion is a private business which publishes a variety of safety cards
designed to be kept in a rucsac. The information is contained within durable plastic and
hole punched for ease of attachment. Compass Direction Finder illustrates how to take
a compass bearing from the map and how to execute a re-section. Emergency Action
Card describes the international distress signal and what to do/information to note in
the event of an accident. It also lists what action to take in the event of falls, bleeding,
hypothermia, burns fractures, etc.. Accident Procedures is more comprehensive in
describing what to do (in flow c hart form) if confronted with an accident. In principle,
these three cards are very good because they condense critical information in a handy
form. My only concern is whether the smallness of the type face and volume of
information (especially in the case of the Accident Procedures card) would lend them
less practical at times of stress. I am not too sure if a single person facing a life or
death situation would have the composure to read these cards with goof effect. Better
to have the knowledge about what to do well in advance of any emergency situation.

Books

The following is a comprehensive (but perhaps not entirely complete) list of publications
connected with mountain safety or safety in the wider context of outdoor education.

Atkins, C. H. (1994). Towards safer outdoor education leadership: An investigation into risk, the decision
making process, and related incidents. Unpublished MA Thesis, University of East London.

Barry. J., & Jepson. T. (1988). Safety on Mountains. Manchester: The British Mountaineering Council.

Barton, B., & Wright, B. (2000). A Chance in a Million: Avalanche Safety. Edinburgh: Scottish
Mountaineering Trust.

Beetham, P. A. (1999). Risk! Life is a risky business. Oxford: The Christ and the Cosmos Initiative.

Cliff, P. Mountain Navigation. Cordee.

Daffern, T. (1983). Avalanche Safety for Skiers and Climbers. Diadem Books.

Department of Education and Science. (1989). Safety in Outdoor Education. London: HMSO.

Haddock, C. (1993). Managing risks in outdoor activities. Wellington, NZ: New Zealand Mountain Safety
Council Inc..

Hill, P., & Johnson, S. (2000). The mountain skills training handbook. Newton Abbot: David & Charles.

Hunter, R. (1981). Winter Skills. London: Constable.

Hunter, R. (1979). The Outdoor Companion. London: Constable.

Jackson. J. (1975). Safety on Mountains. Manchester: The British Mountaineering Council.

Langmuir, E. (1969). Mountain Leadership (Ed. I). Edinburgh: Scottish Council of Physical Recreation.

Langmuir, E. (1973). Mountain Leadership (Ed. II). Edinburgh: Scottish Sports Council.

Langmuir, E. (1984). Mountaincraft and Leadership (Ed. III). Edinburgh: Scottish Sports Council.

Langmuir, E. (1995). Mountaincraft and Leadership (Ed. IV). Edinburgh: Scottish Sports Council.

Moran, M. (1988). Scotlands winter mountains: The challenge and the skills. Newton Abbot: David &
Charles.

Pedgley, D. (1979). Mountain Weather. Milnthorpe: Cicerone Press.

Putnam, R. (1993). Safe and Responsible Youth Expeditions. Young Explorers Trust.

Sellar, J. A Study of Mountain and Ski Safety in North America. Unpublished report, 1990 (held by
sportscotland, Edinburgh).

Steel, P. (1988). Medical Handbook for Mountaineers. London: Constable.

The Authors. (1972). Safety on the Hills. London: The Scout Association.

The Authors. (1971). Adventure in Safety. Edinburgh: Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland.

The Authors. (1994). The Mountain Code. Manchester: The British Mountaineering Council.

The Authors. (1988). Outdoor Education Safety and Good Practice. London: The Duke of Edinburghs
Award.

The Authors. Dealing with Water Hazards in the Mountains. Plas Y Brenin.

The Authors. (1993). National Guidelines for Safety and Good Practice in Mountain and Related Activities:
A Consultative Document. Manchester: United Kingdom Mountain Training Board.

The Authors. Tread Lightly. Manchester, BMC.
Townsend, C. A guide to walking. Crowood Press

The Authors. (1994). Mountain Safety in the UK. Edinburgh: Scottish Sports Council.

The Authors. (2000). Safety on Mountains. Manchester: The British Mountaineering Council.

The Authors. (1998). Guidance and Suggestions for those Responsible for Outdoor Education. Durham
County Council.

Unwin, D. (1978). Mountain Weather for Climbers. Leicester: Cordee.

Walker, K. (1988). Mountain Navigation Techniques. London: Constable.



Watts, A. (1994). The Weather Handbook. Waterline.

Walker, K. (1995). Safety on the Hills. Dalesman Publishing Co..

Mountain Rescue Publications

Beaver, P. & Berriff, P. (1990). Rescue: The true life drama of RAF SAR. Wellingborough: Patrick
Stephens Ltd. (Followed the TV series)

Card, F. (1993). Whensoever. 50 years of the RAF mountain rescue service 1943-1993. London: The
Ernest Press.

Health & Safety Executive. (1999). Reducing risks, protecting people. London: HSE.

Locke, A. (1989). Sam and Co.: The heroic search dogs of the fells. London: Souvenir Press.

MocInnes, H. (1998). International mountain rescue handbook (3
rd
Ed.). London: Constable and Company
Ltd.

MacInnes, H. (1973). Call-out. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

MacInnes, H. High drama. (1980). Mountain rescue stories from four continents. London: Hodder &
Stoughton.

MacInnes, H. (1985). Sweep search. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

MacInnes, H. (1987). The price of adventure: More mountain rescue stories from four continents.
London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Maslen-Jones, B. (1993). Countdown to rescue. Holyhead: The Ernest Press.

Maslen- Jones, B. (1998). A perilous playground. Wrexham: Bridge Books.

McManus, B. (1999). Blue daze, black nights. The story of Lockerbie. Dumfries: Dumfries and Galloway
Council.

Scottish Affairs Committee. (1996). Mountain rescue services. London: HMSO.

Thomson, I. D. S. (1993). The black cloud - Scottish mountain misadventures 1928 - 1966. Holyhead: The
Ernest Press.

Videos

Get a grip: Health and safety at indoor climbing walls. The Health & Safety Executive, 2001.

Safety on Mountains, The British Mountaineering Council, 2000

The Price of Adventure (Mountain Safety and Rescue), University of Strathclyde, 1997.

The Complete Winter Experience. The British Mountaineering Council, 1994.
CDs

Hurne, M. (2001). The art of outdoor navigation. Kettering: Greenshires Publishing.

Magazines

The Scottish Mountaineer. MC of S., The Old Granary, West Mill Street, Perth, PH1 5QP.

Summit. BMC, 177 - 179 Burton Road, Manchester, M20 2BB>

The Great Outdoors. SMG Magazines, 200 Renfield Street, Glasgow, G2 3PR.

Climber. Warners Group Publications plc, West Street, Bourne, Lincs, PE10 9PH.

High. 336 Abbey Lane, Sheffield, S8 0BY.

Trail. Emap Active Ltd, Apex House, Oundle Road, Peterborough, PE2 9NP.

On the Hill. Maze Media (2000) Ltd, 89 East Hill, Colchester, Essex, CO1 2QN.

Global Adventure. Maze Media (2000) Ltd, 89 East Hill, Colchester, Essex, CO1 2QN.

Catalogues

A variety of relevant catalogues are published by the following organisations.

HSE Books. HSE Publications Section, Room 302, Daniel House, Trinity Road, Bootle, L20 3TW. Tel.
01787 881165. (N. B. Most relevant catalogue is titled Better safe)

Emergency Response Publications. The Limes, Poltimore, Exeter, Devon, EX4 0AT. Tel. 01392 460899.

Cordee. 3a De Montfort Street, Leicester, LE1 7HD. Tel. 01162 543579.

RoSPA. RoSPA House, Edgbaston Park, 353 Bristol Road, Birmingham, B5 7ST. Tel. 01212 482000.

AfOL. 12 St. Andrews Churchyard, Penrith, Cumbria, CA11 7YE. Tel. 01768 891065.

Relevant Websites

www.adventure-ed.co.uk

This site describes the work of the Institute for Outdoor Education - resources, aims,
careers in the outdoors, news items, etc.

www.bluedome.co.uk/menu/htm

This is a very important site for anyone interested in the outdoors. It is exceptionally comprehensive
serving as a link to all the major rescue organisations, equipment dealers and governing bodies for outdoor
activities. It provides up to date information on expeditions (mountain and maritime) and also provides
free recruitment advertising for the outdoors.

www.nss.gc.ca

This site describes the work of the Canadian National Search and Rescue Secretariat - projects,
equipment, training, team profiles, aims,etc.

www.climbingnews.org

This is a voluntary run mailing list with over 5000 subscribers worldwide. It publishes climbing news on a
wide variety of relevant topics. It also serves as a bulleting board.

www.statistics.gov.uk

This is a government run site and serves is the official UK National Statistics site for a very
comprehensive set of subjects.

www.go-outdoors.org.uk

This is the official site for the outdoor equipment/retail industry and provides up to date information
about all the manufacturers and retailers in the outdoor trade.

www.mtn.co.uk

This is a general purpose site which provides information about accommodation, courses, travel, gear and
events in the outdoors.

www.outside.co.uk

The site of an on-line Scottish retailer of outdoor gear.

www.sais.gov.uk

The site of the Scottish Avalanche Information Service. It provides latest avalanche
forecasts in winter time as well as technical information about avalanches, forecasting,
weather, etc.

www.adventuredirectory.com

This is a very comprehensive, UK based site advertised as the biggest and the best single source of
information on adventure sports in the world. It provides a database of information according to activity
on a wide variety of topics including equipment manufacturers, national organisations and locations.

www.rospa.co.uk

This is the official site for the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents. It explains the work of the
Society, courses, training and consultancy available, workshops and also provides safety factsheets in
regard to the home, occupational, road, water and leisure, products and play.

www.ski-injury.com

This site is maintained by a GP working in Aviemore and is dedicated to publishing the latest and most
comprehensive information on all ski and snowboard injuries. It provides full statistical information as
well as information on injury prevention including comment on the use of helmets.

www.outdoornav.com

Just describes the navigation CD produced by Martin Hurne. Provides a preview plus ordering information.

www.eoe-network.org

This site describes the European Institute of Outdoor Adventure Education and Experiential Learning. It
provides information about its publications, contacts, projects, conferences, notice board and links.

www.hse.gov.uk

A government site describing the work of the Health and Safety Executive. Specifically, it provides
details about ongoing research, search facility and other sources of information.

www.thebmc.co.uk

The official site for the British Mountaineering Council. It lists the following topics travel, insurance,
news, competitions, expeditions, medicine, shopping, climbing walls, huts, clubs, links.

www.ami.org.uk

Official site for the Association of Mountain Instructors. Lists the following topics aims, contacts, NGB
awards, membership benefits, list of instructors, links.

www.baeml.org

Official site of the British Association of European Mountain Leaders.

www.bmg.org.uk

Official site of the Association of British Mountain Guides. Lists the following topics contacts, services,
training, members.

www.cix.co.uk/~bof/index.html

Official site of the British Orienteering Federation. It lists the following topics clubs, associations,
fixtures, results, ranking, contact information.

www.mltb.org

The official site of the Mountain Leader Training Board. Contents include course syllabi, registration
information, courses diary, workshops, provider information.

www.bluedome.co.uk/assoc/mrc/mrc.htm

Site of the Mountain Rescue Council. Contains information about the Council, publications, SARDA,
equipment, insurance, training and recruitment.

www.smc.org.uk

Site of the Scottish Mountaineering Club. Contains information about the Club, its activities, publications,
huts and links. Also hosts a message board.

www.mountaineering-scotland.org.uk

This site describes the work of the Mountaineering Council of Scotland. It contains items such as news
and features, membership, safety and training, access and conservation, publications, shopping online and a
message board.

www.members.aol.com/theukmtb

The official site of the United Kingdom Mountain Leader Training Board. Contains information about the
award structure, registration, news, database. Also contains links to the four home nation boards.

http://members.aol.com/theukmtb/smltbhome.htm

Home page for the Scottish Mountain Leader Training Board.

http://members.aol.com/theukmtb/wmltbhome.htm

Home page for the Wales Mountain Leader Training Board.

www.emergencyresponse.co.uk/top1.html

Site for the Emergency Response Publications which is a book distribution company specialising in
mountaineering/rescue/survival texts.

www.compusmart.ab.co/resqdyn/current.htm

Website dedicated to proving ski and climbing conditions in the Canadian Rockies and Columbia mountains.

www.outdoors

This is Russian website covering outdoor activities. The main focus is climbing, mountaineering, ski-diving
and expeditions. There are section on projects, gallery, regions, people and equipment.

www.nca.org.uk

This is the official website of the National Caving Association for England, Scotland and Wales.

www.mountianbothies.org.uk

The official site of the Mountain Bothies Association

www.walkscotland.com

A comprehensive site dedicated to hillwalkers. Contains latest news items, details about walks in Scotland,
expedition information, gear reviews, weather and other safety related advice.

www.climb-scotland.freeserve.co.uk

Information on rock and ice climbing in Scotland, including climbing conditions, route information, climbing
shops, etc.

www.eclimb.com/ukclimb/

Details of indoor climbing walls and crags in the UK, plus information about gear, climbing clubs,
instructors and outdoor centres.

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Wilde, G. J. S. (1993). Effects of mass media communications on health and safety
habits: an overview of issues and evidence. Addiction, 88, 983 - 996.

Wimbush, E., & Watson, J. (2000). An evaluation framework for health promotion:
Theory, quality and effectiveness. Evaluation, 6, 3, 1 - 21.

THE PROMOTION OF MOUNTAIN SAFETY
FIRST SURVEY - METHODOLOGY

TARGET GROUPS

In order to examine that part of the study concerned with accident prevention, as well
as the fourth objective concerned with safety promotion, it was essential to consult all
those agencies and personnel within the outdoor industry for whom safety promotion is
important. To this end, the following target groups were identified.

Manufacturers

The mountaineering and hillwalking fraternity is strongly reliant on the availability of
suitable clothing, footwear and equipment essential for taking part in the various
activities. This is particularly important in mountaineering/hillwalking activities in view
of the weather and terrain conditions encountered which are different from those
normally met close to the home. For those who take part in climbing activities (both in
summer and winter) there is a need to use items of equipment such as ropes and belay
devices which are essential for movement on steep ground.

The manufacturing infrastructure which has grown around mountaineering/hillwalking is
extensive and international in focus. It comprises small companies which serve local or
niche markets as well as those which distribute clothing and equipment to the mass
market (technical and leisure aspects) internationally.

It was decided to contact all (or as many as could be identified) of those companies
which produce products for the UK market, in the knowledge that those people who use
the Scottish hills will buy products from this wide sector and not just those companies
with a Scottish interest. Four major sources of information were used to locate a
comprehensive list of manufacturers - personal knowledge, web sites, outdoor magazines,
outdoor source books. The Information Services Librarian (Faculty of Education) was
extremely helpful in this task. Altogether, a total of 101 companies were identified.

Retailers

The retail industry in Scotland has grown remarkably in recent years. Twenty years ago,
most retailers were highly specialised and their market was comprised largely of people
who were interested in climbing and walking. At that time there were very few retailers
in Scotland and most businesses grew from personal interest in the activity. Today the
market has changed and includes not only those who have specialised technical interests
in climbing, but also the much wider leisure sector. There are a wide variety of retailers
including small companies operating from a single premise in a small town to those such
as Tisos and Nevisport which have several outlets throughout Scotland and which are
also involved in other aspects of the wider outdoor leisure market (catering, courses,
insurance, etc.). Retailers provide an important link between manufacturers and users.
Consequently they are in a good position to monitor the views of users and receive
feedback on the quality and performance of equipment. They are also able to monitor
feedback about the use (and abuse) of equipment/clothing and comment on safety
matters. A total of 99 retailers were identified across Scotland using the four sources
noted before.

Course Providers

As with retailers, the number of organisations and individuals which offer organised
courses in outdoor activities in Scotland has increased markedly over the past 20 years.
It is likely this is not unconnected with the general rise in numbers of people involved in
hill - based activities over the same period (see chapter on Participation). Traditionally,
hillwalkers and climbers acquired important skills through experience, possibly within a
club context or by accompanying a more experienced person. In the 60s and 70s,
courses tended to be generalised programmes delivered by local authority outdoor
education centres, or structured courses offered by the National Outdoor Training
Centre in Scotland (Glenmore Lodge) leading to recognised leadership and instructor
qualifications. Whilst these courses still exist (and have developed over time), many
more organisations and individuals now offer courses and holidays to the public. Indeed,
147 organisations/individuals were noted and consequently contacted. This group is very
wide indeed and comprises a number of reasonably well defined sub - groups. One of
these groups is the outdoor centres run by local authorities. Their number has
diminished in the past 10 years, but many still operate running courses mainly for
schoolchildren. There are many commercial operators, some operating as corporate
chains such as PGL, but most are small operations run by individuals or small groups.
Within the commercial sector there are many qualified instructors and guides operating
across the year who run courses for small groups of people at all levels of technical
expertise. There are also many small commercial operators which offer courses (which
may lead to recognised qualifications) in a wide variety of activities primarily to improve
skill or confidence. A growing number of companies which seem to target the
leisure/tourist industry, offer programmes of activities which might include travel and
accommodation elements too. A further section operates primarily within the
charitable/voluntary sector and runs courses at cost or little profit. These may be self
- funded or take advantage of European and other grants.

Other Organisations

There are numerous organisations (some statutory) which are not responsible for the
delivery of courses or programmes of outdoor activities, but which have a governing or
overseeing interest in safety matters.
Governing bodies: Amongst these are the governing bodies (e.g., Mountaineering
Council of Scotland, Scottish Cyclists Union) which have an interest in particular
activities.

Educational bodies: There are various bodies which have a broad interest in
educational issues (including safety, teaching, etc.) such as the Foundation for
Outdoor Adventure and the Scottish Advisory Panel in Outdoor Education.

Safety/rescue agencies: There are a number of agencies whose particular focus is
safety or rescue such as the British Safety Council, Mountain Rescue Committee of
Scotland, Aeronautical Rescue Co - ordination Centre).

Group associations: A small number of agencies serve groups of individuals such as
Mountain Instructors (AMI) and Guides (BMGA).

Youth organisations: There are many organisations which serve the various youth
organisations such as the Duke of Edinburgh Award and the Scout Association.

Other agencies: There are numerous organisations which have wide remits which
includes an interest in outdoor safety (Ordnance Survey, Meteorological Office).

A total of 42 organisations were identified.

Outdoor Press

The monthly magazines which target the outdoor activity audience are few in number,
but they play an important role in informing people on matters of safety relevance.
Because of their wide circulation and potential importance in promoting mountain safety
(in many and varied ways) it was considered critical to contact each of the magazines
which target the hillwalking/mountaineering fraternity. Eight publishers were
identified.

Users/Participants

The overall purpose of the study was to provide a better understanding of mountain
accidents, accident prevention and the promotion of mountain safety. Accidents happen
to people! It was therefore critical to contact hillgoers and seek their opinion on such
matters. The clear difficulty here is the dilemma associated with contacting those who
represent this very large group of people. Indeed, it is impossible to describe the
parameters associated with this group because it is impractical to gather them together
for monitoring purposes. The best that could be accomplished was to contact the
hillwalking and mountaineering clubs to which many people belong. In addition, many
hillgoers belong to the Mountain Council of Scotland. It was agreed with the Council
that a brief questionnaire could be sent to all clubs and other organisations affiliated to
the Council (N = 128). As an additional measure of user feedback it was decided to
carry out a case study by contacting all those walkers who climbed Ben Lomond in the
Central Highlands on two separate days. In the event this failed to take place because
of the Foot & Mouth restrictions in operation at the time when the survey was planned.

FINAL GROUPS

The final numbers of organisations/individuals included in the survey are shown in Table
1 below and the complete list is given in Appendix V.

Table 1 Target groups and numbers involved

Target Group Number

Manufacturers 101
Retailers 99
Course Providers 147
Other Organisations 42
Outdoor Press 8
Clubs 128

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Having identified the relevant groups it was necessary to decide what issues to raise
with each group and to design the questionnaire. It was decided to raise broadly the
same issues with each group but, recognising that each group has a different
perspective and mode of operation in relation to the hillgoing public, some topics were
excluded and others expressed differently with each group. The key issues stemmed
from the overall objectives of the study. On this basis, it was decided to seek
information on -

the extent to which organisations recognise and value the safety of users
the procedures they use to promotion safety
whether the organisations efforts to promote safety are effective
what tools the organisation uses to measures the effectiveness of its
promotional activities

Because Retailers and Course Providers have direct contact with hillwalkers and
mountaineers it was considered they would have a more informed view about the reasons
underlying mountain accidents in comparison to the other groups. These groups were
therefore asked to comment on -

the accident rate in Scotland and how it may be changing
reasons why it is changing
what areas of competence are in most need of attention
what strategies should be used to make changes in these areas

In all cases, it was felt important to permit respondents to express views not dictated
by pre - set answers. All questionnaires therefore adopted open - ended responses
throughout. In the case of the outdoor magazine Editors it was felt a less formal
approach would be appropriate. Consequently, the relevant questions were embedded in
a letter thus avoiding the need to complete a formal questionnaire. Final versions of the
questionnaires were based on scrutiny by senior University colleagues and piloting by
several undergraduate students. Copies of the questionnaires to each group are given in
Appendix VI.

PROCEDURE

It was within the scope of the study (financially and timewise) to contact all members.
In each case therefore, no sampling took place, but every member of each group was
involved. It was decided that the most effective way to contact all members was
through a postal questionnaire. It was recognised this may not yield a high return rate
with some groups (e.g., manufacturers) since numerous requests are often received for
assistance. The questionnaire therefore had to be brief, succinct and relevant to their
operation. The questionnaire in all cases except the Providers was designed not to
exceed more than a single page. The covering letter gave respondents the opportunity
to remain involved and to receive ongoing feedback about the study if they wished,
together with a clear description of the studys aims. A stamped, return envelope was
also enclosed with each letter to maximise returns.

There was the danger some would feel patronised in receiving the questionnaire since
the matter of safety is so obviously a consideration within their organisation. Also, it is
clear to many that the some of the methods used to promote mountain safety (e.g.,
distribution of safety leaflets through Magazines) are obvious to see. These two
factors might force the return rate down, but is was essential to proceed since
objective views on the subject were required from actual organisations; it would have
been inappropriate for the researcher simply to make personal judgements about how
organisations deal with safety matters.

RETURN RATE

Individuals were asked to respond within two weeks of receipt of the questionnaire. A
back - up letter/telephone call was not used. The reply rate for each group is given in
Table 2 overleaf.

Table 2 Sample size and return rate for each group

Number sent Number returned Return rate (%)

Manufacturers 101 31 30.7
Retailers 99 15 15.2
Course Providers 147 44 30.0
Outdoor Press 8 7 87.5
Other Organisations 42 26 61.9
Clubs 128 29 22.7

Return rates were variable and lower overall than unexpected. It was assumed that
many manufacturers would not be interested in yet another request for information,
and it was further accepted that many would view the questionnaire as patronising and
impertinent since it was asking questions on a topic which most manufacturers should be
integral to their operation. The response from retailers was especially poor and it can
only be assumed that the questionnaire failed to find its way to interested persons (all
letters were addressed to the Manager). The response from Course Providers was
similar to that from Manufacturers, but not as good as that from Magazine Editors or
Other Organisations. The 22.7% response from Clubs hides the fact that many Clubs
distributed the questionnaire to all members, many of whom replied individually. Several
Clubs asked for multiple copies to be sent for distribution by the Club Secretary. In
total there were 111 responses from individual members representing 29 Clubs. It
should be noted that in the case of each target group, every member was contacted.
The overall return rate of 29% is therefore very good since it represents a return from
the population rather than a smaller sample.

FIRST SURVEY - RESULTS

VIEWS OF MANUFACTURERS

The Importance of Mountain Safety

All companies are concerned about mountain safety. Some indicated that safety is their
first consideration and is more important than other business matters such as
advertising, product design and sales. Several companies suggested that safety is very
much bound up with function and that attention to looks or fashion is not always
important. This is reflected in the marketing descriptions of some companies. For
example, one company stated that -

For those who take seriously the challenge of outdoor activities, clothing is a
serious business. Whether the activity is mountaineering, climbing,
hillwalking, skiing, multi-terrain biking, or canoeing, function not fashion is the
only criterion. When a shirt, jacket or pair of trousers can not just make you
comfortable but could possibly be instrumental in saving your life, then it pays
to select discerningly a product that has been tested and is intended for use
in extreme conditions. In life threatening conditions colour and style
somehow become unimportant.

Another company noted that it is -

concerned about safety to the extent that we make it a priority in our
present designs. We resist the tendency to make trendy or fashion styles in
favour of solid, functional performance products that will work in adverse
condition.

Many manufacturers drew attention to the integral nature of safety, indicating that
safety is built in at all stages - design, choice of materials, manufacture, retail advice
and so on.

The future of our business depends on the reliability of our products and
how they perform under variable conditions. Safety is part of the whole
concept.

Attention to safety seems to depend very much on the product in question. For example,
those companies which specialise in climbing equipment consider safety at all stages
from the choice of materials, design, manufacture and product promotion to the advice
given to users. Products such as climbing ropes and carabiners need to meet much more
stringent conditions in terms of for example, the manufacturing process, than say boot
gaiters or balaclavas. Companies which manufacture safety sensitive products treat
safety matters with critical importance. These companies are keen to avoid product
failure (for a variety of reasons) at all costs, and go to great lengths when advertising
safety features.

Other companies place less emphasis on promoting their products through the safety
message. For example, many clothing and footwear companies tend to focus on
characteristics such as durability, waterproofing and function; they are conscious of
safety, but the need to promote performance features is very important. It seems
likely that because products vary in terms of their need to meet safety criteria,
manufacturers balance safety/function and from/looks depending on the end user and
the market place for the product.

Several companies commented on how people should use their product and the
environment in which it may be used. Some are keen to point out that whatever lengths
they (the manufacturers) go to ensure the safety of users through design, product
testing, etc., use of their product is no guarantee against the risks involved in mountain
activities. They underlined that people should use products as recommended, but they
should also recognise and accept the risks inherent in mountaineering. In this regard,
the point is made that good equipment is no substitute for lack of skill or mountain
awareness. In the same context, many manufacturers stated that because they have no
control over misuse or disregard for instructions, they cannot accept responsibility for
uses outwith the stated purposes for the product.

How Manufacturers Promote Safety

There is little doubt that manufacturers are responsible for developing equipment and
clothing which has led to safer and more comfortable travel in the hills and mountains.
For example, recent years have witnessed a rapid increase in the use of walking poles
designed to improve stability, balance and weight distribution. There have been
significant developments in information technology including GPSs, electronic compasses,
altimeters, mobile telephones, radios, etc.. Use of new fabrics and design improvements
have resulted in garments which are more comfortable, durable and functional than
before. The list of developments concerned with design, materials, manufacture and
application is extensive. The majority of manufacturers only use materials which
conform to strict criteria and levels of quality. In this way they are able to make
products which are functional and which maximise performance and durability. Some
materials are robust enough to withstand extreme weather and use (e.g., Cordura is a
tough hard wearing nylon product ideal for use in rucksacks). Others are soft, strong
and combined with fit and articulation ensure comfort in most applications (e.g., Polartec
is a nylon product which is lightweight, quick drying, pill resistant and wicks moisture
easily making it ideal for base layer clothing). Others (e.g., Goretex, Sympatex,
Polarguard) are adaptable to changes in temperature. Some manufacturers submit their
products to testing by outside agencies to show that they meet minimal criteria. For
example, climbing hardware must meet UIAA (International standards) and/or CE
(European requirements).

Many companies actively work in partnership with other organisations. Several provide
equipment at discount to mountain rescue teams (one company is actively involved with
the training programmes of mountain rescue teams and another is recommended by
NSARDA), guides, instructors and outdoor centres. Whilst there are clear, commercial
benefits in providing equipment and clothing to high profile users, manufacturers also
recognise that such users are well placed to provide feedback based on regular, hard use
in varied conditions - an excellent test of a products worth. It is notable that many
companies are associated with organisations which value mountain safety highly (e.g.,
local authority outdoor centres, D of E Award students, national training centres).
Several companies take this one stage further through formal sponsorship of safety
initiatives. A good example is the support given by several companies to the British
Mountaineering Council for their recent video/booklet on mountain safety. Some
manufacturers work in close co-operation with testing agencies such as KLETS
2

(Ledward, 1996) where products undergo rigorous testing procedures. For example,
KLETS showed that when using walking poles there is a weight transfer of around 75
tons per hour from the ankles, knees and hips to the wrists, elbows and shoulders. They
also demonstrated that continued use of walking poles over time enhances cardio-
respiratory fitness and reduces risk of joint and muscular injury to lower limbs. Some
companies work alongside retailers in regard to staff training -

We invest around 25k annually in retail staff training to ensure good in-
store advice and correct boot fitting - both essential to safety. We also
design our products exclusively for functional use - we never allow fashion or
aesthetics to override functional considerations.

Other companies develop products for specific application in mountain rescue (e.g.,
clothing, avalanche beacons) and others manufacture products which are entirely
functional (e.g., compasses, altimeters) and which clearly aim to assist user safety. One
company used to be associated with the avalanche information service.

All manufacturers produce flyers, booklets or catalogues which provide technical
information, descriptions of materials, product uses and limitations. Those which are
members of the Outdoor Industries Association are bound by a code of conduct to
supply retailers with information concerning construction, compliance with appropriate
standards, dimensions and general care and cleaning instructions. Catalogues produced
by manufacturers tend to depict products in use. In the main, catalogues tend to
emphasise quality and performance characteristics. Many are referred to -

2
KLETS is a totally independent company working in research and development of outdoor pursuit and leisure
products.
breathability, wear resistance, adjustability, waterproofness, abrasion resistance,
softness, weight, ease of temperature regulation, comfort, wind resistance, versatility,
gender specific designs, ease of care, weight, volume, strength, durability, and so on.
Some catalogues also focus on product design, engineering, quality assurance, materials,
etc.. This is a clear undertaking to convey to the would - be -purchaser that the product
is safe, hard wearing, fit for purpose and so on. As an illustration, one company stated
that:

In rain (our) waterproofs pump liquid to the outside and drains it away. In
colder conditions, the direction of liquid outwards protects the layer of dry
air and maintains your insulation. In very hot conditions, (our) shirts spread
moisture quickly and cool you down through rapid evaporation.

Another company which produces footbeds for walking/climbing boots argued that their
product improves bio-mechanical foot function; absorbs shock; reduces over-pronation;
reduces knee, hip and back pain; improves functional leg length discrepancy; aids injury
prevention; improves boot fit; adds increased comfort; decreases sole wear, and
increases balance and body strength through improved alignment.

Some companies deliver seminars and talks at various events (e.g., trade shows, mountain
rescue seminars and displays). Others publish articles in magazines (or insert flyers)
and most maintain web sites. Several manufacturers provide information to users (at
the point of sale) through leaflets or advise retailers to inform buyers on use, care and
safety. Some manufacturers (e.g., of climbing hardware) are obliged by EU laws to
supply instructions to buyers describing use, maintenance, storage, transportation,
strength rating, country of origin, accreditation agencies, etc.. Manufacturers invariably
emphasise the need for users to read instructions and for their products to be used in a
competent manner. Some provide warning comments reinforcing the danger of
mountaineering, the importance of training and the need for users to take responsibility
for personal safety. Information like this (apart from that which is required by law),
along with quality assurance guarantees (often lifetime) and customer back up services
(inquiry, repair, samples, refund policy) clearly help to inspire confidence in use and
encourage correct use and hence safety of the user.

The Effectiveness of Safety Promotion

It is not easy for manufacturers to gauge the effectiveness of their efforts to sell the
safety message since - in the main - they do not have direct contact with the end user,
nor do they actively seek feedback. Most companies monitor use of their product (as
opposed to how well they sell the safety message) and they do this in a variety of ways
(e.g., in house testing procedures, customer feedback, anecdotal evidence, evidence from
professional users such as outdoor centres, MRTs, outside agencies such as the MOD,
textile agencies). Many underline the value of user feedback, continued sales, repeat
orders and absence of reported accidents as evidence that their product works and is
safe. One manufacturer indicated that -

Safety is of great concern to our company. Feedback from customers gives
us a good idea about how well our clothing is working and can also tell us
whether our jackets are being used in extreme conditions or for everyday
use. We also have a team of physical testers who are all hillwalkers,
mountaineers and climbers. They test all new garments before they go into
shops.

Some were confident enough in their product (because they are designed fit for
purpose, use best materials, etc.) to state categorically their products do contribute to
safe practice of users.

Summary and Conclusions

The manufacturers of clothing, footwear and equipment must give priority to commercial
interests, particularly at a time when there are so many competing manufacturers
3
.
However, many report that safety is of paramount importance in their work. Safety is
reflected in choice of materials, product design and also in the advice and information
given to users. The importance of safety depends on the product in question. For
example, equipment designed for climbing applications is required to meet stringent
criteria whilst other products such as clothing are not required to meet the same
standards. Product design and promotion appears to be guided by four overall criteria,
viz., cost, form, function and safety. The emphasis placed on each again depends on the
particular product.

Manufacturers do not work in isolation. They work in tandem with retailers in a variety
of ways (e.g., training, selling, promotion) as well as outside testing agencies and other
groups and individuals who promote and test products. The relationship with sponsored
groups is seen as a win - win situation where the group or individual receives discounted
gear and the manufacturer receives quality user feedback and wide publicity.

British Mountain Guides have joined forces with gear manufacturer Phoenix
in anew sponsorship deal. Phoenix personnel will work closely with the Guides
in a number of key areas including training courses and product development.
Feedback from BMG members will enable Phoenix to introduce important
refinements to their clothing, sleeping bag and tent ranges throughout the
UK and Europe. (TGO, November, 2000)

The importance of safety among the four criteria noted before is interesting to
examine. In the case of climbing gear there seems little doubt about the importance of
safety in terms of the materials used and product design. Gear on which the users life

3
A total of 240 companies attended the Outdoor Industries Association annual trade show in September, 2000.
may depend has to be failsafe. The importance of function is also very clear and this is
seen in many products. For example modern carabiners are lightweight, easy to open and
have wider gates. Ice axes are designed to meet sound ergonomic principles; they too
are light in weight, provide good knuckle protection and permit better placement in ice
and cracks. Form is also a key factor and colour especially is a strong feature of most
climbing gear. In the case of clothing and footwear, safety does not always play a
prominent role. Function and form are critical and feature more strongly in promotional
terms. Customers demand products which are attractive to look at and feel comfortable
and so form and looks are very important. Function is also critical. Products must work
and manufacturers claims must be met. It would seem however, that safety trails form
and function in the way in which it is used to underline the value of products. However,
it turns out that safety is inextricably linked with function. For this reason, there is
probably little reason for manufacturers to dwell on the subject. For example, a
product which is functional should allow the user to perform more efficiently under
adverse conditions and hence reduce the risks presented by the conditions present. An
example is seen in the use of the new materials (e.g., Goretex) to assist waterproofing.
A garment which is waterproof (functional) will afford good protection from wind and
rain and keep the user warm and comfortable. This should make it less likely for the
user to make poor decisions in regard to say route choice or navigation when under
stress from bad weather, fatigue, etc.. The same would apply to footwear which is
comfortable, waterproof, supportive and gives good grip. All these features should allow
the wearer to work well in poor underfoot conditions and thus minimise the chances of
slipping. So, function leads to improved optimal performance which in turn reduces risks
and aids safety.

Of course, it should be noted that products which are functional and enhance safe use
are no guard against incompetent use, fatigue, ill-health or disinterest of the user. Good
products provide a basis for safe travel, but are only part (a vital part) of an equation
which also includes user competence and objective (mountain) danger.

Manufacturers play a vital role in promoting mountain safety through the medium of
clothing and equipment. Modern clothing, footwear and equipment is designed to be
functional (as well as good looking) and is made from quality materials which is able to
withstand the rigours of bad weather and hard use. The use of sophisticated testing
procedures, good technical documentation and informative brochures all help
demonstrate products are fit for use. There seems little doubt from the evidence
provided by manufacturers as well as other groups (see later) that modern equipment
plays a key role in enhancing safety of the user. There is, however, a rider to this;
there is a clear need to reinforce the importance of matching skills to equipment. The
possession of good gear will not offset technical incompetence. There is a need to
reinforce this important message.

VIEWS OF RETAILERS

Introduction

The outdoor clothing and equipment market in the UK is a growing business. It has been
estimated that in 2000 the total value of all sales exceeded 750 million (Outdoor
Industries Association, 2000). From 1992 to 1998 there was an overall growth of 59%
(see Table 1). Mintel (1998) suggests this resulted essentially because of the fashion
trend to the outdoor look which began to emerge in the 1980s and became a high
street trend in the early 90s.

Table 1 UK market ( millions) for walking and climbing goods (Mintel, 1998)

Year Total Clothing Boots Equipment

1992 415 265 104 46
1993 490
1994 565
1995 605 380 150 75
1996 635
1997 650
1998 659 400 170 89

Purchasing Policy

Retailers are clearly guided by consumer demand, fashion trends and competition but
safety is also important, particularly in regard to products used in a hazardous
environment. Some retailers supply items which are suited to Scottish or local
conditions and others do not purchase items which they feel are inherently unsafe or
which are not accompanied by CE or UIGG approval. One retailer indicated that its -

its purchasing policy is dictated by consumer demand but we would never
buy any product that is inherently unsafe.

In many cases purchasing policy is informed through in - house testing of walking and
climbing gear. Many retailers supply items of equipment (e.g., bivvy bags, navigation
equipment) which is safety specific. Several retailers highlighted the importance of
using equipment safely, viz.,

Performance and function constitute fundamental aspects of our ranging
policy. Whilst this will not make someone safe, quality clothing and equipment
ensure they are as well prepared as they can be
How Retailers Promote Mountain Safety

Whilst manufacturers do not have direct access (in the main) to customers, retailers
meet users face to face and are therefore able to exert a degree of control over the
kinds of items purchased. They are also in an excellent position to provide hillgoers with
a wide variety of safety information such as weather reports, insurance, avalanche
conditions, courses, advice about gear, and so on. Many retailers distribute of safety
leaflets (e.g., avalanche awareness, navigation, weather reports) and manufacturers
information on use of gear and also display posters. Some provide up - to - date
information on weather and snow conditions for winter travel. Some are pro - active in
hosting mountain safety lectures or providing equipment talks to specific user groups. A
small number sponsor mountain rescue teams and other groups which have a vested
interest in safety matters.

Many retailers employ staff who are actively involved in mountain activities (and
mountain rescue in some cases) and who therefore recognise the mountain environment,
the value of good clothing and equipment and the safety issues involved.

all of our staff are walkers, climbers, skiers, boarders, etc., and as such
are in a position to give first hand advice.

Some retailers build on this experience through in - house training about products and
giving good advice to customers. They see that a vital part of their business is to
match customers with the kinds of equipment/clothing/footwear required for the
intended use. In some cases, retailers advise customers not to purchase particular
items if they feel they do not possess the right kind of experience. One retailer
indicated that -

.. we constantly have to advise customers on safety in the mountains and
from time to time have refused to sell or hire products to individuals when it
seems they would put themselves or others at risk.

The provision of specialist advice by staff is viewed by several retailers as a very
important part of their overall function. As an illustration, one company indicates that:

the emphasis is on trained, knowledgeable sales staff who ask the relevant
questions about end use and can advise customers as to the best bits of kit
for their needs.

Those retailers who are members of the Outdoor Industries Association are bound by a
code of conduct to ensure their staff receive appropriate training in dealing with
customers. That training involves knowledge of the goods they handle and procedures
for dealing with customer feedback.

The Effectiveness of Safety Promotion

It was not easy for retailers to assess whether the advice they give to customers
(written or verbal) is effective, since they have no formal way of monitoring that advice.
Some commented that many customers return for further purchases and occasionally
report on the quality of particular products. The majority were confident that in giving
good advice they were helping the cause of mountain safety.

Accident Rate

The majority of retailers agreed that the accident rate is falling. Most suggested this
is due to an increased awareness by hillgoers of the hazards involved in mountain
activities. They also suggested that people are better able to make informed
judgements about mountain travel. A clear view was also expressed that peoples
technical skills (e.g., navigation) have improved - due in part to the increased availability
of training/safety courses. Most retailers consider that gear which is superior in design
construction and made of more capable materials than before has contributed to safer
mountain travel. One retailer suggested that -

.. the safety campaigns and the efforts of retailers have led to safer
practices. Further to this, the clothing available to outdoor enthusiasts today
is so superior that: incidence of hypothermia has been reduced; parties in
severe weather can cope much better, avoiding benightment; and errors in
judgement cause by discomfort/haste are much less likely.

It was been suggested that hillwalkers and climbers are taking greater care to purchase
expensive clothing and footwear with both performance qualities and fashionable looks
(Mintel, 1998).

Areas in Need of Development

The key area highlighted by many retailers was navigation. There is a clear call
for an improvement in navigation skills. A small number drew attention to other
skills, particularly those required for winter travel. Here it was considered that
too many people are ill - prepared and not fully aware of the various hazards
(e.g., changes in weather, avalanches). There was also a strong feeling that many
hillgoers lack knowledgeable of clothing and equipment in general and how it should
be matched to the activity in question.

Strategies for Developing Weaknesses

A variety of ideas were proposed but a key theme centred around continued education.
Emphasis was placed on the need for courses which are readily available and cost
effective. It was suggested that hillgoers have a responsibility to invest time, money
and effort to broaden their practice and seek experiences (with friends, courses, etc.)
to develop their skills and wisdom. This was highlighted in the words of one retailer who
said that -

Gaining long experience with experienced companions is the key; not just
weekend courses, etc.. I believe it is each individuals responsibility to
experience all conditions, to learn the required skills and not to take short
cuts.

Many retailers suggest that methods should be devised to impart important information
to casual hillwalkers (who are often involved in mountain accidents) and to display
relevant safety information in known areas of high risk. Increased media coverage of
safety matters was mentioned but increased use of leaflets was not seen as useful. It
was felt that retailers have a continuing role to play in promoting mountain safety
through selling responsibly and working in conjunction with other groups such as clubs
and mountain rescue agencies.


As with manufacturers, retailers are concerned that the products they sell are safe.
They ensure this through strict purchasing policies which consider, where appropriate,
safety matters. In addition, many retailers use their own (and their employers)
knowledge to select safe products. They promote mountain safety in a variety of ways
through the distribution of information (leaflets, brochures, etc.), sponsorship and
advice to customers, although they are largely unable to indicate whether that advice is
effective.

Retailers (in contrast to manufacturers) were asked to comment on the accident rate in
Scotland and the kinds of things hillgoers need to develop in order to reduce the number
of accidents. It was felt that retailers, because they have direct contact with the
hillgoing fraternity, the kinds of people involved and the type of products they purchase,
would be in a position to make valid judgements on this matter. The majority felt the
accident rate in Scotland was diminishing. They considered this was due to increasing
mountain awareness and technical competence as well as the availability of better
equipment. They felt that navigation was the prime weakness amongst hillgoers. This
should be dealt with through courses and education in general. They also agreed they
were in a good position to sell the safety message, although the use of leaflets was not a
good method.

Retailers are in a superb position to promote mountain safety. Firstly, they are highly
knowledgeable on all product matters connected with safety. Secondly, they make
contact with the complete profile of people who venture onto the hills -
beginners/experts, climbers/walkers, casual/committed, etc.. No other organisation can
claim to do this. Thirdly, the nature of their business brings them face to face with
people. This places them in a superb position to give first hand advice, instruction and
information to those in need. Finally, retailers provide a unique facility in which
products can be examined and tested, information displayed, courses advertised and
advice sought, all under a single roof. Given these features, the potential to sell the
safety message would appear to be enormous. In fact, if there were to be a national
safety campaign then the retail outlets (at least 100 in Scotland) could make a
significant contribution to that campaign.

VIEWS OF COURSE PROVIDERS

How Safety is Reflected in the Work of Providers

The importance of mountain safety is clear to many providers and is reflected in much
of what they do including preparation before taking others into the hills, delivery of
courses (some provide courses which are focussed entirely on safety matters such as
navigation skills, avalanche awareness), leadership style, selection and use of equipment,
review procedures, operational matters, etc.. Some stated that safety is a prime
concern, but not something which is always visible or overly obvious to clients.

Concern for safety is a factor in everything we do. The key assessment we
must make is of the individuals personal skill, self-reliance, adaptability and
fitness. If we assess these on day one then we can plan activities within a
groups collective capabilities and maintain an acceptable safety margin.

Many providers associate safe practice with good leadership. The value they place on
safety is reflected in the quality of the leadership of their employees. A very large
number suggested that safe leadership is based on the employment of staff who are
properly qualified and who can make sound judgements based on experience and sound
qualifications. Many suggested that good leaders/instructors are those who adopt an
educational role at appropriate times. They suggested it is important to balance
enjoyment and pleasure with education about the mountains and safe mountain travel.
The value of inculcating a questioning attitude and a sense of personal responsibility was
frequently stressed. A view expressed by some is that it is bad practice to guide people
without giving them any opportunities to be actively involved in decision making during
the day. Some extended this principle by suggesting it important not only to provide
safe leadership through delivery, but also provide a role model of safe leadership by
making it clear to clients/learners (when appropriate) how and why certain decisions are
made by the leader.

In operational terms, the large majority of providers focused on a small number of key
principles. They stressed the importance of checking that walkers/climbers have the
correct clothing, gear and footwear before they start the day. Many organisations
provide the appropriate items whilst others advise clients or participants in advance.
Some provide suitable training or arrange pre-meetings to ensure people are well
prepared in terms of their equipment and clothing needs.

All participants provide a medical declaration to say they are fit to
undertake the planned course. Careful briefing is provided before the
day commences. All kit is checked and appropriate clothes/footwear or
other equipment is issued if required. A weather forecast is obtained
early in the morning, and in conjunction with a risk assessment, plans are
modified if needed.

Many stressed the importance of adopting strict leader to client (low) ratios and the
value of local knowledge as part of an overall safety management plan. It was mentioned
that safety management involves thorough planning and preparation before a days
activities which, in turn, involves examination of recent and current weather patterns,
size/nature of client group, experience and group needs, etc.. Many providers focused
on the importance of fitting the client to the activity and that attention to individuals
in terms of their physical capabilities, health, technical competence and experience is
exceptionally important. One principle underlined by many providers is the importance
of progressive learning. Many suggested there are no quick fixes to becoming a
competent hillgoer. They said it is vital to acquire experience over time, in varied
weather conditions and at
different times of the year, building higher level skills on the basis of previously learned
ones. The value of experience and progression in learning was emphasised by many.

mountaineering is dangerous and is about decision making. It is also
progressive in nature evolving from walking to mountaineering - you need to
walk before you can run.

In delivery terms, many providers underlined that safe travel is maximised if the person
responsible for others is sensitive and flexible at all times. Sensitivity to the needs and
limitations of individuals, changes in the weather, and the capacity to adjust and alter
plans as the day unfolds if circumstances dictate, were seen to be key features of good
leadership. The need for vigilance and constant monitoring was also viewed by many as
absolutely essential, as is the importance of reviewing/debriefing as a means of
identifying problem areas.

Many providers work within an overall safety management plan (usually dictated by
requirements of the Adventure Activities Licensing Authority) which steers day to day
operations and which is designed to ensure that safe practice always prevails. In this
regard many providers adopt strict procedures for the repair and maintenance of
equipment and insist that all mountain leaders take with them comprehensive first aid
kits, communication equipment (e.g., mobile telephone or radios) and rescue gear (e.g.,
bivvy bag, rope). Many maintain incident/accident/near miss report books which are
reviewed regularly to identify problem areas or trends. The adoption of formal risk
assessment procedures is central to the operation of most providers and in all cases,
staff are made fully aware of the safety guidelines central to the organisation.

The Effectiveness of Safety Measures

Providers were asked to say whether or not they are able to assess the effectiveness of
their safety measures and if so, to identify how they do this. The majority drew
attention to their record of incidents/near misses. Most have experienced no accidents.
Many are clearly very satisfied with their record and some were very willing to record
and describe the few incidents which have taken place within their organisation. Some
noted the high return rate and the positive feedback from clients and a small number
indicated they had altered some aspects of their operation based on incidents which
have taken place. Very few providers believe their safety measures are ineffective. In
the small number of cases highlighted, it was suggested the reason was because clients
chose to ignore instructions. Providers said they cannot be responsible for people who
ignore instructions, chose not to take advice or lie about their health and fitness levels.
Some cover themselves by reinforcing the risk nature of mountain travel when clients
apply to take courses, etc.. Similarly, many commented that strict attention to safety
measures by both the provider and client cannot guarantee safety.

Accident Rate

The majority of providers agreed that the accident rate in Scotland is falling, although a
lesser number are unsure or did not answer this question. A very small number believe it
is rising. Many suggested that the accident rate has fallen because people are more
aware of the various hazards and are also more skilled in dealing with these hazards. It
was suggested that hillgoers are more inclined to stay within their limits and have an
overall healthier respect for the mountains. These changes are due to increased
publicity of hazards through the media, climbing magazines, helplines, leaflets, etc. as
well as significant improvements in equipment, footwear, clothing and the availability of
products such as GPSs. Many providers suggested that hillgoers are better prepared
and skilled through improved provision of courses. The increase in number and variety
of courses available, improved instruction and general quality of provision have all led to
a more informed population of hillgoers.

Equipment - both clothing and climbing - enables participants to be more
comfortable in extremes and to place, protect where before it was not
possible. More availability of courses and willingness to learn and more
general access to information - books, TV, promote the sport in a progressive
way.

Some providers considered that the adverse publicity which often accompanies mountain
accidents (sometimes exaggerated or over the top coverage) has influenced people by
highlighting the significance of mountain dangers. A similar number thought that the
accident rate is not increasing because of the general improvement in weather
conditions (milder) in recent years. In this sense, many hillgoers (particularly in winter)
are not exposed to conditions which would normally attract people to high risk activities.
One provider made the point that an entire generation of walkers has yet to experience
full winter conditions!

. some of this is weather related. In poor years folk go on the hill but do
not stick their neck out so much. In good seasons, visitor numbers go up and
climbers take more chances.


Most providers concentrated on the need for hillgoers to develop personal skills the
most important of which is navigation. This was viewed by the majority as the most
significant subject. It was suggested that weak navigation and inability to apply basic
map and compass skills is a problem for a wide variety of groups - young/old,
experienced/inexperienced, etc.. There is a need for improved education in this area
and especially the need for people to practice navigation skills in poor weather
conditions.

Improved navigation in bad conditions. Most folk practice navigation in good
conditions and are therefore unprepared for serious situations; they already
are not 100% sure of where they are before bad visibility sets in.

Improved navigation skills probably heads the list. Our impression is that a
high proportion of accidents involve people from south of the border
4
, so
perhaps educating the English about Scottish terrain and weather conditions
is more important.

There was also a call for improvement in winter skills and general awareness of the
particular hazards encountered in winter. A variety of other topics related to weather,
diet, fitness, planning, leadership, movement on steep ground, emergency procedures wee
also identified as areas where skill improvement is essential. The critical nature of
education was noted by many providers

In addition to the development technical expertise such as navigation, there were strong
feelings that many people lack decision making ability or are lacking in awareness of
their own skills and limitations. It was felt that the need to make serious decisions
(perhaps infrequently) as a days walk/climb unfolds is critical and is lacking in many
people. In particular there was a need for walkers/climbers to recognise that major
problems can often evolve from lesser events, and that they should be prepared to make
decisions well before things get out of hand. It was felt that too many people plough on
to a point where a recoverable emergency becomes a major disaster.

4
Each year, over half of all those rescued in the Scottish mountains are from outwith Scotland.
We have had no incidents in 25 years. But we find it hard to convey to
guests who walk independently that these issues (weather, gear, clothing,
etc.) are serious and judgement/experience is significant.

There was a strong view that hillgoers need to overcome the complacency which can
accompany the use of new technology (e.g., mobile telephones, GPSs) and also to
recognise that if things do go wrong rescue is not automatic. It was also felt that many
hillgoers lack common sense or self awareness and often fail to recognise their own
limitations. It was argued there is a need for greater self reliance, responsibility and
strength of character which transcends technical expertise and good equipment.

Training in the factors involved in decisions should start early on so that
it can be absorbed into planning and way of thinking. Helping create a
questioning mind rather than fixed rules encourages this.

Related to self awareness, it was felt by many providers that people need also to raise
their awareness of the various mountain hazards and of the mountain environment in
general. There was a need to emphasise that mountaineering is a risk activity and that
accidents will always happen.

Greater awareness concerning risk with regard to all areas of mountain
safety and the need for people still to be self reliant. Not relying on outside
agencies in case of difficulty, just because they are poorly prepared.

Awareness raising/education regarding hazards of Scottish mountain in
winter. Some how we need to make individuals more responsible/accountable;
it is not good enough to rely on mobile phones or MR teams if they end up in a
situation they arent competent to deal with due to lack of skills or
understanding of dangers.

Strategies for Developing Weaknesses

Methods for dealing with the various weakness centred in two areas, viz., education and
information provision. There was a clear call for enhanced education and for this to take
place in a variety of ways. The value of courses run by the various providers was
underlined as was the need for schoolchildren (particularly those at primary level) to be
better educated in risk awareness and outdoor education in general and for these
subjects to be given a higher profile. It was suggested that organised courses should be
more relevant in terms of their focus, availability and duration (no need for courses to
be too long) and that they should be better advertised. Some providers commented on
the importance of mountain leader qualifications. Others believed lectures on key
safety topics delivered by well known mountaineers at particular times of the year (e.g.,
winter hazards just before the Christmas period) in target locations are important.

many hillwalkers have a moderate skill level that is sufficient to cope with
average situations, but get caught out in more difficult circumstances.
training is perceived to be not necessary and qualifications . are seen as
elitist in voluntary and private sectors. therefore that public attitude to
training and qualifications should be considered.

The need to locate important information in regard to routes, hazards, etc., in key
locations such as starting point car parks, was raised by many providers. The value of
placing large information/warning displays at various start points, giving information
about weather, routes, local difficulties, etc., together with warning notices (e.g., How
competent are you, Treat the mountains with respect) was underlined by others.

Better dissemination of accurate, local mountain weather forecasts
Funding/sponsorship at a local level (accommodation providers, points of
access, etc.) so walkers have up-to-date weather information when they leave
their car.

The value of commonly used safety leaflets was questioned by some providers; at the
very least they need to be made more interesting. It was suggested that the use of
videos, talks, CDs, etc., might be more effective in selling the safety message.
Television and the press wee felt to be strong mediums for promoting safety. These
should be used to enhance the provision of weather information as well as highlight the
dangers of mountain hazards and increase public awareness. The adoption of a national
campaign each year (presenting some accident statistics) was suggested by a few
providers. The importance of the climbing press in continuing to educate people was
also noted.

Tabloid publicity means incidents are reported instantly and widely. The
exaggerated nature of these reports may actually be a deterrent the
unexpected plus side to over-the-top media coverage of accidents to climbers
is people in general have a healthier respect for the mountain environment.


As expected, safety is a prime concern for those who deliver courses to the public. It is
reflected in several ways. Most providers address safety through good leadership. This
involves attention to preparation before taking people on the hill, sensitivity to individual
needs, provision of quality kit to clients and fitting clients to the activity in terms of
their experience, fitness and interests. Many providers feel strongly that good
leadership should address the educational dimension and in so doing involve the client
when appropriate fully in decision making matters. They say too that the process of
becoming a competent hillwalker or mountaineer takes time and is based on long
experience in varied conditions. The importance of safety is also reflected in way most
providers work within a safety management context. Here providers adopt strict
operational procedures for checking equipment, recording near misses, carrying
emergency gear, carrying out regular risk assessments, and so on. In assessing their
safety measures, providers refer mainly to their good accident record. They also draw
attention to the occasional problems which occur when clients refuse to take good
advice.

Whilst most providers agree the accident rate is falling, a small number disagree or are
unsure. There is a strong view that hillgoers are technically more able and more aware
of mountain hazards than at one time. This is due in part to improved equipment and
opportunities to take relevant courses, but also the effect of adverse publicity which
sometimes accompanies serious accidents. All providers are absolutely certain that the
single most important weakness hillgoers need to address is navigation. In addition,
there is a strong feeling that many people lack an understanding of their own limitations
and of the hazards involved in mountain travel. The need for hillgoers to recognise that
mountain awareness and informed decision making often transcend technical
competence, was expressed by many. In terms of dealing with these problems, providers
point to the need for increased and improved education (through courses and enhanced
awareness of schoolchildren) as well as enhanced information provision. Here they
suggest better information at access points for hillgoers as well as wider access to
specific weather information. They underline the value of the TV and press in promoting
safety, but question the value of safety leaflets.

Course providers are in the best possible position to sell the safety message since they
have direct access to hillgoers in the mountain environment. In some cases, their
contact with individuals takes place over several days in different weather and terrain
conditions. The expertise and wisdom of leaders/instructors adds to the quality of
experience which clients gain. A concern however, is that the number of people who
benefit from this kind of experience is small. Many hillgoers, of course, do not attend
courses. In addition, many of those that do attend courses are already experienced and
qualified in the areas of weakness mentioned before. The input from course providers is
therefore somewhat focused and many of those who might benefit, do not. It is, of
course, highly likely that the knowledge gained by those who do attend courses is passed
on to many others - friends, colleagues, clients, school pupils, and so on. This is clearly
the case with the many 100s of people who train as mountain leaders and instructors
each year. So, there will be a snowball effect, but what is not clear is how extensive or
valuable is that effect.

Similarly, there is little way of judging the extent to which course providers can develop
the personal qualities they see as in need of most development (mountain awareness,
decision making, self awareness). These can only be developed over time and most
providers are only in contact with people for a very limited time. It is worth noting
however that the prime weakness noted by most providers - navigation - is a technical
area which can be addressed by providers and others in many ways; the potential for
improvement here is therefore very great.

VIEWS OF OTHER AGENCIES

Introduction

A number of agencies and organisations which were considered to have an over-arching
perspective on safety in outdoor activities were contacted. These included national
governing bodies, youth organisations, safety councils, rescue organisations, educational
organisations, environmental agencies and other relevant representative groups. They
were asked to comment on similar issues to the other groups (e.g., promotion of mountain
safety, accident rates), but it was expected that the replies would be somewhat diffuse
since the total group included many different kinds of organisations each representing
individuals with varied interests.

The Importance of Mountain Safety

All organisations indicated a deep concern for mountain safety. The manner in which
this was reflected differed between organisations. Some provide information on safety
matters through leaflets, talks and seminars. It was suggested by a couple of
organisations that attempts to promote mountain safety which are practical and
interactive are more useful than simply providing information through leaflets. Some
provide expert advice to other groups on request. Other organisations are concerned
especially about leadership matters. They insist or encourage members of their
organisation to take leadership courses (in - house or governing body). Some arrange
specialist (safety focused) courses for leaders and participants. Some promote a
leadership style which involves participants/clients in decision making, safety matters
and reviewing.

Clients can only become safer mountaineers by gaining experience in
recognising dangerous situations. A good (leader) would always explain to his
client whey certain decisions are made and hopefully, the client would learn
from this.

Several youth organisations have established policies for approving expeditions and day
trips, reviewing incidents, maintenance of accident records, safety backup etc.. Many
carry out risk assessments which are reviewed regularly.

Less than half of those who responded reported that their efforts to promote mountain
safety work well. Invariably they draw attention to an excellent safety record involving
no or very few accidents in relation to the number of actual people involved.

In relation to the number of people participating the number of
incidents/accidents is very, very low. When you consider young people
undertake final expeditions unaccompanied (but not unsupervised), this is very
heartening.
More than half noted they have little or no evidence to judge the effectiveness of their
efforts. Some suggested they had anecdotal evidence of support whilst one organisation
observed it was difficult to find evidence of support when reports tend to focus on
incidents of bad practice and not safe practice! A small number suggested that it is
very difficult to evaluate attempts to sell the safety message because of the problems
of quantification.

.. we are very poor at evaluating the measures we take to promote mountain
safety, particularly in respect of written material, due to lack of time and
resources to implement the collation of evidence and the lack of knowledge
about how to get that evidence.

Accident Rate

Over half of the organisations agreed or thought the accident rate was falling. The
others did not reply. Most felt the accident rate was falling because of improved
dissemination of information. It was suggested that hillgoers are more knowledgeable
and aware of mountain hazards through books, TV and the media in general. A lesser
number focused on improved clothing and equipment and a small number put falling
numbers down to better instruction, training and leadership.

The Areas in Need of Most Development

Most organisations felt that navigation was in most need of development, followed by a
greater appreciation of winter skills and weather. Many referred to overall mountain
awareness and an inability for many to recognise their own limitations. A small number
referred to the over-ambition of leaders and the need for hillgoers to take more
emergency gear with them when on the hill. The key to making improvements was
considered to lie in the provision of more information and enhanced education in general.
It was felt that better use should be made of the specialist magazines, TV and Internet
to convey information about weather and avalanche hazards in particular. The enhanced
use of lectures and talks was also suggested by a few organisations, but some questioned
the value of leaflets.

safety leaflets by themselves are not enough. People dont always read them!
Heightened awareness and availability of courses at a sensible cost and at a
level appropriate to their needs ...

One thought there should be publicity drives to educate the general public about
mountain safety, particulary at strategic times of the year. The need to contact the
occasional hillgoer was mentioned by several organisations.

A lot of mountain accidents happen to the less frequent user of the hills I
do not think they will go on courses or undergo any instruction. They feel
they are capable of doing what they do.

Many organisations suggested the way to educate people was via courses targeted at
high risk groups. Such courses should be pertinent, affordable and accessible. The
importance of generating a safety culture amongst schoolchildren was mentioned by a
small number of organisations.


Despite the diverse nature of the organisations questioned a number of key themes
emerged. Safety is clearly important to all. It is reflected in a number of common ways,
viz., well defined safety protocols, good leadership, provision of relevant information.
The declining accident rate is considered due mainly to improved provision of
information and better equipment. Navigation is seen as the most important skill in need
of development. The importance of general mountain awareness, specifically the
recognition of weather changes, is also highlighted. Methods for dealing with these
problems centre on improved courses and better use of existing media, particularly that
which is interactive in nature.

VIEWS OF THE OUTDOOR MAGAZINES

Introduction

A number of specialist monthly magazines are published with the hillwalking/climbing
fraternity in mind. Three popular titles - The Great Outdoors (TGO), Climber and
High have been established for many years. Each has its own style, but there is some
overlap in content, structure and approach. A number of more recent publications such
as Trail and On the Hill attract people with hill and mountain interests, but content and
balance differ from the others. Two other magazines - Summit and The Scottish
Mountaineer - are published by the British Mountaineering Council (BMC) and the
Mountaineering Council of Scotland (MC of S) respectively and are distributed mainly to
members of these organisations.

Most these magazines are read by committed walkers and climbers as well as a wider
audience of people who generally may be interested in the outdoors or simply casual
walkers and ramblers. With all there is great potential and scope for presenting ideas,
information and advice about safety in the hills. Trail magazine has a stated policy of
promoting safety on the hills and takes this very seriously. This policy is reflected in
editorial content, tone and style as well as feature material which covers safety aspects
when appropriate. The magazine has a formal link with Plas - y - Brenin and advertises
its courses on a regular basis. Trail emphasises that having the correct equipment and
knowing how to use that equipment goes a long way to preventing accidents in the hills;
magazines have a role to play in raising public awareness of this principle. On the Hill
similarly views the promotion of safe practice as an important dimension to its work. It
takes the view that whilst much information may be obvious to many readers (e.g., need
to leave word, take proper clothing and safety items) it repeats the same messages in
the belief that it may stimulate the hillgoer to consider or learn something vital which
might otherwise be missed. Summit reminds readers in each issue that climbing,
walking and mountaineering are activities with a danger of personal injury or death. It
adds that those who take part in these activities should be aware of and accept these
risks and take responsibility for their actions and involvement. The Scottish
Mountaineer includes in each issue a section dedicated to safety and training matters.
And a recent editorial comment in TGO (November, 2000) illustrates further the
commitment these magazines have to promoting mountain safety.

there has to be a word of caution to anyone who thinks they can cast off
the grey shroud of conformity and simply step out into the great outdoors.
While anyone with two serviceable legs can wander round the park, or down a
country lane, the tyro winter hillwalker has a lot to learn. While risk is an
inherent part of mountaineering, it is coping with that risk, or indeed the
reduction of it into manageable proportions, that demands the acquisition of
certain skills.

The Great Outdoors magazine is similarly committed to mountain safety but not
directly from the point of view of saving lives. The view taken by the Editors is that
people who are more competent in looking after themselves will be more confident in
exploring and discovering places and sights they might not have done otherwise. The
main focus of TGO is to enhance peoples enjoyment of the outdoors. This is achieved
by using writers and editorial staff who themselves are experienced hillwalkers and
mountaineers. The stance taken by High magazine is to advise on safety related
matters but not to preach to readers. The individual freedom to make personal
decisions in climbing is highly valued by the Editors. An example of how the magazines
5

deal with safety issues is shown at the end of this section.

An appraisal of each magazine suggests that safety is dealt with in three, reasonably
well defined ways -

Provision of information
Advertising
Features

Examples from issues of three magazines are given on page 37.

5
TGO - November, 2000; Summit - Autumn, 2000; Climber - November, 2000
Provision of Information

There are numerous ways in which content focuses explicitly on safety matters. For
example, TGO and Climber provide quarter page Weathercheck sections informing
readers how they can access current weather forecasts. Telephone/fax numbers are
provided for each region within the UK. It is obvious that such information is given not
only to inform readers, but also to give them a basis for making informed decisions prior
to going on the hill.

All magazines include sections providing news, comment, readers letters, viewpoints,
etc., and these often include topics with a safety message. Climber recently published
details about harness buckle failure (September, 2000) and also described the
mechanics of helmet design and reasons for use (July, 2000). Summit (Autumn, 2000)
featured a readers letter signalling the importance of using helmets when abseiling. In
the same issue, it informed readers of the potential hazards (as identified by a trading
standards authority) of using a particular make of climbing helmet. TGO (September,
2000) made it clear that ownership of a GPS is no guarantee for sound navigation. It
included a readers letter in the January 2001 issues advocating the use of helmets for
all who travel in the winter mountains. It advised that possession must be accompanied
by sound skills in map reading, compass use and observation. The Scottish Mountaineer
(August, 2000) described the winter skills programme arranged by the Mountaineering
Council of Scotland and also commented on a variety of other safety related matters
including navigation and water hazards. In the April issue there was a report by the
Medical Officer of the MRC of S on the nature, causes and dangers of hypothermia.

Occasional news items refer to difficulties encountered by climbers. For example, Trail
(August, 2000) referred to the avalanche experienced by Payne/Clyma whilst on
expedition, and Climber (August, 2000) described the crevasse fall of Hinkes on
Kangchenjunga. TGO (October, 2000) featured articles on mountain rescue. One of
these described a recent seminar led by international experts in search and rescue
methods. Another discussed the use by one mountain rescue team of new
communications hardware designed to speed up communications.

Emergency response times of one of Britains busiest mountain rescue teams
have been improved by a new remote-country communications system. . We
needed a system which would, in essence, allow us to take round corners - the
Glencoe area has an immensely complicated geology with numerous corries,
ridges, chasms and gully systems making radio communications very difficult.
Previously, we had to post a team member to a central position to relay
messages from one rescue point to base and then back again. That person has
now been freed up and the possibility of a mis-communication considerably
diminished.

Some magazines (e.g., TGO, Trail) describe potential routes (walks and climbs) for
readers. Trail presents readers with a list of routes in each issue. Each description
includes information about the length of each route, time to complete, ascent, nature of
the terrain, car parking, maps required, plus particular comment of special difficulties
that may be encountered in regard to steep ground, high winds, navigation problems,
etc.. On the Hill (July, 2000) described walking in the Brecon Beacons. The feature
provided direct advice on difficulties to expect in regard to navigation and terrain and
also made suggestions about when to travel, gear to take, leaving word, escape routes,
map to use. Similarly, Global Adventure (Issue 4, 2000) described the Snowdon
Horseshoe, providing information on how to travel to the area, how to find out about the
weather, the route to take and potential difficult sections.

Features

All of the magazines feature articles which focus directly on safety related matters.
Climber recently examined how to stay safe and comfortable when climbing in the Alps
(July, 2000). The article described rope techniques for moving together, equipment to
be carried in the event of a crevasse rescue, and the important relationship between
fitness, speed of movement and safety. Climber (September, 2000) examined
techniques for placing protection in rock focusing especially on how to make poor
placements more secure and how to create runners in places which might not otherwise
be considered. Summit (Autumn, 2000) presented the results of a very comprehensive
testing programme of different helmets. The article showed that current helmet design
reflects very much helmet use. It also suggested that a major re-structuring of the
manufacturing standards is required as a result of these developments. The article
concluded with a clear message -

Take a helmet to the crag and presume you are going to use it. Only if you
can justify why not should you do without.

Trail (February, 2000) took a very basic look at winter skills such as using crampons and
ice axes effectively, avalanche awareness, navigation in white out, etc.. Climber (August,
2000) described ropes, their lifespan, systems that can be used such as single, double
etc.; replacement; cleaning, etc.. Climber (October, 2000) examined systems for sport
climbing to encourage safe and efficient practice. In this feature, the author said -

Many consider bolt clipping to be the non-serious facet of sport climbing and
so it should be; objective dangers are few, protection is reliable and the
decision making is simple. Why then do some many accidents occur? And even
more surprisingly why do these incidents often involve experienced climbers?
Quite simply the atmosphere encourages relaxation not vigilance. Those life
preservation mechanisms which come into play when youre fully alert (or
scared) that make you check and recheck are on standby. Cruelly, the
mistakes that happen are usually stupid ones; lowering off a route and failing
to notice the rope is too short, leaning back at the anchors to be lowered
without realising their partner has removed the belaying device, sloppy
belaying resulting in long falls. Learning from others mistakes is a sad but
crucial part of gaining experience, in particular it highlights the need for
simple, fool proof systems

Summit (Autumn, 2000) recently discussed the uses of GPSs in connection with recent
accuracy changes made by the US Department of Defence. The article concluded -

It seems ideal for use in relatively featureless terrain where traditional map
and compass navigation is tricky There is also no danger in using it as an
aid in harder terrain provided that one keeps a careful eye on all other
sources of information and doesnt become over-reliant. Sometimes one of
these tools may be appropriate, sometimes the other, and sometimes neither.
The balance between the challenge of self-reliant traditional navigation and
the convenience of modern technology is an individual matter.

In many cases, magazines include substantial features on topics which dont have a
direct bearing on safety but which, never - the - less, are connected. Topics such as
nutrition, diet and fluid intake have received current press. For example On the Hill
(July, 2000) described the importance of fluid intake and hydration in regard to
performance and health when walking for long periods. Global Adventure (issue 4,
2000) emphasised the importance of understanding the breakdown of food and how its
affects performance, particulary when climbing at altitude.

The importance of fitness, training and injury prevention within a sporting context has
been emphasised for some years in the academic press. These topics are now featured
regularly in the outdoor magazines. Climber recently included a booklet with one of its
issues highlighting the value of warm - up techniques to aid injury prevention and develop
endurance, strength, etc.. Trail (January, 2000) looked at procedures for assisting
climbers wishing to speed up recovery from injury.

Some magazines provide technical advice to coincide with changing seasons and the
particular challenges presented by winter or summer travel. Summit (Autumn, 2000)
included a comprehensive feature on winter hillwalking providing tips for safe and
comfortable travel in the winter hills. The TGO (November, 2000) similarly featured a
very comprehensive article on winter essentials written by one of the countrys leading
mountain guides and rescue experts. Trail magazine includes a Tip of the Month
feature. In the March 2001 issue it focused on map scales describing how level of detail
varies with map scale. In the same issue it advertised the navigation courses the
magazine organises in conjunction with the National Outdoor Training Centre - Plas Y
Brenin.

Occasional articles raise the matter of safety indirectly. For example some describe
the epics and drama experienced by climbers on expeditions or long climbs. Whilst the
intention is to provide the reader with an interesting account/story, such features often
highlight particular mountain hazards and risks very clearly. For example, John Barry
(Climber, September, 2000) described a sensational multi-pitch, multi-day climb in
Africa which presented all manner of hazards, including poor protection, loose rock, fluid
starvation, injury and even a threat from vultures! Mick James (The Scottish
Mountaineer, April, 2000) described his attempt to climb Pumori near Everest. The
article focused primarily on the difficulties he encountered with pulmonary oedema. Ian
Parnell (Climber, November, 2000) described the first ascent of one of the worlds
biggest sea cliffs in Greenland in which a member of the support team fell to his death
whilst abseiling in the area.

Advertising

All magazines advertise products such as GPSs, multinavigators, compasses, maps,
emergency shelters, lightsticks, etc. which are designed to assist safe/accurate travel
or help in the event of an emergency. Some advertisements make specific reference to
safety. For example, an advert describing trekking poles (TGO, October, 2000) makes
the bold statement that poles increase safety of the user (with four feet on the
ground). High and Climber have recently advertised videos, posters and booklets which
centre on mountain safety. The new BMC video/booklet Safety on Mountains has
received a lot of attention in recent times through direct advertising (e.g., Climber,
July, 2000) and reviews (High, July, 2000).

All magazines feature clothing and footwear advertisements in which performance
characteristics such as comfort, longevity, protection from the weather are described.
They also advertise courses of various kinds. For example, Trail advertises Skills for
the Hills courses organised by Outward Bound. It also actively promotes courses (e.g.,
navigation, winter skills) delivered by one of the national mountain training centres.
More widely, magazines provide listings of course/expedition providers, some of which
lead to qualifications in mountain leadership, outdoor education, etc..


The outdoor magazines present a means by which the public at large and the hillwalking
fraternity in particular can access information on a wide variety of relevant topics such
as equipment, techniques, courses, people and expeditions. Within this framework there
is tremendous scope to sell the safety message and highlight risks and it seems that
the Editors and Publishers take advantage of this potential. Indeed, there appears little
doubt their concern is serious, although it is very important to note they do not force
safety down peoples throats. The individuals freedom to make choices, especially in
regard to level of danger is a matter which permeates the policy of most magazines.
The emphasis is on trying to make people aware of risks and not controlling those risks.

Safety is dealt with in many ways, but clearly takes the form of information giving. This
occurs in two ways. Firstly it takes place directly through the provision of explicit
safety information such as how to access weather information; feature articles which
focus on safety skills; advertisement of products such as compasses and GPSs which are
designed to assist navigation. Safety is also promoted indirectly through features which
draw the readers attention to mountain hazards as part of a broader subject or story.
It may or may not be editorial policy to highlight hazards in this manner. All the
magazines focus on these subjects regularly. The overall perception is that safety is a
matter which permeates the magazines in a way which integrated, relevant and practical.

There are a number of key questions. The giving of information and the promotion of
mountain safety in all its various guises by the magazines is essentially a one - way
process. There would appear to be little scope for the Editors/Publishers to question
the effectiveness of their efforts. Indeed, it would be extremely difficult if not
impossible to assess whether or not readers change their attitude or behaviour to
safety as a result of reading the magazines. Consequently, it is impossible to assess
whether the magazines are effective in their attempts to promote mountain safety. It
may well be that by sensitising readers on a regular basis to topics recognised as critical
to safe mountain travel (e.g., how to fit and use crampons in winter) a stronger safety
culture will develop amongst readers. In turn, they will respond positively by adopting
safer practices. This seems a fair assumption to make although it remains to be tested.

A second question asks which readers are influenced by information given in relation to
mountain safety. Readers who are experienced and knowledgeable hillgoers may be less
influenced than those who are beginners or unaware of the hazards of mountain travel.
In contrast, some experienced people may be less receptive to new ideas (because they
know the ropes) and hence less influenced by the magazines to introduce new methods
or equipment designed to aid safe travel. Whilst the magazines will be able to describe
their readership, they may not know how readers respond to magazine content or style.

Finally, if the attempts made by magazines to encourage safe practice in the hills are
successful, the question is raised about how successful? In particular, it would be
interesting to compare the relative influence of the various methods used to promote
mountain safety. For example, is it more effective to watch a video production on
mountain safety than read a book on the subject? Or is it better to take a practical
course in say mountain navigation than listen to a mountain rescue expert describing
accounts of people lost in the Highlands? There are many ways to sell the safety
message and several sensory modes that can be used. Research in the psychology of skill
learning suggests that passive approaches to learning (such as reading) are less
successful than those which involve the learner in more practical and interactive ways.
Whether this applies to mountain safety, attitude change as well as behavioural change
is very much open to question. The role of outdoor magazines in this equation is unknown
although continuing sales, increasing readership levels and the introduction of new
publications coupled with the generally accepted reduction in accident rates, suggests
that magazines play a key role in mountain safety.

Climber (November, 2000)

Climbline information is given, i.e., phone numbers to access weather reports (latest and 7
day) for different parts of the UK. There is a news item about a two climbers who were
killed/injured. Another news item describes a climber who fell and pulled a rock which
then killed his second. This item highlighted the importance of wearing safety helmets
and checking holds whilst rock climbing. A technical article highlights the importance of
spotting, using the first bolt, etc., on sport climbs.

Summit (Autumn, 2000)

A letter from a reader underlines the importance of using helmets when abseiling and
techniques of self protection. There is a news item on the recall of a particular make
of helmet with suspect safety hazards; it fails impact and strap retention tests.
There is another news item about a climber killed whilst abseiling. A very long
feature describes winter skills and concludes with an advertisement for BMC safety
video. A technical item refers to excessive buckle slippage on an imported climbing
harness; slippage occurs if the buckle is caught and with repetitive loading. A news
item notes the need for care in using the GriGri and the need for familiarity, how it
works and how it might fail. There is a feature on the testing results of several
types of climbing helmet. It is noted that some helmets fail to meet EN and UIAA
criteria. It gives advice on which helmet to purchase for specific uses. A news
describes a climber who was killed soloing a route he had completed many times; the
fine line between life and death is noted.

TGO (November, 2000)

The Editorial discusses the need to consider winter travel in terms of skills
and hazards which are different from summer. There is a listing of the
Boots Across Scotland safety talks, the winter skills/safety courses
organised by the Ramblers Association and navigation courses organised by
the Scottish Mountain Safety Forum. A brief note summarises a recent
conference talk by a mountain rescue expert criticising the outdated
technology used by teams and the need for all teams to train in realistic
weather conditions. There is a lengthy feature on winter skills including the
problems of dehydration and the need for competence in navigation, use of
the ice axe and digging emergency shelters. There are advertisements for
items such as emergency shelters, electronic compasses, GPSs and courses in
winter skills and safety.

VIEWS OF THE MOUNTAINEERING CLUBS

Introduction

The majority of mountaineering and hillwalking clubs in Scotland are members of the MC
of S. All member clubs were contacted via a mailshot carried out by the MC of S. A
letter was sent to the Secretaries of 129 clubs describing the research and asking if
they would be prepared to answer a few questions. The letter identified two issues of
interest, viz., what are the best ways to promote mountain safety in Scotland, and what
are the key areas of weakness in peoples mountain skills which should be developed. It
also asked whether any member who had been involved in a mountain accident or near
miss would be prepared to discuss the key causes. The same information was also
published on the website (Safety and Training page) of the MC of S.

These actions generated responses from 30 Club Secretaries and 104 replies (written,
telephone, E-mail) from individual members. In some cases, the Club Secretary asked
for multiple copies of the letter/questionnaire to be sent for distribution at a Club
meeting. In other cases, the Secretary distributed the questionnaire via a Club E-
mailshot. In two cases, the researcher was invited (and agreed) to speak at a Club
meeting.

Promotion of Mountain Safety

A small number of people raised the practical problems of contacting the wide variety of
people involved in mountaineering and hillwalking, particularly the vast majority of
individuals who dont belong to any organisation which might otherwise facilitate the
dissemination of safety-related information. One person echoed the strong view which
arose from the Course Provider survey that safety promotion should begin with young
children through the school environment.

Three major areas were identified for promoting mountain safety, viz., practical
experience, the media and the use of various materials.

The value of practical experience in promoting safety was underlined by many people
(43% of respondents considered this to be extremely important). Practical experiences
gained through courses or in partnership with more experienced Club members was
considered important because it reinforces the safety message within a real context and
helps to underline key principles. It was also underlined that for such experience to be
fully effective, it must be progressive in nature and take place in a variety of
settings/locations in different weather conditions. Furthermore, those who seek to
pass on their experience to others must know their stuff; they must be credible and
accurate in what they seek to communicate or else it is simply a case of the blind leading
the blind. It was agreed further that courses which are organised outside the Club
environment (e.g., those run by the National Outdoor Training Centre or MRTs) are
valuable for those who take them, as well as other Club members who receive advice and
instruction which is then passed down.

Ensure people get plenty of practical training in a secure environment. There
is no substitute for progression of experience . Joining a club exposes the
inexperienced to people with a wealth of experience of the different regions
in Scotland and the techniques required to enjoy this environment safely."

Several people suggested that a buddy system would be a good idea. Here, those who
had taken a course and/or were more experienced would take responsibility for passing
on their knowledge to those less experienced. The need for courses to be reasonably
priced was noted by several people.

Of all the various resources available to promote mountain safety, the most frequently
suggested was video (32%) . It was considered that videos provide a useful and
informative focus for Club (indoor) meetings, particularly if combined with discussion
based on individual experiences. Specifically, it was felt that videos work well if the
content is targeted and has a particular focus such as navigation and self-reliance. The
overall value of talks from experienced members as well as those with particular
expertise (e.g., guides, mountain rescue personnel) was emphasised by many people. The
value of talks arranged by organisations such as the MC of S and Boots across Scotland
are mentioned frequently. However, as with videos, it was mentioned that presentations
must be informative and entertaining and focus on issues which are relevant to the Club
in question. The value of written materials such as leaflets and magazines was seen to
be limited, but a small number of people suggested that well-illustrated and properly
targeted leaflets may have a useful role to play. It was considered there may be some
gain through attaching leaflets to new items of gear or locating information flyers in
appropriate car parks. Various other approaches were suggested (e.g., computer
software, information tags on new equipment, improved guidebooks, warden system in
accident black spots), but these received little support.

The various media (TV, radio, newspapers) were seen to be important providers of
safety information (20%). It was suggested that the reporting of accidents is useful,
particularly if it draws attention to the mistakes made by people and causes of
accidents. TV was considered to especially useful if it targets local conditions and
problems. However, its special value lay in the potential to contact the many hillgoers
who do not belong to organisations such as hillwalking clubs.


Club members identified three key problem areas, viz navigation, weather understanding
and skill development. It was felt by 47% of all respondents that the prime weakness
for many hillgoers is poor navigational skill, i.e., underestimating the importance of map
understanding, uses of the compass, safe route judgement, abdication of navigation
responsibility. Several people suggested that Club outings often rely on one or two
people to navigate whilst the large majority opt out. In these cases, the potential to
teach others to navigate and take advantage of expertise within the Club, is overtaken
by the ease of allowing the experts in the group to solve the problems. There is a
feeling that Clubs could do much more to improve the general level of navigation skills
amongst members.

Abdication! Many people always let others do the navigating, especially when
its bad. By all means go out with competent navigators/mountaineers, but get
them to let you lead and then maybe keep an eye on things. Theres nothing
like practice.

There are equally clear feelings (26%) that too many people are ignorant of the
difficulties caused by bad weather and how quickly the weather changes in the mountain
environment. There is also a view that too many hillgoers are reluctant and unprepared
to change their plans when faced with deteriorating weather conditions.

Poor weather understanding is a weakness - usually with beginners. Many
travel long distances and are not prepared to turn back.

Almost one quarter (23%) of all respondents felt there was a need for improvement in
other areas, especially self awareness and planning. It was felt there is general inability
to plan ahead and anticipate problems that can arise during a day on the hill; too many
hillgoers operate at the margin of their ability which results in difficulties when they
are required to cope under extreme conditions of weather or terrain, especially in
winter. Frequently this is linked to a tendency to overestimate ability, to be over-
confident and make plans which are too ambitious. There is a lesser concern that some
hillgoers are ill-equipped and cannot use some items of equipment (e.g., IT based items)
properly, and are unsure how to deal with emergency situations.

Poor forward planning in general. More particularly poor anticipation of
possible problems and making allowance for them in terms of time, emergency
exit routes, equipment, etc.

A reasonably strong view (9%) was expressed about the poor level of technical
expertise in winter conditions, especially safe travel on steep ground. A very small
number of people commented on the need for hillgoers to improve their fitness,
group awareness, first aid skills, timing ability and so on.


The response from Club members was considered good although there is little way
of knowing how representative are the responses. Those who belong to clubs are
clearly committed hillgoers whereas those who venture into the hills in general will
show a much broader level of commitment. But it is not possible to say whether
club members are more aware of the mountain environment and its hazards or more
skilled or weatherwise, etc.. There is a consistency in the responses from those
who responded and many similarities in the comments made by other groups in this
research study which indicate there is much substance in what club members have
to say.

Not unsurprisingly, there is a clear feeling that safety matters are best
understood through the medium of practical experience which arises through the
club meetings and through attendance on structured courses. Talks and
presentations by experienced mountaineers are also considered to be very useful
as long as these are relevant to the club and its particular activities. Videos are
thought to be a very good medium for selling the safety message and particularly
useful when combined with other approaches (such as talks from experienced
hillgoers) or used to stimulate discussion and debate during indoor club meetings.

There is an over-riding view that the number one weakness is navigation. It is not
surprising that many club members draw attention to the situation where members
walking in a group often leave the task of navigation to one or two others who are
deemed to be more expert. This means that many good learning opportunities are
missed. Paradoxically, many club members see that one of the benefits of club
membership is the opportunity for inexperienced people to benefit from the skill
of others. Clearly, in many cases, this is not happening. A second area of weakness
is the general subject of self awareness in the mountains. There is a strong
feeling that too many people demonstrate over-confidence or ambition when it is
not warranted. This is often reflected in a stubbornness to change plans as a days
walk unfolds, especially in regard to changing weather patterns and other things
such as the groups requirements or fitness levels. The lack of basic weather
knowledge is also seen a major problem area.

In arriving at any conclusions one has to be mindful that clubs are not regulated by
any outside body, and that membership is purely voluntary. People do not join clubs
to be told what to do! It is not possible or desirable to suggest any kind of control
and change, but it might be worthwhile to alert clubs to the following ideas:

7. Clubs provide a valuable opportunity for those who are less experienced to
benefit from those who are more experienced.

8. The club environment may facilitate the passing on of skills and knowledge
from those who have attended organised courses, to those who have not.

9. The buddy or learner apprentice idea which involves small groups (perhaps
pairs) of experienced and inexperienced people sharing knowledge, appears to
work well with some clubs.

10. Safety/skills videos which are current and relevant may provide a good focus
for discussion at indoor meetings. Relevant ideas and skills could be followed up
at subsequent outdoor meets.

11. Those clubs which take advantage of local expertise (e.g., mountain rescue
personnel) who have direct knowledge of mountain incidents, find this source of
information and advice extremely useful.

12. Because navigation is seen to be such an important skill and because it is the
single area deemed to be in most need of improvement, it makes sense for those
clubs which are interested, to examine ways of improving the overall level of
competence of members. There are many ways this can be achieved including
courses, videos, practical experience, buddying, talks, etc..

13. Like navigation, matters relating to self awareness/reliance are also seen to be
particularly important in the mountain environment. Clubs may wish to examine
how they could help those in need become more self reliant and understanding
of their own limitations. This will not be a simple task.

14. Matters relating to planning and preparation (e.g., using weather information,
planning alternative routes) which are also seen to be areas of weakness, could
be developed through indoor meetings which promoted wide discussion and
presented information on key issues for all to share.

SUMMARY

The views from the various organisations surveyed in the survey lead to a number of
conclusions about how safety is valued and promoted. They also point to the kinds of
areas where hillgoers are weak, and what may be done to compensate.

Safety is clearly taken very seriously by all groups, but the extent to which each
organisation sells the safety message is quite variable. For example, manufacturers of
equipment are able to promote safety through good documentation and quality products,
but they are unable to take this any further since they do not make contact with users.
Their influence is essentially one - way. On the other hand, retailers make direct
contact with hillgoers and can therefore take the process one step further through face
to face discussion and feedback. Providers are better placed still through direct
involvement with people on the hill. However, whatever method is used to promote
mountain safety, there are still a number of uncertainties and varying views about how it
should be tackled. Take for example the matter of signage. Whittle (2001) says:

accidents do not will happen on a lot of our hills in England, Wales and
Scotland. However, wilderness and places of beauty should remain unspoilt.
It is bad enough having a railway going up Snowdon without putting up signs
everywhere which make a mess and are an eyesore on the landscape. We
cannot go around placing marker posts everywhere. People should use their
common sense to assess their own experience

In contrast Pugh (2001), a member of the Welsh Assembly says:

I want to see daily reports of conditions on the mountains posted in areas
such as Ogwen and Llanberis. There should be clear warnings of the need to
take an ice axe and crampons when necessary. The biggest risk is to
occasional walkers who do not understand that Snowdonia can be a serious
proposition.

Pughs support for the publication of warning signs in Wales is mirrored by the view of
Broadhurst (2001) who makes a case for a wide variety of measures in Scotland including
the use of Let us know you are going to the hills forms, weather reports by local press,
signs and notices at key access points, increased use of websites to present weather and
avalanche information, skills booklets and leaflets, etc.. Overall, it is not clear which
method or methods are best used to sell the safety message. There is some evidence
that leaflets and brochures are not effective, and certainly not as valuable as courses
and other dynamic approaches. Evidence from the psychology of learning shows very
clearly that people learn much better is they are actively involved in their learning and
are given the opportunity to interrogate the learning process (Sharp, 1992). The
essential problem when examining the effectiveness of promoting safety is that it is
very difficult to quantify effectiveness; there is no information available to judge the
relative merits of one method over another. It would seem that the various approaches
used to sell safety such as leaflets, weather advice, magazine articles, etc. rely simply
on their face validity. It is well known however, that peoples behaviour is not changed
just because they are given a leaflet (however, relevant or colourful) explaining why/how
they should change. Attempts to change behaviour in areas such as exercise, drug
taking, smoking and diet, have shown there are difficulties in determining the content of
messages and the best methods to use. In addition, there is the fundamental problem
connected with changing attitudes. Without imposing some kind of control over people,
behaviour changes only result when there is an associated change in attitude. A lot of
work has to take place in regard to the method/s used to promote safety and how those
methods can be monitored. An alternative approach, however, is to accept the present
limitations, but continue to promote safety in various ways in the expectation they will
influence peoples behaviour. This is an easy option, but conflicts with findings from the
second survey (see later). There is strong feeling that attempts to promote mountain
safety should be co-ordinated by all the relevant agencies.

There is an overall view that the accident rate in Scotland may be falling although not all
are fully convinced about this. In this regard, it may be useful to publish more widely
the data available on accidents and participation. Navigation is seen to present
particular problems for many hillgoers, and this is seen to be the most important area in
require of development. There is also a feeling that many people lack the technical skills
for winter travel and fail to use weather information for route choice when on the hill.
In addition, there is a view that soft skill areas related to self reliance, decision making
and general awareness of the mountain environment are weak. This may not be
unconnected to the view that the advent of good equipment/clothing and gadgets such as
GPSs has led to a certain technical complacency; skill lags behind the reliance on
equipment.

There is a strong view that the way to tackle the problem of navigation is by encouraging
more people to take courses to improve the various skills. Clear concerns are expressed
are about the nature of courses - timing, delivery methods, targeting, duration, cost,
etc.. There is a view that navigation is something which can be introduced at school level
as part of various school subjects. Equally, it is felt that the importance of navigation
should not be divorced from other key skills such as route planning and use of weather
information; the context should not be lost.

CONCLUSIONS

The topic of safety promotion prompts a variety of questions/comments, viz.,

1. It is suggested that particular attempts to promote the safety message may not be
very effective. Should these be discarded and greater effort directed towards
those felt to be more productive?

2. Even though it is felt there are variations in the worth of different methods to
promote safety, the difficulties of actual measurement are recognised by all. Is
there any mileage to be gained by pursuing this matter? Should we perhaps accept
the difficulties of measurement and continue to adopt methods based on intuition
and face validity?

3. There is a feeling that safety messages should be co-ordinated by the key agencies
in order to focus on the same message and maximise the strength of that message.
Is this is good strategy? How practical would it be? Who would take the lead? On
what basis would decisions be made about the nature of the message?

4. The agencies which are potentially in the best position to promote mountain safety
are those which are able to make physical contact with hillgoers (retailers,
providers of courses, etc.). Is this potential being maximised? If not, is there
scope (and how) to develop this potential?

5. There is a question about whether the efforts to promote mountain safety actually
target the right audience. Do they, in effect, preach to the converted? It would
be extremely difficult to match those most at risk with appropriate advertising,
although the suggestion that safety information is located at access points to high
risk areas, might be one way to target people.
6. Navigation is clearly seen to be a weak area for very many hillgoers. Much is
already done to emphasise the importance of navigation and to develop peoples
skills in the area. Are we satisfied that enough effort is being invested? Is there
a case for a national campaign or co-ordinated effort by several agencies?

7. The value of education through courses is emphasised by many. Strong views are
expressed about the many practical aspects of courses; they should be accessible,
affordable and pertinent. Are we confident that provision of courses (e.g.,
navigation) in Scotland is appropriate and sufficient? Is there a need to survey
provision in Scotland with a view to identification of any gaps?

8. There is a need to underline the importance of personal qualities such as self
reliance, awareness of personal limitations, decision making, etc.. Whilst
recognising that such qualities are based on extended experience and practice (of
the right kind), are there other approaches which can be adopted to highlight
importance and develop strengths?

REFERENCES

Broadhurst, S. (2001). Mountain safety. Unpublished document, Northern Constabulary.

Ledward, K. (1996). The trekking pole. Keswick: KLETS.

Outdoor Industries Association. (2000). Development plan 2000 - 2003 Summary.
South Ruislip: Outdoor Industries Association.

Mintel. (1998). Sporting activities in the great outdoors. London: Mintel International
Group Ltd.

Pugh, A. (2001). Snowdonia safety call. The Great Outdoors, 23, 4, 5.

Sharp, R. H. (1992). Acquiring skill in sport. Eastbourne: Sports Dynamics.

The Editor. (2000). News in brief. The Great Outdoors, 22, 11, 4-6.

Whittle, R. (2001). Make reference to maps. The Great Outdoors. 23, 4, 120.
SECOND SURVEY - RESULTS

METHODOLOGY

The first survey was general in nature and requested information/views from open -
ended questions. It was expected this would generate a small number of well - defined
issues about which further views could then be sought. Indeed, this was the case. For
example, the importance of navigation was highlighted by all groups, but very little was
expressed about how hillgoers should be made aware of its importance or how it should
be taught/delivered. The purpose of the second survey was to carry out a detailed
examination of issues like this which were highlighted in the first survey. To this end, a
second questionnaire was designed comprising both open and closed - questions
(Appendix VII).

In terms of respondents, a decision was taken to be more focused than in the first
survey. The people who were targeted in the first survey were asked if they would be
interested in receiving further information about the study. A total of 122 (99%)
indicated they were interested. The second survey used this group as the target group
in the belief that that those who had shown interest the first time and taken the
trouble to complete and return the questionnaire would do likewise the second time,
thereby maximising the return rate. More important, it was felt that fuller and more
accurate responses would be received from those who had already given the matter
consideration through their involvement with the first survey.

A summary paper was distributed to everyone, together with a copy of the questionnaire
asking for return within two weeks. Although there were a total of 122 replies, only 94
could be identified and hence consulted. There were 39 replies yielding a return rate of
41.5%.

RESULTS

Introduction

The second survey was more in-depth and aimed to find more about the key issues
which arose from the first survey. In the interests of continuity and development,
the second survey was distributed to those individuals who, from the first survey,
had expressed an interest to be kept informed of the project. It did not include
the category of mountaineering Clubs however, sine the survey to this group was
not initiated until after the first survey was complete. The second survey was
divided into two parts. The first part focused on the three major areas of
weakness identified in the first study (i.e., navigation, winter skills, self-reliance).
The second part looked at issues surrounding methods for promoting mountain
safety.

Skill Development

Navigation

The first survey established very clearly that navigation is the key skill that hillgoers in
general need to develop. The question was asked therefore how do we impress upon
people the importance of navigation? There is a strong feeling that messages to sell
navigation should underline the consequences of poor navigation (e.g., many common
emergencies such as slips and falls can be traced back to a navigation error) and the
need be aware at all times of ones position on the hill (e.g., anticipation, regular
reference to the map). These messages should be conveyed in as many ways as possible,
particularly with youngsters. The use of hard hitting (but not over the top) posters at
access points along with other traditional uses of leaflets, talks, etc., is suggested.
There is a sense that a co-ordinated campaign involving TV (in particular), and relevant
organisations such as the mountaineering council, providers, retailers, etc. would be
useful, although at a practical level it is difficult to see how this could be achieved.

People were also asked what are the best ways to improve navigation skills. The very
strong feeling here is that people only really improve through practice and experience.
It is suggested that practice in good conditions (as well as poor conditions of course) is
useful because it helps to develop a culture of use; the importance of always knowing
where you are. Practice in good conditions also provides lots of useful and immediate
feedback which is often lacking when

there is no way to improve navigation other than getting out and practicing
these skills and continually using them. Use navigation deliberately and when
perhaps not normally required so that the skills and confidence is there.

navigation in bad weather. The importance of trying to bring about a culture change
where hillgoers practice key skills regularly, in the same way that many practice self
arrest techniques at the start of each winter, was underlined by many people. It is felt
that the role of practice

Targeting specific courses at individual and groups (non-residential and
residential) to include basic navigation but also navigation refreshers -
similar to recommending that a winter hillgoer should practice ice axe arrest
and crampon use each season.

through courses and good teaching is exceptionally important. Most feel that courses
can be very useful in helping to develop navigational skills, but they should be offered in
a flexible manner (evening, weekend, residential, refresher, etc.) at various levels and
targeted at those most in need
6
. The need for courses to be affordable (possibly
through sponsorship) is also emphasised. There is a clear feeling that attention should
be given to how navigation is introduced and taught. It should be uncomplicated,
interesting and made relevant within the wider context of mountaineering
knowledge/skills. It should not be taught as a stand alone subject. The value of
introducing navigation - in some form - to schoolchildren was highlighted

It is in general difficult to convince people that they need to improve their
skills/behaviour. It needs to be done in an honest and open way which
emphasises the development and personal gain available to the individual

once more. The important part that Clubs can play is emphasised. It is suggested that
more people should be encouraged to join Clubs to enable them to take advantage of the
experience and wisdom of others.

The introduction of some kind of navigation award/qualification
7
is suggested by several
people.

Self/Mountain Awareness

In addition to the first study, the critical nature of self awareness, self reliance and
awareness of mountain matters was highlighted. People are, in general, less clear about
the steps which could be taken help people here. This is most likely due to the fact
qualities which are highly personal and depend on long and varied experience, are less
susceptible to outside influences. The question was asked however, because it was
highlighted as a major issue and because it is well known (anecdotal evidence) that some
hillgoers tend to go for the quick fix route where good equipment is seen to be the
route to success at the expense of skill and wisdom. In terms of developing self reliance
and mountain awareness, the potential role played by Clubs and taking courses of one
kind or another is underlined by many people. The point is made that Clubs provide an
obvious opportunity for beginners to learn alongside those more experienced and to
venture safely into environments more extreme than they might do alone. This is a good
reason for encouraging people to join Clubs.

The value of courses is further underlined, although their value in developing self
reliance is not seen to be as strong as in the development of technical skills such as
navigation. Courses are only useful if they demonstrate the value of qualities such as
confidence and self reliance, possibly through discussion of situations arising on the hill
which require experienced judgement and wisdom. The need to examine this subject
with children (e.g., through the D of E Award) was mentioned again by some people.

6
This is an area still to be examined.
7
Note National Navigation Award - Silva, etc.
The use of various types of media (especially TV) in selling certain messages is
highlighted. It is felt important to emphasise that self reliance is critical, not least
because (quick) rescues cannot always be guaranteed if there is an emergency; people
should never rely on technology or rapid evacuation by a rescue team, but always be
prepared to look after themselves in the short term. It is emphasised by many that it is
not easy to enhance self reliance; there are no quick fixes to developing qualities such
as self-reliance and mountain awareness; personal qualities

An emphasis on them making themselves self reliant might appeal to people
more than being told you need to improve your skills.

like this require an enormous investment in time and effort (both alone and in
partnership with those more experienced).

Experience is not what happens to you. Its what you do with what happens
to you.

Winter Skills

The key to improving winter mountain skills is considered to be through practice, courses
and club involvement. There is a great emphasis on quality instruction and education
through formal courses. There is a feeling that because safe winter travel has a strong
technical component, courses provide the best means by which key skills can be
introduced and relevant information absorbed quickly. However, courses should be
fundamental in content, accessible and delivered by experienced instructors. In
addition, courses should be affordable (possibly subsidised) and conveniently located.
Weekend/refresher courses are considered to be very important. Clubs are also seen to
be important because, for the same reason mentioned before, they provide a means
where novices can take advantage of expert guidance. It is considered important that
winter skills are developed in a safe environment before the individual tackles more
challenging terrain. There is a little support for selling the message that winter and
summer travel involve a number of similar but also very different kinds of skills.

Safety Promotion

The first survey revealed a number of ways in which the safety message can be sold.
Some people expressed clear views about how this should be done. The second survey,
therefore asked a direct question about what is the best way/s to promote the safety
message. People were asked to rank a wide variety of approaches (See Table 1). By far
the most important method suggested is through courses. There is a strong view
however that the hillgoing public at large need to be convinced about the value of taking
courses. The use of TV programmes, lectures by knowledgeable mountaineers, videos
and leaflets are also seen as important, but methods such as slides, posters, newspapers,
brochures, radio broadcasts are seen as having little value. It is interesting to note that
a number of recent developments (e.g., navigation) use the computer approach.

When questioned about the content of the safety message, it is suggested that
information given to hillgoers should centre around three things, viz., nature and
importance of hazards, importance of key skills and, to a lesser extent, the value of
using correct clothing and equipment. It is felt that hazards (e.g., avalanches, changes
in weather) should be described in terms which are direct but not designed to scare.
Related messages should question whether people know how to deal with them (e.g., Can
you navigate in a white out?, Do you know how to descend a steep ice slope?).
Messages should also underline the need for hillgoers to acquire technical competencies
in a variety of areas such as navigation, and route planning. The need to learn in a
progressive manner and to take advantage of expert knowledge is also underlined, as is
the need for walkers and climbers to prepare well and to take sufficient gear in the
event of an emergency. The importance of using correct equipment is mentioned by
some, but having the skills to use that equipment is also highlighted by more people.
There is a strong view that over the top reporting of incidents and posters/leaflets
spelling out Danger are not good ways to promote mountain safety.

Table 1 Relative importance of different (media) methods for promoting safety

Method Rank

Courses 1
TV 2
Lectures, talks 3
Videos 4
Leaflets 5
Discussion groups 6
Newspapers 7
Computer CDs 8
Helplines (eg, weather) 9
Internet 10
Books, booklets 11
Outdoor Magazines 12
Posters 13
Manufacturers Brochures 14
35 mm slides 15
Radio 16
Audio-tapes 17

On a broader front (Table 2), there is a feeling that the subject of mountain awareness
and the nature of mountain hazards would not be out of place presented in a school
environment. The potential value of introducing navigation skills and soft skills involving
self reliance, personal awareness, etc., to youngsters is also mentioned. So there is a
sense in which introducing key subjects to schoolchildren in regard to mountain hazards,
skills, awareness, etc. may, within the right context, have long term benefits in
sensitising people to mountain safety. As well as schoolchildren there is a strong view
that the safety message should be targeted at the at risk groups. Regular, well timed
media campaigns and integrated efforts by the major stakeholders

Create an integrated network providing and publicising courses (at different
levels). These should be promoted through the media and, if possible, be
subsidised through relevant bodies and agencies.

may assist this process, as well as improved provision of key information at access points
such as car parks at the start/end of popular routes. All of these strategies are
strongly supported.

Table 2 Strategies for promoting safety

Agree
%
Unsure
%
Disagree
%
Improved efforts to target at risk (eg, student) groups 94 6 -
Courses - more which are cost effective, accessible and relevant 94 6 -
Courses - there is a need to convince public about the value of courses 94 6 -
Integrated thrust on safety promotion by all stakeholders 90 10 -
Better provision of key information at local access points (eg, car parks) 82 15 3
There should be regular, well-timed, national media campaigns 68 26 6
Improved distribution of accident statistics to all hillgoers 64 33 3
Mountain/hazard awareness should be targeted at schoolchildren 66 22 12
Improved attempts to target public at large, not just regular hillgoers 55 39 6
The mountains are dangerous messages should be widely displayed 47 26 27
Continued over-the-top reporting by media of mountain accidents 6 39 55

There is a clear and unequivocal view that the procedures used to promote the safety
message should be examined to see if they work. This is important for financial reasons
(to assist in the prioritisation of funds) and also for educational reasons.

There should not be complacency that messages are being taken on board by
target audiences. It is obviously better to actively work on improving and
identifying methods. Good progress has been made but a lot more could be
done. When peoples health and lives are at risk it is wrong to let things
remain static.

SUMMARY

In regard to how navigation and winter skills should be dealt with there are a number of
common threads. The value of practice is underlined along with the benefits of taking
courses and belonging to Clubs. In both cases there is potential for those without skills
to benefit from those who are more experienced. In regard to courses, there is a clear
call for courses to be made available which are affordable, relevant and accessible.
Courses offered at weekends and refresher-type courses would appear to be particulary
attractive. In addition, the manner in which skills are taught/introduced is a focus of
attention. There is a need for skills to be taught progressively, in context and in a way
which encourages people to want to learn. It is recognised that self reliance is
something which cannot easily be developed or taught. The importance of practice and
working with more experienced hillgoers is again underlined.

In terms of safety promotion, the suggestion, once more is that courses can play a large
part in informing people not only about hazards, but also how to cope with those hazards.
Other methods of promotion are good (e.g., TV programmes/news items, videos, talks)
but some are not (posters, brochures, computers). There is a feeling that messages
should be hard hitting, and describe what can go wrong in the mountains and question
whether hillgoers have the skills to cope. But they should not attempt to shock or scare.
The value in promoting safety and developing certain mountain skills early on (e.g., with
schoolchildren) is mentioned frequently. Similarly, the benefit of organisations working
together to co-ordinate skills, courses and safety promotion, perhaps targeted, is a
focus for many people.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Courses are important and can help in a variety of ways. Do we have a complete
picture about course provision in Scotland? Is it practical to establish a structure
for course provision in Scotland which specifies coherence and progression? How
can we encourage more people/more often to take relevant courses?

2. Clubs can play a vital role in educating novices. How do we encourage more people
to join clubs? Is it desirable to promote club membership? Should/can we
encourage clubs to focus more on the teaching/learning dimension?

3. Safety culture. Is it possible to develop an awareness of the mountains, hazards,
risks, skills, etc., amongst schoolchildren (through school curricula, youth groups,
etc.) and at the same time avoid adding to the fear culture or sanitisation?

4. Self reliance. How do we impress upon people the importance of self reliance,
experience, non-reliance on technology, decision making, etc., and the need to
develop this outwith the confines of formal education (courses)?

5. Safety promotion. Is full advantage being taken of the techniques considered good
ones for promoting safety? There is a need to monitor the effectiveness of
safety campaigns (do they work? are they targeted correctly?) to ensure the best
approaches are being used and money is spent wisely.

6. If safety promotion and courses should be targeted, then are we fully sure who are
the target (at risk) groups? Once identified, how do we then proceed?

SUMMARY & RECOMMENDATIONS

The respondents to the second survey also responded to the first survey. It was
therefore expected there would be an overlap in information/views presented by both
surveys. However, as the second was designed to be more focused, new
information/ideas were also expected. The following points are drawn from both
surveys and look to the more practical things which can be taken from the research to
date.

SUMMARY

1. All the key organisations express a clear concern for safety. It is dealt with in
different ways and with different emphases but, none the less, it is very high on
the agenda for very many people.

2. Safety is promoted in a variety of ways, but assessing the effectiveness of safety
promotion is not an easy matter (and perhaps impossible) to examine. The majority
of people do not/are not able to monitor the value of their efforts. This is
understandable for a variety of reasons. Firstly, there is little way of knowing who
receives the message (e.g., exactly who receives/reads safety leaflets and who
watches the safety videos?). Consequently, it is extremely difficult to obtain
feedback. Secondly, there are no mechanisms for monitoring the worth of these
techniques. Thirdly, few people expend time and effort to monitor and assess the
value of their promotional efforts.

3. It seems that assumptions are made about selling safety. There is an assumption
that telling a person how to do something or providing them with relevant
information, will change behaviour. A well established body of psychological
research shows that changing peoples attitudes and then their behaviour is a very
complex and long - term matter. A second assumption is that safety messages
somehow reach their target. However, there is no proof that safety messages
delivered through videos, magazines, leaflets, etc., reach those hillgoers (or
potential hillgoers) who might benefit most.

4. There is a strong sense that some methods of selling safety messages may be more
effective than others (even though this cannot be measured). Those which permit
a degree of interaction and are intrinsically dynamic in form (courses, talks,
presentations) are seen as much more useful than those which do not (posters,
brochures, CDs).

5. There is a clear feeling that navigation is the number one skill where the major
weaknesses lie. This is not surprising, but objective confirmation is important.

6. The need for people to be fully prepared for winter and to strengthen basic
technical skills for safe movement in winter is also confirmed.

7. Personal qualities such as self reliance, and personal awareness are highlighted and
considered to be a particular weakness with many hillgoers. Knowing that these
qualities take time and experience to develop, it is not surprising that in an age
when quality equipment is readily available, especially good communications
technology, many people seek the quick fix. As a result, qualities such as wisdom,
experience, skill and awareness sometimes take a back seat.

8. The value of education (particularly through the medium of mountain skills courses)
is underlined by most people. There is a hint that something could be done to
develop both self reliance and technical competence in navigation at a school/youth
group level to help engender a culture that these matters are important.

There is a clear feeling that courses need to be tailored so they are affordable,
relevant and accessible. There is also a feeling that many people need to be
convinced that courses are good for you.

9. Club membership is seen as an exceptionally valuable way of passing on wisdom and
skills to younger/less experienced hillgoers.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Although there is a call to monitor the various approaches used to promote safety
(leaflets, magazines, videos, TV, etc.), the matter is highly complex and impractical.
It is recommended that no further consideration is given to monitoring safety
messages (unless there are specific instances which can be contained). It is
recommended that a different approach is adopted - see next point.

2. Rather than examine the end point of a promotion exercise (impractical to obtain
feedback), we should ensure that the start point is valid. The logic here is that if
the message is valid and is sent to the right people in the correct manner then it
stands a reasonable chance of being effective; there is nn need to measure
effectiveness. This suggests that with any safety message, consideration is given
to:

validity/accuracy of the content
identification of the correct audience
use of the best possible medium
accuracy of dissemination of message
Whilst some work is carried out on these matters, I suspect much more can be
done, particularly in regard to target group identification and distribution
efficiently. It is recommended that the current safety campaigns are examined
in light of these criteria and action taken where possible. At the very least this
involves a renewed investigation of the accident statistics to identify the at risk
groups. There is some evidence this may have changed in recent years.

3. Given that different methods used to promote mountain safety are considered to
be differentially effective, and that the findings mirror those predicted by well
established learning principles, it is recommended that future safety campaigns
use methods which take on board these findings; the cheap and cheerful leaflet
may need to be ditched in favour or more interactive approaches.

4. There is a strong feeling that safety messages should not attempt to frighten or
shock, but should still take a bold and informative stance, perhaps through
questioning the walkers competence to do what they plan. Written messages
strategically located at access points are considered to be very useful. It is
recommended that the relevant agencies give serious thought to this approach.

5. Navigation is seen to be the prime weakness. Courses (along with personal
experience) are viewed as the best way to develop navigation skills. It is
recommended that an audit is taken of all navigation courses offered in
Scotland with a view to ascertaining whether or not opportunities are being
maximised. It is also recommended that the new Navigation Awards scheme is
examined to see if it can be used as a medium to enhance awareness/skills in
schools, clubs and beyond.

6. The value of club involvement in promoting skill development and wider mountain
awareness is highlighted. Whilst this is only one gain from club membership, it
would seem to be a legitimate reason for promoting club membership. It is
recommended that the MC of S considers a club promotion campaign.

7. The notion of a national campaign and co-ordinated action by several bodies to
highlight particular skills is highlighted. Is it practical to do this? Is it possible to
identify a given subject about which all parties agree and devise a national campaign
to which all will contribute? It is recommended that consideration is given to
the practicalities of a co-ordinated effort. (N.B. Unsure what topic to take
first!)

8. Many people in both surveys stated clearly that people only change their behaviour
(attend a course, learn a new skill, etc.) if they want to make changes. Changing
behaviour is inextricably linked to changing attitudes. It is recommended that
the researcher consults with experts from other fields (e.g., health promotion,
fitness) to see if anything can be learned from these fields in regard to the
best way to promote messages and change attitudes/behaviour.
ANALYSIS OF SCOTTISH
MOUNTAIN INCIDENTS

INTRODUCTION

The promotion of any topic is only successful if the methods adopted are appropriate
and correctly targeted and the messages conveyed are valid. The essential purpose of
the project reported here was to identify those groups of people most at risk in the
Scottish mountains and to identify the causes of accidents in order to inform the safety
promotion study.

The original incident reports for 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999 were analysed with the
exception of those classified as non mountaineering
8
and a small number where there
was insufficient information. This yielded a total of 1027 incidents involving 1269
individual people (both injured and not injured). A decision was taken to record data for
a minimum of 1000 incidents, regardless of the number of years that involved. Whilst it
was expected that a five year period would be required, in the event data for only four
years was necessary. It is worth noting that a preliminary analysis of two years data
(approximately 480 incidents) yielded essentially the same results as the complete
analysis. There were no significant differences between the two analyses. This
suggests that it was not essential to append further data to the analysis. However,
further data was used to extend credibility to the overall findings. The present study is
one of the most comprehensive examinations of Scottish mountain incidents ever
undertaken and one of the most exhaustive in the UK.. In one sense it is a follow-up
study to an earlier study by Anderson (1994). Anderson examined Scottish mountain
rescue incidents involving 878 casualties (injured only) over the five year period 1989-
1993. Several comparisons are drawn with findings from that survey.

Data was recorded for each incident and every person on the following variables -
gender, age of the casualty, address (living in/out of Scotland), experience of the
casualty, occupation of the casualty, group affiliation, month of the year, injury
sustained (eg fatal, limb), activity involved in (eg hillwalking, abseiling), weather at the
time, features of the terrain, contributory causes (eg poor planning), nature of the
incident (eg lost, slipped). Each item of data was transcribed as seen from each
incident report, although the notes accompanying each report were sometimes helpful in
adding information otherwise not recorded. It was noted in passing that a wide number

8
For example, horseriding, false alarms, stalking, fishing, missing persons with Altziemers, domestic incidents, flood
alerts, stranded motorists, quad bike accidents, sledging, forestry workers, pony trekking, shepherding, camping
incidents, suicides, swimming incidents, skiing, animal rescues, roadside incidents, off road cycling, alcoholics/drunks,
armed siege, hoax calls, cliff incidents, caving, people never found, despondents, aircraft/hanglider/paragliding
incidents.

of incident forms are used by the various MRTs/Police. The amount of detail contained
in each report was also variable and ranged from those describing reports in extreme
detail (some often containing reports from various agencies) to those which contained
very scant information. Indeed, several reports could not be examined for lack of full
information. Appendix VIII shows the current version of the Incident Report form.

An important question considered at the outset was whether the data contained in the
incident reports is a true picture of the incident position across Scotland? A factor
which has to be born in mind is that accidents take place which are not reported and
which are sorted by the individuals involved. For example, a person who stumbles and
injures their arm may be able to walk off unaided or with the help of friends. Equally, a
group may be lost and take many hours to find their way off the hill, but this event may
never be reported to the rescue services. Others may be lost or injured and seek
assistance by phoning friends who then help in some way to effect a successful outcome.
There is no way of knowing the extent to which this happens although it is widely
accepted amongst the mountain rescue fraternity that people do help themselves
(Feeney, personal communication, 8 May, 2001). It is also logical to assume that few of
these incidents are serious enough to involve the emergency services, or else they would
be alerted. It is likely that most unreported incidents involve people with minimal
injuries or who are lost/overdue for a relatively short period of time - short enough for
no one to be overly concerned.

The position taken in this study is that the set of incidents recorded by the MRC of
S/Police is an accurate picture of the overall position albeit a small underestimation,
especially of the lesser problems which arise in the mountains. It should be noted that
various authorities (including the Police, Mountaineering Council of Scotland and
sportscotland) have used these figures over the years to provide a valid picture of
accidents in the Scottish hills.

A comment should be made about the use of some statistical terms used throughout this
report. There are numerous occasions where a finding is referred to as statistically
significant. It is usually associated with a probability value (eg., p .05). Use of the
expression statistically significant means that the finding (eg, males are more likely to
be involved in an incident than women) is a real difference and has not occurred just
through chance factors. In these cases, it is suggested that the finding is worth
pursuing and a high measure of confidence is attached to its validity. The probability
value is a measure of that confidence. Thus (p .05) means that the probability the
finding is actually a chance/false one is less than 1 in 20. The lower this value (eg, p
.01), the more likely the finding is true and not attributable to chance. When the
probability is reversed (eg, p ! .05) this means that the finding (usually a difference
between two values) is not worth talking about since there is a high probability it has
happened through chance (ie, greater than 1 in 20).

This research was only possible through the financial support of the Leverhulme Trust
and willingness of the Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland (MRC of S) to supply the
author with original incident information. Particular assistance was given by John Hinde
and Willie Marshall, Statistician and Chairman of the MRC of S respectively and Sgt.
David Mackay of Central Scotland Police. About 100 casualties replied to a separate
questionnaire in connection with their accident. Their involvement was invaluable and is
also recognised here. Finally, valuable feedback on an earlier draft of this report was
provided by Ged Feeney, Catriona Anderson and Nick Halls, and their support is also
recognised.

OVERALL TRENDS

Gender of the Casualty

The survey revealed a number of differences between men and women in terms of type
of accident/injury, age profile and balance of men/women involved in incidents, etc.. The
proportion of male to females was found to be almost exactly 3:1 (see Table 1). In
other words, three times a many men are involved in incidents. This is different (p ! .05)
from that

Table 1 Percentages of male and females

Current
Study
Anderson
(1994)

Male 74.2 70.4
Female 25.8 29.6

identified by Anderson (1994) in her survey of Scottish incidents over the five year
period 1989 - 1993. The present data suggests the balance has shifted towards males.
Whilst it may be useful to examine why this trend has taken place, it is more important
to question why men are three times more likely to be involved in an incident. One
answer is that this reflects the relative proportion of men/women who walk and climb
(Pothecary, 2001). But how many men and women take part in hill/mountain activities?
It is not easy to answer this question. As with figures about overall participation, it is
very difficult to quantify exactly the numbers involved. Anderson (1994) reported from
one survey (Mintel, 1993) which showed between 60 - 70 % of all hillgoers are male. A
variety of other surveys have been carried in recent years which, together, provide an
indication of relative numbers. Table 2 lists the results from 14 studies ranging from
nation-wide surveys to mountain-specific surveys. Some of these surveys involve sample
sizes in the order of tens of thousands whilst others are very much smaller. All show a
bias towards males. When the figures are averaged, a ratio of 64%/36% emerges (just
under 2 : 1). In the absence of more complete information, this figure would appear to
be the best estimate available to judge the relative number of men and women involved
in walking and climbing in Scotland. It is used in this study as a benchmark for
comparisons.
Therefore, the figures show that the proportion of men/women involved in an incident is
74%/26% (about 3 : 1) whilst the corresponding proportions for participation are
64%/36% (about 2 : 1). This indicates that men are more likely to be involved in an
incident than would be expected on the basis of participation figures alone. Why should
this be? Why are men at greater risk compared to women? There is anecdotal evidence
that men are more likely to take risks compared to women (eg, Hinde, 2001; Marshall,
2001; Fyffe, 2001). Fyffe (2001) argues that women are more sensible and better
prepared than men. Women, he says, are less inclined to push things. He observes that
fewer women solo to a very high level compared to men and more are inclined to take
the role of second rather than leader. He does qualify this slightly by suggesting that
whilst men have traditionally been more involved in hazardous activities, this trend is
beginning to level as more women take to climbing. Hinde (2001) suggests that women
are more responsible, less ambitious and conscientious (eg, in leaving route cards)
compared to

Table 2 Estimates of the number of men/women involved in Scottish mountaineering

Study Sample size Proportion of
males/females

Anderson (1994) Unreported 70%/30%
Sports Rec. Services (2001) 1109 79%/21%
SNH (2000b) 1762 54%/46%
SNH (2000a) 2494 66%/34%
Jones Economics (1996) 3 surveys - N = 2339, 550, 96 66%/34%
Scottish Sports Council (1994) 6000 63%/37%
MacGregor & Martin (1999) 6000 59%/42%
Martin & Coalter (2000) 6000 60%/41%
Coalter (1998) 6000 63%/37%
Mintel (1993) 177 71%/29%
Mintel (1993) 1090 60%/40%
Herries (1998) 1094 70%/30%
Eckersall, (1992) 205 61%/39%
Hanley et al (2000) 267 79%/21%

Average (males/females) = 62%/38%

men. He feels that women tend to be more aware of danger and display less intention of
being stupidly adventurous. There is also a wealth of scientific evidence. Byrnes,
Miller and Schafer (1999) recently carried out an analysis of 150 studies which
compared the risk-taking tendencies of males and females. Their results show clearly
that males are more likely to take risks than females. A number of theories are
offered to explain these differences. For example, Zuckerman (1991) proposes that
men have a naturally lower level of arousal and this motivates them to higher levels of
risk taking than females who have naturally higher arousal levels. Kelling, Zirkes and
Myerowitz (1976) adopt the position of risk as value; there is a socially instilled belief
that risk taking is more highly valued amongst males than females. Byres et al (1999)
showed that the magnitude of the gender difference depends on the context as well as
age. For example, in situations demanding intellectual risk taking or execution of
physical skill, the gender difference is high. Furthermore, the gender difference
diminishes over time; risk taking differences are less obvious as people grow older.

Another explanation for the relatively high proportion of men involved in accidents may
be connected with the kinds of activities engaged in by men and women. It is possible
that men and women participate in activities which differ in their degree of risk. If
men participate more in those activities where the hazards and risks are higher (such as
snow/ice climbing) and women take part in activities where the hazards are fewer and
risks lower (eg, summer hillwalking), then it would follow that men should be more
accident prone than predicted on the basis of numbers alone. However, although the
present study does not shed light on participation profiles, several findings do tend to
support the idea that men take part in more hazardous activities. This is examined
again in later sections. A further explanation is that men simply climb and walk more
often than women. Again, there is no evidence to support this.

Age of the Casualty

The age profile of all those involved is shown in Table 3. The average age is 36.6 years
and approximately 50% lie within the range 26.6 yrs and 46.6 yrs. The average age
estimated from Andersons (1994) study is 36.1 yrs. Clearly, there is no difference in
the two studies. However, inspection of the categories suggests there are differences
in the age profiles. For example, the present investigation showed there are a greater
number of people in the 31 - 40 yrs age group compared to Andersons study and fewer
in the 11 - 20 years group. Overall, these variations are not statistically significant (p !
.05). Appendix IX shows equivalent statistics compiled by the International Commission
for Alpine Rescue (1998/1999), for information only. Turning to gender however, there
are some differences. The average age difference is not significant (p ! .05) - see Table
4, but there are significant differences in the age profiles. Table 5 and Figure 1 shows
that the proportion of males to females in the younger groups is greater than expected
(i.e., greater than 3:1) but less in the older categories. These trends are statistically
significant (p .01) and show that older females are more likely to be involved in an
incident, especially after 50 years. This is seen clearly in Figure 1 by noting the relative
height of the pairs of columns which are closer together after 50 yrs. Andersons
(1994) data suggested a similar pattern (with the imbalance starting around 40 yrs) but
this finding was not recorded.

Table 3 Age profile of all those involved in incidents

Age category Number Current
study %

Anderson %

10 and under 6 < 1.0 < 1.0
11 - 20 yrs 152 12.30 15.46
21 - 30 yrs 344 27.90 26.50
31 - 40 yrs 270 22.50 17.67
41 - 50 yrs 212 17.20 17.18
51 - 60 yrs 142 11.50 12.64
61 - 70 yrs 74 6.00 7.12
71 - 80 yrs 25 2.00 2.58
81 and over 0 0.00 < 1.0

Average 36.66 yrs 36.1 yrs

Table 4 Mean age of males/females involved in incidents

Age in yrs

Male 36.36
Female 37.53

Table 5 Age groupings of male and females

Age group

Male (%)

Female (%)
Ratio
Male/Female

11 - 20 yrs 69.1 29.9 2.2 : 1
21 - 30 yrs 76.2 23.8 3.2 : 1
31 - 40 yrs 76.6 23.4 3.3 : 1
41 - 50 yrs 79.2 20.8 2.8 : 1
51 - 60 yrs 66.9 33.1 2.0 : 1
61 - 70 yrs 64.9 35.1 1.8 : 1

Why should women become more incident prone with age? One answer may lie in the
nature of the activity. Figure 2 describes the proportion of males and females in each
age group involved only in hillwalking incidents. The pattern is very similar to Figure 1
and a comparison between both figures shows that the relative number of women
involved is greater for all age groups when only hillwalking incidents are considered. This
may simply reflect the fact that within all age groups more women take part than
predicted by the overall female/male incident ratio of 1:3.

Figure 1 Relationship between age and gender
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Percentage
11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 - 70
Age Categories
Males
Females

Figure 2 Relationship between age and gender (Hillwalking incidents only)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Percentage
11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70
Age Categories
Male
Female

Experience of the Casualty

An assessment is made at the time of an incident about whether the casualty/s is
experienced. This is a serious, but none-the-less subjective attempt to measure
whether the individual/s was competent to cope with the situation in which they found
themselves. This judgement is made by the person responsible for completing the
report at the time of the incident. That person may or may not have had immediate
contact with the casualty. This, together with the fact that estimates are not made
against clear, documented criteria makes that judgement very subjective. Despite these
apparent limitations, the variable does have some validity since when it is correlated
with age, there is a clear and significant (p .01) relationship showing that those
classified as experienced lie in the older age groups, and vice versa - as would be
expected.

The present study showed that 64% of all casualties are experienced (Table 6). It is

Table 6 Experience of casualties

Experienced
(%)
Not Experienced
(%)

Present study 63.9 36.1
Anderson (1994) 73.0 27.0

important to question why so many experienced persons have accidents when one would
naturally expect those less experienced to succumb to the various hazards of the
Scottish mountains. There are at least two explanations. In the first place, it is likely
that - all other things being equal - experienced hillgoers tend to be involved in more
challenging activities (eg, snow/ice climbing, extreme weather conditions) where the
objective dangers are greater (eg, avalanche, holds giving way, cornice collapse) and the
skills required are more exacting (eg, navigation in poor weather, movement on steep
ground). Under these circumstances one would expect a higher incidence of accidents.
Indeed, the data suggests this is the case since the proportion of experienced people
involved in rock climbing, scrambling and snow/ice climbing incidents is almost 86%
whereas the proportion involved in hillwalking incidents is only 55%. Thus, the high
number of experienced people involved in incidents may partly reflect the fact that
experienced people tend to be involved in higher risk activities. It should be said
though, that one would still expect experienced climbers and mountaineers to be mindful
of the hazards, make better judgements and to demonstrate adequate caution; it
appears this is not always be the case!

Another reason may lie in the complacency which sometimes accompanies experience. It
is a well known fact that whilst wisdom and skill grow with experience, so does
confidence, familiarity and occasionally complacency. In an environment where there are
many potential hazards, those who show complacency are invariably punished! The
present study revealed that 45% of those who slipped on a footpath were experienced
hillgoers! As if to underline this, the study on slips (see later) showed that 20% of
those who slipped through lack of concentration or distraction are experienced hillgoers.
So it may be that experience is accompanied by an element of complacency.

Comparisons with Andersons (1994) data (Table 6) suggest that todays casualties are
less experienced than 10 years ago, although this difference is not statistically
significant (p ! .05). This trend may indicate that more experienced hillgoers are
assisting themselves (with the help of mobile phones and friends) rather than taking
advantage of the mountain rescue services. Anecdotal evidence amongst mountain
rescue personnel supports the position that many people do help themselves or each
other, occasionally when injuries are serious. This might also account partly for the
discontinued rise in reported incidents in the last 10 years (Table 7). In other words,
the apparent levelling of incidents over this period may hide a real rise which is offset
by self rescues. It does not make sense to suggest the fall in inexperience reflects a
drop in education and promotion since recent years have not seen a fall in course
provision, magazine articles promoting safety and skills, and so on. If anything these
have increased. It is therefore not too clear why todays casualties are less
experienced than before.

Table 7 Scottish mountain rescue incidents over the 1990s

Year

Incidents (N)

1990 291
1991 354
1992 298
1993 324
1994 326
1995 342
1996 324
1997 308
1998 300
1999 333
2000 335

A comparison was made between the experience of men and women (see Table 8). Again,
given the overall ratio of men to women (3:1) one would expect three times as many men
to be judged experienced. However, the proportion of experienced males is much
higher at over 4:1 whilst the proportion of inexperienced females is much lower at 1.6:1.
In fact, over 50% of all casualties are classified as experienced males which suggests it
does not pay to be an experienced male, whereas it does pay to be an inexperienced
female! Table 8 reveals this division. An explanation may lie in the relative kinds of
activities engaged in by men and women. The data shows that amongst those who are
experienced almost 10 times more men are involved in rock climbing, scrambling and
snow/ice climbing whereas only 2.9 times as many men are involved in hillwalking (Table
9). The higher number of accidents involving this group may consequently reflect the
additional risks experienced by this group. Of course, there is still the possibility that
men (particularly those who are more experienced) are more complacent than women.
This factor added to the high risk activity factor places experienced men at higher risk
than expected.

Table 8 Experience as a function of gender (N = 998)

Experienced

Not
experienced

Male 51.7% 22.4%
Female 12.2% 13.7%

Ratio of male/female

4.2 : 1

1.6 : 1

Table 9 Experienced males/females relative to activity type (N = 625)

Hillwalking

Climbing

Male 44.6% 36.2%
Female 15.5% 3.7%

Ratio of male/female

2.9 : 1

9.8 : 1

Af f iliation of the Casualty

The incident report includes a section which notes whether or not the casualty belongs
to an organisation such as a hillwalking club or guided party. This makes it possible to
examine whether affiliation to any group has a bearing on the nature or frequency of
particular kinds of incidents. Table 10 shows the major categories. The category
Other includes people belonging to environmental and Church groups, mountain rescue
and charity organisations, etc.. The category Guided includes all those which are
organised such as youth groups (Scouts, Boys Brigade), D of E, Outward Bound, school
groups or led by guides, instructors and leaders.

Table 10 Affiliated status of all those involved in incidents

Percentage

Not affiliated 82.2
Club group 6.5
Guided group 5.6
Military 2.7
Charity 2.4
Others 0.6

It is clear that the majority of people do not belong to any kind of organised group.
They walk or climb with friends. colleagues or simply go alone. Discussion about
differences between these groups in terms of causes, types of activity, etc., is left until
the sections on causes and outcomes.

Occupation of the Casualty

As well as details such as age, gender and country of domicile, each casualtys occupation
is also noted in the incident report. For the purposes of the present study the Standard
Occupational Classification adopted by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys
was used to group people. Four additional categories were included, viz.,
students/scholars, unemployed, retired, housewives. These four categories are used in
the incident reports to describe casualties but are not included in the classification
system. Table 11 shows the breakdown for each group. The largest category is that of
professional people and this is mirrored by recent findings by Hanley et al (2001) which
showed that 71% of climbers are university graduates. It is not clear if this profile
reflects that of the Scottish/UK population as a whole. The proportion of
males/females in each group generally follows the expected pattern (75% males)
although some (eg, craft industries) are biased towards males (p .05) and others (eg,
clerical/secretarial) are biased towards females (p .05). The mean age of most groups
centres around the mid 30s although the retired and student groups are much
older/younger as expected. In terms of experience, most groups follow the expected
pattern (about twice as many experienced as inexperienced) except those in professional
occupations are significantly more experienced (p .001) whilst students are
significantly less experienced (p .001).

When occupational group is examined in regard to causes and outcomes few differences
emerge, but these are picked up in the sections on causes and outcomes.

Table 11 Description according to occupation, gender and age

Frequency

Percentage

Male/Female
(%)

Mean Age
(years)
Professional 242 21.0 83/17 38.1
Students 159 13.8 69/31 23.0
Scholars 87 7.6 69/31 14.4
Associate Professional & Tech 136 11.8 69/31 36.5
Retired 118 10.3 72/28 64.5
Personal/Protective 90 7.8 87/13 35.4
Managers/Administrators 73 6.3 82/18 38.8
Craft/Related 56 4.9 96/4 38.0
Clerical/Secretarial 42 3.7 48/52 38.4
Sales 38 3.3 82/18 36.5
Unemployed 33 2.9 85/15 30.1
Housewives 29 2.5 0/100 48.4
Other Occupations 25 2.1 84/16 34.2
Plant/Machine 22 1.9 86/14 37.2

Country of Domicile

Each incident report notes the address of the casualty/s which makes it possible to
break down incidents in terms of country of domicile. For the present study it was
noted only whether the casualty was living in Scotland or outwith Scotland. Table 12
compares the present findings with those of Anderson (1994). It confirms that the
proportion is broadly equal. In both studies,

Table 12 Country of domicile

Scotland
(%)
Outwith
Scotland (%)

Present study 46.5 % 53.5 %
Anderson 50.7 % 49.3 %

Over 85% of those from outwith Scotland were living in England at the time of the
incident whilst 9% were from outwith the UK. Anderson examined this variable in some
detail showing that the balance changes with different regions in Scotland. For
example, she showed that casualties on Ben Nevis, Skye and the Islands are
predominantly English but with incidents in the Northern Highlands, Scots are in the
majority. The present study does not examine this any further. However, it does show
that the proportion of men/women involved in an incident does not depend on country of
domicile (p ! .05). What is significant though is that the ratio of people living in
Scotland/elsewhere changes continuously with age; below the age of 40 years a greater
proportion are from outwith Scotland whereas above 40 years of age a greater
proportion are from within Scotland. That is, younger casualties tend to come from
outside Scotland and older casualties from within Scotland. This may have something to
do with the fact that younger people are more prepared to travel longer distances for
their leisure compared to older people. Or it may be that the nature of mountain
activities in Scotland attracts younger age groups from outside the country, whereas
there is not the same attraction for older people living in Scotland to travel south of the
border.

Month of the Year

The number of incidents changes significantly with the month of the year (p .001).
Table 13 and Figure 3 reveal two peaks and two troughs. It is likely the high points in

Table 13 Incidents as a function of month of the year

Month Percentage

January 7.3
February 8.6
March 8.8
April 6.1
May 10.5
June 9.9
July 10.6
August 11.9
September 10.3
October 7.5
November 4.0
December 4.5

February/March and July/September reflect the number of people who take to the hills
at these times (to engage in winter mountaineering and summer hillwalking respectively).
Similarly, the low points in April and November, probably reflect the generally poor
weather conditions which mark the transition from one season to the next. Anderson
(1994) found a broader spread of incidents across the summer months, but equally clear
low points in April and November.

Figure 3 Incidents as a function of month of the year

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
% of Incidents
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month of the Year

It is interesting to examine the monthly pattern in terms of gender because the figures
show distinct differences between men and women (p .001). Figure 4 shows the
casualty figures across the year based on monthly intervals. It can be seen that the

Figure 4 Pattern of incidents across the year as a function of gender

overall ratio of males/females (i.e., 3:1) is not constant across the year. Broadly, the
ratio is greater in the winter months and less in the summer months (note relative
spacing of the bars with in each month). This suggests that women are more accident
prone than would be expected in the summer months and men more accident prone in
the winter months. One explanation is that this reflects the relative proportions of
men/women engaged in mountain activities across the year. That is, more men are
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Males
Females
involved in winter activities and more women involved in the summer months. The data
presented in Table 15 (see page 17) supports this because it shows that proportionately
more men are involved in snow/ice climbing incidents whilst more women are involved in
hillwalking incidents. It is not clear if this actually reflects the relative participation
patterns however, but the evidence suggests that participation is biased towards males
in winter and females in summer.

Activity

Each incident report records the activity engaged in by the casualty/s at the time of
the incident. Table 14 shows the numbers of people involved in the major categories and
makes comparisons with Andersons (1994) data. It is clear that the large majority of

Table 14 Activities engaged in by casualties

Activity
Present
study (%)

Anderson
(%)
Hillwalking 72.6 75.9
Snow/ice climbing 14.7 10.3
Rock climbing 7.5 8.1
Scrambling 3.4 3.3
Other 1.9 2.3

incidents involve those hillwalking in summer and winter
9
. Snow and ice climbing is the
next most frequent category followed by rock climbing (non winter conditions) and
scrambling. The relative proportions are similar to those found by Anderson, but not
statistically significant (p ! .05). The largest difference is in the proportion of
hillwalkers to snow/ice climbers. The present study suggests that in contrast to five
years ago there are fewer hillwalkers involved in accidents compared to those
participating in snow and ice climbing. This suggests an underlying trend with people
moving away from walking and/or towards winter climbing (in contrast to recent climatic
changes). If this is true then it may suggest that the rise in interest in winter
mountaineering has not been matched by a corresponding rise in skill level - a skills gap.
As Jones (2001) suggests - All the equipment in the world is no substitute for
experience and sound common sense - all the gear and no idea is a common refrain
among MRTs. Certainly, the survey on safety promotion which accompanies this study
provides evidence to suggest mountain skills/awareness in winter needs to be developed.

9
It is accepted that there is no such thing as winter hillwalking in Scotland. All winter activities should
be classified as mountaineering. However, the expression hillwalking is used in the present context to
distinguish it from snow/ice climbing.
An important difference is found when the type of activity is broken down according to
gender. Table 15 shows that incidents in rock climbing, snow and ice climbing and
scrambling involve more men than expected, whilst incidents in hillwalking involve more
women than expected. Men seem to be accident prone when climbing and women when
walking. Does this show that more men climb and more women walk or does it suggest
differences in risk behaviour of men/women? In order to interpret this finding with
confidence there is a need to judge how many men/women are involved in these
activities? As said previously, there is no clear data on this subject. It has been
assumed that the ratio of males/females participating in all kinds of mountain activities
is 64%/36% (see Table 2) and Greene (1996a) did note that women were more likely to
walk and men more likely to mountaineer. The figures in Table 15 may therefore reflect
relative participation figures. However, there is still the possibility that men/women
are more/less accident prone for other reasons. This point is picked up later.

Table 15 Number of males and females as a function of type of activity

Activity

Males (N)

Females (N)
Proportion of
males/females

Rock climbing 85 10 8.5 : 1
Snow/ice climbing 165 20 8.3 : 1
Scrambling 36 7 5.1 : 1
Hillwalking 635 284 2.2 : 1
Other 18 6 3.0 : 1

Average 3.0 : 1

Another interesting difference is found when activity is examined in regard to the
casualtys experience. One would expect that those taking part in technically demanding
activities would contain a high proportion of experienced people and those who take part
in less technically demanding activities might contain fewer experienced people. Table
16 shows activities broken down in relation to experience which confirms this
hypothesis. Given that the overall ratio of experienced to non experienced people is 1.8
: 1, the ratio of experienced to non-experienced who succumb when hillwalking is less
than this average whilst the ratio for those involved in rock climbing and snow/ice
climbing is greater.

Table 16 Experience as a function of type of activity

Activity

Experienced
Not
experienced
Proportion of
Experienced/non-
experienced

Rock climbing 82 5 16.4 : 1
Snow/ice climbing 143 24 6.0 : 1
Scrambling 24 12 2.0 : 1
Hillwalking 376 309 1.2 : 1
Other 10 9 1.1 : 1

A comment should be made about the number of tourists involved in incidents. Over 7%
(N = 95 over four years) of all those rescued are classified as tourist walkers (located
mainly in Skye and Lochaber). They have a number of distinguishing characteristics.
They tend to be inexperienced male visitors from outwith the UK. Incidents take place
largely when the weather is good (not raining, cloudy, snowing, etc.) on the open hillside
or paths. Common errors are poor timing and planning which result in river crossing and
navigation problems. Some 21% are lost and over 43% are overdue. Over 7% of all fatal
incidents involve tourists. It is not easy to see how the topic of safety promotion is
best handled with tourists, but the use of publicity information in walkers car parks,
hotels, tourist board outlets, etc., may be useful.

I nj uries

A large proportion of mountain rescues are to search for people who are lost or overdue
in the mountains (see Table 20, page 22). In most cases the people involved are not
injured. Table 17 lists the types of injuries sustained by those who are injured
(casualties). The table identifies those who are not injured and also shows the relative
proportions with the non - injured group (mainly

Table 17 Types of injury sustained by casualties

Injury
All people
rescued (%)

Casualties
only (%)
No injury 44.0
Limb injury 23.6 42.1
Fatal 8.0 14.3
Multiple injuries 6.9 12.3
Medical 6.1 10.9
Hypothermia 4.3 7.7
Head injury 2.9 5.2
Minor bruising 2.4 4.3
Spinal injury 1.9 3.4

searches) removed. Of those who are injured, limb injuries are the most common. Leg
injuries including lower leg fractures and sprains are the most common. This mirrors
that found in other sports such as football, skiing, tennis and volleyball (Steinbruck,
1999). Fatal injuries account for around 14% of all casualties. This is a reduction from
the figure (18%) noted by Anderson (1994). Indeed, the proportion of incidents
resulting in fatal injuries to casualties shows signs of falling (see Figure 5) which is a
very encouraging sign. This change may reflect many developments including
improvements to clothing worn by casualties, their overall skill/awareness level as well as
improvements in rescue provision, particularly faster response times by rescue teams as
a result of mobile phone use. When the injury figures are broken down according to
gender, some interesting differences emerge. Table 18 shows the proportion of
males/females according to injury type. The figures show that men are more likely than
expected (overall proportion of 3:1) to suffer serious injury (fatal or multiple) whereas
women are more likely to suffer less serious limb injuries or medical problems. An
obvious explanation for this difference is that men and women are involved in different
kinds of activities which, in turn, lend

Figure 5 Proportion of fatal casualties over a 10 year period

0
5
10
15
20
25
% Fatal
Casualties
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Year

Table 18 Injury type as a function of gender

Injury
Ratio of
male/female

Fatal injury 8.2 : 1
Multiple injuries 4.4 : 1
Head injury 2.7 : 1
Medical 2.2 : 1
Hypothermia 1.7 : 1
Limb injury 1.5 : 1
Minor bruising 4.2 : 1
Spinal injury -
10

No injuries 3.7 : 1

themselves to different sets of injuries when things go wrong. The fact that men
suffer more serious injuries would suggest they are involved more in technical activities
where a mistake has serious consequences (eg, fall from an ice climb). That women tend
to suffer less serious injuries - primarily limb fractures, etc. - suggests they are
involved in less serious hill-based activities. This is supported by the data given in Table
15 and previous discussion suggesting that men/women tend to be involved in more/less
demanding activities. From this appraisal, it is tempting to categorise men as climbers
and women as walkers, but this is undoubtedly a simplification which hides a more

10
Numbers too small to make a calculation
complex picture. This issue is raised again in the Summary section.

It is also worth noting from Table 18 that men are much more likely to be involved in an
incident where there are no injuries, compared to women. This reflects the greater
proportion of men who require emergency assistance because they are lost or overdue.

Terrain and Weather

The weather at the time of an incident and the terrain on which it took place are noted
below. As with the assessment of the casualtys experience, both of these variables are
subjective and not always based on observations by the casualty. They may be made by
an individual not involved in the rescue and at a location/time of the day quite different
from where/when the incident took place. There is therefore a question of accuracy of
both variables, especially weather. Table 19 lists the number of times each factor was
mentioned in the reports. The figures in each column sum to over 100% since in many
cases two or more factors are relevant. For example, it is not uncommon for an accident
to take place during windy conditions when it is both raining and cloudy. Similarly, the
ground may have been rocky and wet. In one sense the

Table 19 Weather and terrain relevant to each incident

Weather

%

Terrain

%
Ratio
Male/Female

Windy 53.8 Wet 15.4 2.4 : 1
Freezing 14.8 Rocky 40.5 3.9 : 1
Raining 22.5 Scree 14.8 2.5 : 1
Cloudy 19.9 Snow covered 21.4 7.2 : 1
Snowing 12.1 Icy/neve 9.5 4.5 : 1
Hill path 18.6 1.7 : 1
Open hillside 27.0 1.9 : 1

figures given in the table are academic since it is not possible to control the weather or
terrain and force hillgoers to climb/walk only when the risks are minimal. However, the
figures do suggest possible causes of accidents. It is notable that a large proportion of
incidents take place on hill paths (about 20%) when few problems would be expected.
Men are less likely to be involved in an incident on a footpath or on the open hillside (p
.01) but more likely to be involved when the terrain is rocky or covered in snow or ice (p
.01). Once more, this may reflect the different kinds of activities engaged in by men
and women (Table 15). Almost a third of all incidents take place on the open hillside
where the terrain is often mixed, uneven and unreliable. This would be expected.

Table 19 shows that a significant number of accidents take place on rocky terrain which
is often wet (around 16% of the time), snow (19%) or scree (15%) covered. There is a
message for hillgoers here (especially males) in terms of advising caution when moving
over such terrain. The weather figures reflect the usual pattern of (generally poor)
weather one can expect in the Scottish mountains across the year. It is notable that
over 50% of all incidents take place on windy days, and it is also significant that women
are more likely to be involved in an incident when the weather is windy, freezing or
snowing (p .01). The nature of the terrain in regard to slips is examined in more detail
in a later section.

Causes and Outcomes of I ncidents

An incident is defined when something happens to a person in the mountain environment
which requires a response by the emergency services. Incidents can be one of two kinds.
In the first, a person or persons are lost, mislaid or overdue which requires a search to
be undertaken by the emergency services. In these cases, the exact location of the
person/s is usually unknown, although there may be a good idea where that person/s is.
The person may or may not be injured or suffering in some way. In the second, a person
suffers an injury as the result of a fall or slip, or they may feel unwell which renders
them immobile. Their location is usually known and the emergency services are required
to arrange for their evacuation. In both cases, it is important to identify the causes/s
of the incident. This not only aids future planning and training by the emergency
services, but it also informs safety campaigns (eg, by the Mountaineering Council of
Scotland) and training organisations (eg, National Outdoor Training Centre) about the
kinds of skills and courses to develop for hillgoers.

For the purposes of the current study it was decided to look at this matter by
distinguishing between the cause of an incident and the outcome of an incident (see
Figure 6 below). The logic here is that an incident is reflected in something which
happens to a person (defined as the outcome). In turn, outcomes are caused by some
other factor/s (the cause). For example, an incident on Ben Lomond involved several
teams searching for a number of overdue walkers. It transpired the walkers were lost
(the outcome) because they made a navigation error based on inadequate skill (the
causes). This logic avoids describing outcomes as causes which is the approach taken by
the MRC of S. For example, the MRC of S defines a slip/stumble as a cause in its own
right whereas, strictly speaking, whilst a slip may be the cause of an incident it is
actually the result (or outcome) of something else that went wrong in the first place.
So, to avoid these kinds of confusions, the present study examined each incident report
with a view to identifying the outcome in each case (eg, slip, lost, fall, avalanched,
overdue) and the causes behind that outcome (eg, poor navigation, inadequate
equipment). Particular attention was focused on the slip/stumble which has been
identified as the most common reason behind incidents over many years.

Figure 6 Relationship between the Cause and Outcome of an Incident

Cause Outcome Incident

Causes of I ncidents

Table 20 lists the causes identified in incident reports. Most are clearly identified in
the incident report but a few (eg, skill level) were identified through the notes
accompanying each report
11
. In some cases, the notes also helped complete otherwise
missing sections. It is clear
there are only two or three major problems. The most common cause is poor navigation.
This

Table 20 Causes of mountain incidents

Cause
Present
Study (%)

Anderson
(%)
Poor navigation 29.3 23.1
Bad planning 28.0 22.5
Poor timing 19.2 -
Medical/hypothermia 8.7 8.3
Inadequate equipment 7.6 -
Separation 4.6 -
Rockfall/handhold give 3.9 -
Poor level of fitness 2.6 -
Inadequate skill 3.2 -
River crossing problem 2.0 -
Avalanche 3.2 -
Inadequate footwear 1.7 -
Poor leadership 0.5 -
Inadequate clothing 1.3 -

was also identified by Anderson in her report. Greene (1996b) noted that poor
navigation is a concern of many who walk in the countryside. The figures also reveal that
navigation is a contributory cause in over 90% of the incidents where the person was
lost. Poor navigation was underlined as a key problem in an earlier part of this research
project part of this study which focused on the topic of safety promotion. Bad planning
and poor timing are the other significant causes, particularly with young men and during
the spring and autumn periods. Poor planning by men is also linked to the fact that they

11
Almost every report includes a brief description of the incident. Many others include separate reports from police,
military or press sources, particularly in the case of fatal accidents.
are significantly more likely to be overdue. Many incidents (around 25%) cite all three
as causes which contribute to the incident. It would be expected that those who are
experienced would be less likely to make navigation errors or suffer from poor timing or
bad planning and this turns out to be the case (p .05). It is noteworthy that inadequate
clothing and footwear are not significant problems and there are no differences
between men and women. This accords with anecdotal evidence that most hillgoers are
much better clothed/shod than in previous years. Experienced people (mainly men)
encounter rockfall (including handholds giving way) more often than those less
experienced (p .05) but this probably reflects the increased exposure to steep rock
(by dint of their rock climbing) by experienced males (see Tables 15 and 16).

A small but significant number of incidents (almost 9%) are due to medical problems of
one kind or another (eg, heart attack, headaches, exhaustion). It notable that women
are proportionately more likely to be involved in an incident because of a medical
condition or poor fitness (p .05).

A small number of incidents (over 7%) are caused through equipment which is inadequate
or missing. For example, a substantial number of hillwalkers fail to take headtorches,
spare bulbs and batteries, map and compass. Others dont possess an ice or crampons or
use technical gear which is in appropriate for the task. In some cases, there is
insufficient emergency gear, or key items are shared between party members and when
the group divides, some people are left without important items. There are only a very
small number of cases where equipment fails (eg, crampon breakage). The majority of
equipment problems are ones of omission and are therefore avoidable. It is significant
that in many cases (58%) the guilty persons are classified as experienced! Again, this
may reflect the complacency explanation raised in previous sections. In a small number
of incidents (almost 5%) group separation is a given as a contributory cause. In most of
these cases, party members were inexperienced hillwalkers (p .05). Group separation
tends to be accompanied by poor planning and navigation which results in party members
becoming lost and overdue (p .05).

It is useful to examine the profiles of different groups (by occupation and organisation).

Those who belong to clubs tend to be experienced and are involved primarily in
hillwalking incidents. They do not make planning errors but are prone to group
separation. Military groups tend to be young, male, less experienced, travel from
outwith Scotland and are involved primarily in hillwalking incidents. They do not make
navigation or planning errors, but their timing is often in error. Guided groups tend to
be young, female, reside within Scotland, are very inexperienced. They are involved
primarily in hillwalking incidents. They make navigation errors and suffer medical
problems, but do not make timing errors. Charity groups make planning errors and timing
errors and are likely to separate. They are also likely to suffer medical problems.
Students are significantly worse in terms of planning and timing (p .05). Retired
walkers make fewer planning errors but are more prone to medical problems (p .05).

None of these descriptions appear to be unusual or unexpected, but some should be of
concern to the relevant organisations.

Outcomes of Incidents

Table 21 lists the variety of outcomes defined in this study, along with their frequency

Table 21 Outcomes of mountain incidents and their frequency of occurrence (%)

Outcome

Present
Study

Ratio
Male/Female

Anderson
Slip/stumble 40.6 1.7 : 1 42.4
Overdue 26.8 3.1 : 1 25.7
Lost 10.5 2.3 : 1 na
Fell 19.1 6.8 : 1 na
Cragfast 6.7 4.5 : 1 5.8
Avalanched 1.8 5.6 : 1 na
Crossed a river - - na
Fast on mountain 15.7 3.9 : 1 na

Of occurrence. From this analysis it can be seen that slips and stumbles are the reason
behind 40% of all incidents. This agrees with anecdotal evidence as well as the findings
of Andersons survey (over 42% of all incidents). There is a slight decrease from
Andersons study but it is not significant (p ! .05). Within the slip category there are
significant gender differences. Women are more likely to slip compared to men (p
.001). This is a strong and clear difference which will be discussed in detail later. The
second most common reason why rescue teams are called out, is to look for people who
are overdue. Over one quarter of all call-outs are to look for people who are overdue
and late off the hill. A large proportion of these rescues are actually terminated
before the search commences because the casualty/s returns just in time. Over 10% of
all incidents are to search for people who are lost. If the lost and overdue incidents are
taken together (because many have a navigation/timing connection), it follows that
almost 80% of all incidents are connected with people who slip or are lost/overdue.

Distinct from slips, almost 20% of incidents involve people who have fallen whilst
walking, climbing or scrambling. The distinction between a fall and a slip is not clearly
stated in the incident report and in some cases the two words are used interchangeably.
Indeed, there are some reports where a similar incident in the same location (eg, Aonach
Eagach ridge in Glencoe) is described sometimes as a slip and at other times a fall. In
the main however, the term fall is used when the casualty falls a considerable distance.
The term slip tends to be used when the person is clearly walking or perhaps scrambling
on reasonably easy terrain and stumbles only a short distance - perhaps a few feet. In
some cases, a slip results in a fall over a considerable distance. The category fast on
mountain (almost 16%) refers to situations where, because of medical (eg, heart attack),
fatigue or fitness problems, the casualty is unable to move and requires evacuation and
assistance by the emergency services. Casualties in these cases are not lost or injured
per se, but simply unable to move from their current location.

It is worth pointing out that mountain rescue teams are interested primarily in the
outcome (eg, a party is overdue and perhaps lost) of an incident as this enables them to
mobilise and co-ordinate resources to deal with the problem. The exact cause (eg, the
party navigated incorrectly) is normally of secondary importance because it has little
value in assisting the rescue mission. However, causes are important in the context of
the present study.

Again, it is useful to examine the profiles of different groups (by occupation and
organisation).

Club members tend not to slip or fall, but they get lost more often than others.
Similarly, military groups are less likely to slip or fall, but in contrast to club members
they do not get lost. Guided parties are more likely to get lost and to be overdue, but
less likely to fall. The latter probably reflects the fact that they tend to be involved in
hillwalking activities. Students are also overdue more frequently than expected which
probably reflects their poor planning/timing abilities. Charity groups get lost but do not
slip. Retired walkers fall less frequently than other groups. Again, none of these
descriptions appear to be unusual or unexpected, but some should be of concern to the
relevant organisations.

SLIPS

It is well known that slips and trips are common in all walks of life and in many different
kinds of occupations. For example, the HSE (1998) note that slips account for 52% of
all injuries to those who play sport and 35% to those employed in the sport industry.
The Department of Trade and Industry records that slips and falls result in more
deaths in the home (42%) than any other cause (DTI. 2000). The records have shown
consistently that a slip or stumble is the most frequent cause of mountain accidents. In
the present case, slips accounted for almost 41% of all incidents (averaged across the
four years 1996 to 1999). Andersons study based on data over the five year period
1989-1993 revealed a figure of over 42% (see Table 21). Because of their high
occurrence across the years, slips deserve special scrutiny. The following sections
describe the results of an analysis of the slip data contained in the 1996 to 1999
reports. A separate questionnaire survey targeted at those individuals involved in slips
(1998 and 1999) is also described.

Gender of the Casualty

Whilst the overall proportion of males/females involved in mountain incidents is 3:1, this
reduces to 1.7 : 1 for slips alone. In other words, there is not the gender disparity with
slips which is so distinct with incidents overall. This is revealed in Figure 13 (page 35)
which shows clearly that of all the possible outcomes to an incident the ratio of males to
females who slip is much smaller than any other outcome. Thus, relative to other
outcomes, women are more likely to slip compared to men than anything else (p .01). In
fact 50% of all incidents involving women result in slips. A possible explanation is that
more women are involved in those activities which lend themselves to slips and stumbles
(i.e., hillwalking). The data given in Table 15 shows a greater ratio of women to men
involved in hillwalking incidents than others. Indeed, over 83% of all incidents involving
women are hillwalking incidents. In relative terms then, slips tend to be a concern
essentially for female walkers.

Age of the Casualty

Overall, accidents tend to happen to those in the 25 - 45 age bracket (50% in this age
band; mean age = 36.7 yrs). Women are more prone in the older groups and men in the
younger groups (see Table 5 and Figure 1). With slips, the position is different. Slips
tend to happen to older people in general (average age = 40.1 yrs). This can be seen in
Table 22. For example, whilst 28% of all casualties in the 21 - 30 age group are involved
in an incident, only 21.7% of all casualties slip. And in the 51 - 60 age group 11.5% are
involved in incidents, but over 15% of all casualties who slip are in this age bracket. In
relative terms therefore, slips tend to be happen to older hillgoers. However, there are
gender differences which tend to qualify this statement (Table 22). The proportion of
males/females who slip depends on the age bracket. In the middle age groups (21 - 50
years) twice as many men slip compared to women. However, in the youngest age group
and especially the older groups, the proportions are almost even. This can be seen in
Figure 7 which illustrates the data of Table 22. By comparing the relative heights of
each column it can be seen that women over 50 years are more likely to slip than men,
and vice versa. There is a tendency therefore for those who slip to be older and
female. Other data shows that women are more likely to suffer limb sprains/fractures
(as opposed to any other kind of injury) when they slip (Figure 8). Why should this be
the case? Is it possible that women slip and injure themselves because of failing skill
levels, poor concentration, etc.? There is evidence that women in older age groups are
slower to react than men (Fozard, Thomas & Waugh, 1990) and they are less able in
tasks requiring motor co-ordination (Wright & Payne, 1985). Also, physical capacities
such as flexibility, power and agility which decline with age tend to be exaggerated for
women (Kuo, 1990). These factors may play a part, although evidence from the present
study suggests that in contrast, men are more likely to suffer from a lack of
concentration or distraction compared to women (note text accompanying Table 29). A
possible explanation may lie with the problem of osteoporosis which women suffer as
they grow older. Osteoporosis increases the risk of bone fracture due to lack of bone
mass and it
Table 22 Age profile of those who slip

Age category
Slips only
%
All incidents
%
Ratio of
males/females

11 - 20 yrs 8.3 12.3 1.1 : 1
21 - 30 yrs 21.7 27.9 2.5 : 1
31 - 40 yrs 24.8 22.5 2.4 : 1
41 - 50 yrs 19.1 17.2 2.1 : 1
51 - 60 yrs 15.0 11.5 1.0 : 1
61 - 70 yrs 8.8 6.0 0.9 : 1
71 - 80 yrs 2.3 2.0 too little data

Average

40.1 yrs

36.7 yrs

Figure 7 Ages of people who slip in relation to gender
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Percentage
11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 - 70
Age groups
Men
Women

is well documented that women are more prone to osteoporosis than men (Spirduso,
1995). This explanation is proffered by the Department of Trade and Industry (2000)
in their examination of falls in the home. The Department suggests:

Most of the older people who fall are women, which may in part be explained
by a connection between osteoporosis and falls, and in part because there are
more older women than men in the population

Figure 8 Incidence of limb injuries as a function of age/gender

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Percentage
11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70
Age Categories
Men
Women

Experience of the Casualty

The proportion of experienced people who slip (71%) is greater than the overall number
of experienced people (64%). This underlines again that experience is no guarantee
against accidents. As suggested, experienced people may give less thought to the
hazards involved in mountaineering and the complacency which results ends them more
open to the risks involved, particularly the risk of slipping and the attendant
consequences. It is notable that experienced people are less likely to fall on paths (p
.01) but this may indicate that experienced hillwalkers tend to spend less time on
footpaths per se.

A significant difference exists between men and women (p .01). Recalling that the
ratio of men/women who slip is 1.7:1, amongst those who are experienced men are 2.1
times more likely to slip compared to men. Amongst those who are inexperienced, women
are more likely to slip (0.9:1) - see Figure 9. This is explained simply in pro-rata terms
since there are more experience males than females (see Table 8).
Figure 9 Risk of slipping as a function of experience/gender

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Percentage
Experienced Not
Experienced
Degree of Experience
Males
Females

Country of Domicile

People from both Scotland and elsewhere are equally prone to slip. In addition, tourist
walkers and people whose place of domicile is outside the UK are no more/less likely to
slip than anyone else.

Month of the Year

The proportion of incidents resulting from slips varies significantly with the time of the
year (p .01). There is a proportionate increase in the summer months of May to August
and a decrease in the winter months especially November and December (see Table 23
and Figure 10). The overall pattern is similar to that shown for incidents (see Figure 3)
but the peaks and troughs with slips are more pronounced (particularly for May which,
may reflect a sudden influx back to the hills after winter). The overall pattern may
reflect the popularity of hillwalking in winter and especially summer.

In the January/February and May/June periods it is mainly experienced people who slip.
In the March/April and July/August periods it tends to be inexperienced people who
slip. The high points for inexperienced people may coincide with traditional holiday
periods when newcomers and tourists tend to take to the hills. There are gender
differences also. A greater proportion of women slip in the summer months whilst a
greater proportion of men slip at other times of the year (see Figure 11). This can be
seen by noting the closeness of the bars in the summer months compared to the rest of
the year. These differences are statistically significant (p .01). It is a pattern which
reflects that for incidents overall (Figure 3). A possible explanation for this difference
is that if women are more involved in summer hillwalking (as judged by the number of
hillwalking incidents - see Table 15) then one would expect them to suffer the hazards
most commonly associated with walking.

Table 23 Slips as a function of month of the year

Month %

January 7.4
February 7.7
March 8.7
April 6.9
May 13.4
June 10.9
July 10.9
August 12.9
September 8.9
October 6.0
November 2.2
December 4.0

Figure 10 Slips as a function of month of the year

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Percentage
Month

Figure 11 Slips across the year as a function of gender

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Percentage
Jan/Feb Mar/Apr May/Jun Jul/Aug Sep/Oct Nov/Dec
Month
Men
Women

Activity

As expected, slips tend to occur to those involved in hillwalking (Table 24). The slips
which take place in the other activities tend to be associated with falls. Thus, a climber
ascending a snow gully who slips, may also fall a considerable distance down the gully and
sustain serious injuries. In contrast, hillwalking slips tend not to involve falls and result
in lesser injuries. Indeed, the figures show that fatal and multiple injuries are
significantly more common (p .01) when someone slips whilst snow/ice climbing
compared to hillwalking.

Table 24 Percentage of incidents and slips as a function of activity

Activity Incidents

Slips
Hillwalking 72.6 85.6
Snow/ice climbing 14.7 5.7
Rock climbing 7.5 2.2
Scrambling 3.4 4.0
Other 1.9 2.5

I nj uries

Limb injuries are the most common overall (Table 25) and are most frequent result of a
slip. In fact, almost two-thirds of all slips result in a limb injury which renders the
casualty immobile
12
. It should also be noted that slips often result in severe injury,
particularly when combined with a fall over a significant distance (see last section).
Over 20% of all slips are fatal or result in multiple injuries. However, in general terms,
slips result in less serious injuries compared to other types of incident.

Table 25 Types of injury suffered by all casualties and those who slip (%s)

Injury
All Casualties

Those who slip
Limb injury 42.1 60.0
Fatal 14.3 10.2
Multiple injuries 12.3 11.7
Hypothermia 7.7 -
Medical 10.9 -
Head injury 5.2 6.2
Minor bruising 4.3 3.5
Spinal injury 3.4 2.7

There are significant (p .05) differences between men and women. Women are more
likely to suffer a limb, head or minor injury compared to men who are more likely to
suffer fatal, multiple or spinal injuries (Figure 12). Again, this would appear to follow
from the previous suggestion that women tend to be involved in less technical activities
compared to men (see Table 15).

Figure 12 Incidence of injury type as a function of gender
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percentage
Limb Minor Head Multiple Fatal Spinal
Type of Injury
Men
Women

12
Of course this figure applies only to those slips which result in a rescue call-out. Doubtless, there are very
many unrecorded slips which do not render the casualty immobile.
Terrain and Weather

Table 26 suggests that a high proportion of slips take place on hill paths or rocky
terrain. This probably shows that hillgoers spend a lot of time using hill paths. But it
might also may be that when on footpaths people tend to relax and lose concentration
because they dont have the route finding problems or are tired, etc..

There are significant differences between men and women. Men are more likely to slip
when the terrain is rocky or snow/ice covered (p .05) and women are more likely to slip
on hill paths (p .01) - see final column of Table 26. This may well reflect the different
activity patterns suggested before. When experience is taken into account, then those
who are more experienced tend not to slip on hill paths or when the ground is covered in
loose stones/scree. This may indicate that experienced people who tend to take part in
more technical activities (rock, snow and ice climbing), consequently spend less time on
footpaths (compared to say hillwalkers).

Table 27 shows the weather patterns for all incidents compared to those for slips alone.
The only point to note is that slips tend to occur when the weather is generally better.
For example, 53% of all incidents take place on windy days whereas only 45% of slips
occur when it is windy. The suggestion here is that slips are less weather specific and
can happen at most times. There are no gender or other differences.

Table 26 Total number of incidents and slips in relation to the type of terrain

Terrain
All incidents
(%)
Slips only
(%)

Ratio
Male/Female
Wet 15.4 17.4 1.3 : 1
Rocky 40.5 37.7 2.3 : 1
Scree 14.8 20.1 1.8 : 1
Snow covered 21.4 16.6 4.6 : 1
Icy/neve 9.5 8.4 3.2 : 1
Hill path 18.6 23.6 0.9 : 1
Open hillside 27.0 26.8 1.5 : 1

Table 27 Weather pattern accompanying all incidents and slips (%s)

Weather

All incidents

Slips only

Windy 53.8 44.7
Freezing 14.8 10.7
Raining 22.5 17.1
Cloudy 19.9 12.4
Snowing 12.1 4.5

Causes of Incidents

It is noticeable when transcribing data from incident reports that little information is
included to explain the causes of slips. This may reflect that fact that slips are
recorded as causes in their own right. Table 28 lists the factors which accompany slips
and all incidents. It is noteworthy that the incidence of all causes is far less with slips.
This underlines the lack of information available to explain why slips take place. Poor
navigation and bad planning tend to be associated with a small number of slips (less than
10% in each case) but there still is very little information available. It is as if slips
occur in isolation of other factors and that it is not necessary (or possible) to record
additional information in the incident report. Whilst the data in Table 28 does throw
some light on why people slip (eg, a handhold gave way in 1.5% of cases and poor
footwear was the cause of 1.7% of slips), it does not permit a clear and complete
interpretation.

Table 26 Factors accompanying incidents and slips (%s)

Cause All incidents

Slips only

Poor navigation 29.3 8.9
Bad planning 28.0 6.2
Poor timing 19.2 3.2
Inadequate equipment 7.6 3.0
Medical 8.7 -
Rockfall/handhold give 3.9 1.5
Inadequate skill 3.2 1.0
Avalanched 3.2 -
Poor level of fitness 2.6 -
River crossing problem 2.0 1.2
Inadequate footwear 1.7 1.7
Inadequate clothing 1.3 -

To help shed light on this problem a separate survey was targeted at those individuals
who slipped in 1989 and 1999. It was decided that many people would have difficulty
remembering the details of an accident beyond 2/3 years. To this end, a questionnaire
was posted to all those people (whose addresses were identifiable from the incident
reports) who had slipped during this period (Appendix X). People were asked to comment
on two aspects. They were asked to identify the cause of their slip/stumble and to
comment on the nature of the terrain where the slip took place. It was felt that those
who had actually been involved in the incident would be in a good position to comment
accurately on some of the key conditions relevant to their accident. Indeed, only 8%
indicated in their replies that they were unable to identify the cause of their accident.
A total of 152 questionnaires was distributed and 99 were returned - a return rate of
65%. Table 29 lists the frequency of each cause identified by respondents. The Table
has been divided to distinguish those factors which are outwith the control of the
individual (eg, ice on path) and those which are within the control of the individual (eg,
poor footwear). The total adds to more than 100% since most respondents reported
more than one cause. The table shows that most causes belong to the individual and are
therefore avoidable (in principle). For example, over 40% of casualties suggest they
slipped because they misjudged where to place their foot. And almost 22% suggest they
slipped through poor concentration. However, two of the most commonly reported
causes are features related to the terrain. People therefore place a high level of blame
on terrain which is wet, grassy, rocky or loose! Whilst nothing can be done to change
this, it is notable that many people do recognise their own limitations when they
comment about incorrect foot placement, distraction, poor concentration and fatigue.
These are areas where (in theory at last) there is scope for improvement.

It is interesting to note some significant gender differences. Men are more likely to slip
through lack of concentration or distraction (p .05), whilst women are more likely to
slip because of poor footwear. Table 30 lists those features of the terrain specific to
each incident. Much of this data supports the findings reported elsewhere in this study.
For example, it confirms that many slips take place on hill paths or terrain which is wet,
rocky, grassy, loose, snow or ice covered. There is nothing unusual or unexpected about
these observations. It is notable that one third of slips take place when the person is
ascending or on reasonably flat

Table 29 Causes identified by those involved in a slip/stumble

Cause
(person has no control)

% reported
Cause
(person has control)

40.2 Misjudged foot placement
Wet grass/rock 35.6
Loose stones, gravel 21.8
21.8 Lack of concentration
17.9 Fatigue
14.9 Distracted
Ice on path 14.9
13.8 Tripped over rock, grass
10.3 Walking too fast
10.3 Not wearing crampons
9.2 Poor footwear
Knocked off balance 9.2
4.6 Crampon balling
3.4 Poor fitness
1.1 Felt unwell
1.1 Clogged treads
Other 16.1 Other

ground. This contrasts with the common perception that most accidents occur when
people descend from hills.

Table 30 Type of terrain identified by those involved in a slip/stumble

Nature of Terrain % reported

Who is more
at risk?

Wet 35.6 -
Dry 26.4 -
Ice 21.8 Men
Snow 19.5 Men

Downhill 56.3 Women
Uphill 21.8 Men
Flat 13.8 -

Rock 43.7
Hill path 26.4 Women
Grass 20.7 Women
Scree 11.5 Women
Peat 8.0 -
River/stream 8.0 -
Heather 8.0 -

Outcomes of I ncidents

In previous sections it was reported that more men tend to become cragfast,
avalanched, fall or lost. In contrast, a greater proportion of women suffer slips than any
other outcome (Figure 13). Again, this may show that women engage primarily in those
activities which lend themselves to slips (i.e., hillwalking) as opposed to any other kind of
difficulty (Table 15).

Figure 13 Outcomes as a f unction of gender

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Percentage
Fell Avalanched Cragfast Overdue Lost Slipped
Outcome
Male
Female

SUMMARY

The findings of this survey confirm much of what was already known or expected about
mountain incidents (eg, more men are rescued compared to women). It is vital to confirm
expectations with objective data and the present study provides a complete and
accurate basis for making informed comment about mountain accidents in Scotland.
There are other findings which have not been documented before which deserve closer
scrutiny.

It is possible to summarise the results in two sections. Several findings can be
explained reasonably well in terms of the type of activity (climbing, hillwalking) in which
people engage as well as gender differences. Other findings are dealt with separately,
although some can be partly explained in activity terms.

Type of Activity/ Gender

Reference has been made throughout this report to the types of activity engaged in by
men and women. It has been suggested that men tend to climb and women tend to walk.
This subject is now the focus of attention. Consider the following list of findings.

1. When participation figures are accounted for, men are disproportionately at risk
compared to women. That is, more men compared to women are involved in incidents
than would be expected on the basis of participation numbers alone. (see Tables 1 &
2)

2. Incidents in rock climbing, snow/ice climbing and scrambling involve more men than
expected, whilst incidents in hillwalking involve more women than expected. (see
Table 15)

3. Men are more likely than expected to suffer serious injury (fatal or multiple)
whereas women are more likely to suffer limb/head injuries or medical problems.
(see Table 18)

4. Men are less likely to be involved in an incident on a footpath or on the open hillside,
but more likely to be involved when the terrain is covered in snow or ice. (see Table
19)

5. Women are more likely to slip compared to men. However, men are more likely to slip
when the terrain is rocky or snow/ice covered, whilst women are more likely to slip on
hill paths. (see Tables 22 & 26)

6. With age the ratio of females to males involved in an incident increases. That is,
females are more likely to be involved in an incident the older they are. This may be
linked to the fact that women tend more to hillwalking with age and are also more
prone to slip than men. (see Table 5 & Figure 2)

7. A greater proportion of women slip in the summer months whilst a greater proportion
of men slip at other times of the year. (see Figure 11)

8. Experienced men are generally more accident prone than experienced women.
Further, experienced males tend to be involved in snow/ice and rock climbing
incidents relative to women who tend to be involved in hillwalking incidents. (see
Tables 8 & 9)

9. The ratio of males/females involved in incidents is greater in the winter months and
less in the summer months. That is, men more accident prone in the winter months
and women are more accident prone in the summer months. (see Figure 4)

Taken together, these findings lead to a one obvious conclusion, ie, men are involved in
mountain activities which are more hazardous. From this, one can conclude that men
tend to participate more in climbing activities (winter and summer) whereas women tend
to take part more in walking activities. This assumption accepts that both men and
women take part in all kinds of activity, but it states that a greater proportion of men
climb whilst a greater proportion of women walk. This is clearly a very broad
generalisation but it is supported by some anecdotal evidence (eg, Feeney, 2001; Fyffe,
2001; Williams, 2001). If this is true, then the overall casualty profile revealed in the
present findings reflects simply the profile of the people who take part in Scottish
mountaineering and hillwalking. There is clearly a need to ascertain the demographic
profile of Scottish hillgoers to test this conclusion.

Other Findings

Incident profile

The large majority of incidents involve hillwalkers who slip on a footpath and suffer a
limb injury (see Tables 14, 16 & 26). This a stereotypical profile that has changed
little over the years. Similarly, the ratio of casualties living in Scotland/outwith
Scotland (about 50%/50%) has not changed (see Table 10). In over half of all
incidents there was no wind and in almost one quarter there was no wind, rain, snow or
cloud (see Table 19). In other words, many accidents take place when the weather is
not inclement.

The ratio of snow/ice climbing incidents relative to hillwalking has shifted towards
the former in the past few years (see Table 14). One suggestion is that this period
has seen a rise in interest in winter mountaineering (improved clothing, gear,
proliferation of magazine articles, books, videos, courses) which has not been
matched by a rise in skill/awareness levels.

Of the injuries suffered by casualties, 14% are fatal, however, the proportion of
incidents resulting in fatal injuries to casualties shows signs of falling. (see Table 17
& Figure 5)

The average age of a casualty is just over 36 years and approximately 50% of all
casualties are aged between 26 and 46 years. These figures have changed little over
the years. The age profile of men and women differs. (see Tables 3 and 4)

The present study showed that 64% of all casualties are experienced (see Table 6).
This is partly explained by the fact that experienced people tend to be involved in
higher risk activities. However, one would still expect those defined as experienced
to be less involved in incidents. Perhaps the familiarity/complacency principle is at
work here? A related finding is that todays casualties are less experienced than a
few years ago. This may indicate that more and more experienced people are
adopting self help rescue strategies, although there is no evidence to support this.
This finding also conflicts with the popular view that hillgoers today are more
knowledgeable (because of the upsurge in literature, courses, TV programmes and
press coverage of accidents, etc.).

The balance of male/female casualties has shifted towards males in recent years
(see Table 1). Does this suggest that relatively more men are currently participating
in mountain activities compared to women? There is no objective evidence to support
this explanation. If the relative participation figures have not changed over the
years, then why are males at a higher risk today than before?

It is likely the high points for incidents in February and August reflects the number
of people who take to the hills at these times (winter mountaineering and summer
hillwalking respectively). The rise in August certainly includes a high tourist
element. Similarly, the low points in April and November, probably reflect the
generally poor weather conditions which mark the transition from one season to the
next. (see Table 11 & Figure 3)

The great majority of walkers and climbers do not belong to any organisation or
group. (see Table 10)

People who belong to Clubs tend to be experienced but group separation is a problem
and they get lost more often than others.

Youth and other led groups tend to make navigation errors and suffer
medical/fitness problems. They are also more likely to get lost or be overdue.

Students are relatively poor at planning and timing and are more overdue than other
groups.

Those who work in professional occupations are the occupational group most at risk.

Causes

1. Over two thirds of all incidents involve people who have slipped/stumbled or who are
lost/overdue (see Table 21).

2. Navigation is the most commonly cited contributory cause of all incidents, closely
followed by bad planning and poor timing (see Table 20).

3. Men are much more likely to be overdue and to suffer from poor timing (see Table
21). It may be that men are less organised and ill prepared. Or it may be that as
men are more involved in climbing activities which do not always lend themselves to
precise timing (weather, queuing, unforeseen technical problems) this makes them
less able to accurately plan the duration of their day on the hill.

4. A small but significant number of incidents are caused through equipment which is
inadequate or missing (see Table 21). For example, a substantial number of
hillwalkers fail to take headtorches, spare bulbs and batteries, map and compass.
The majority of equipment problems are avoidable ones and it is significant that in
many cases the casualty is classified as experienced.

5. Women are proportionately more likely to be involved in an incident because of a
medical condition. It is difficult to explain this result.

Slips

1. 40% of all incidents happen because someone slips/stumbles (see Table 21).

2. Almost two-thirds of all slips result in a limb injury and over one-third of all
fatalities result from a slip (see Table 25).

3. Slips tend to happen to those who:

Are experienced (see Figure 9). The proportion of experienced people who slip is
greater than would be expected. This suggests that experience is no guarantee
against slipping. A possible reason is that experienced people tend to give less
thought to the hazards involved in mountaineering (familiarity breeds contempt) and
complacency lends them more open to the risks involved, particularly the risk of
slipping and the attendant consequences.

Lack concentration - especially men (see Table 29).

Wear poor footwear - especially women (see Table 29).

Misjudge where to place their foot (almost one half).

Descend hills (two-thirds) - see Table 30. But it is notable that one third of slips
take place when the person is ascending or on reasonably flat ground. This tends to
argue against the popular view that slips happen going downhill. There is a need to
reconsider this generalisation.

Are older (see Table 22). Those who slip tend to be older than those involved in
other types of incident - probably because older people tend to walk more than climb.
Older women are especially prone to slip. This is not explained by suggesting more
women walk as they grow older since the proportion of women who walk is reasonably
constant across all age groups. It may be that men and women slip equally often, but
women are more likely to suffer injury requiring emergency assistance. A possible
answer may lie in the knowledge that women relative to men are more susceptible to
osteoporosis as they age.
Are female (see Figure 13). A greater proportion of women suffer slips than
anything else. In contrast, more men tend to become cragfast, avalanched, fall or
lost.

Walk in summer (see Figure 10). There is a proportionate increase in slips in the
summer months of May to August and a decrease in the winter months especially
November and December.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

This study examined almost every mountain incident in Scotland over a four year period
(over 1000 incidents). The essential purpose was to describe the profile of the people
involved in mountain accidents with a view to identifying those who are most at risk.
This information could then be used to inform relevant organisations (eg, Scottish
Mountain Safety Forum, Course Providers) in regard to training and safety promotion.
The study achieved this aim and in so doing confirmed much of what is already known
about mountain accidents and casualties. In addition, it raised a variety of issues which
deserve closer consideration by those organisations in Scotland which have an interest in
safety and training.

Saf ety Messages

There are a number of messages which should be reinforced with the hillwalking and
mountaineering fraternity. Some of these are well known and have been emphasised
many times in the past. However, it is only through consistent and determined promotion
that ideas may eventually be taken on board. What are these messages?

Experience cannot guarantee against failure

Over half of those involved in mountain incidents are classified as experienced
hillgoers. Experience males would appear to be especially at risk. One would not
expect so many people to slip, get lost, fall, etc.. It is likely that high risk
activities (eg, ice climbing) attract mainly those who are experienced.
Furthermore, experienced hillgoers probably participate more than those who are
less experienced. So one might expect a rise in incidents with this group. But
there may be other explanations. It is possible that complacency and familiarity
are partly responsible. There is a need to reinforce the message that experience
and familiarity do not make people infallible; caution should prevail at all times even
when the risks are apparently low.

Hillwalking is not without its risks

Most incidents are hillwalking ones. The inexperienced, professional people,
student and club groups are at particular risk. It may well be that the volume of
people who walk, especially in the summer months partly explains this problem. The
general message that hillwalking is not without some risk should be stressed.

Slips are central to many incidents

Slips and trips account for almost half of all incidents. Therefore, it makes sense
to highlight this common problem. Slips are particulary common amongst females in
the older age groups. In addition, slips take place when conditions are least
expected - on footpaths, walking uphill, in summer months and when conditions are
dry, etc.. Momentary lapses of concentration or distraction often cause walkers to
slip or stumble. The point should also be made that slips often have dire
consequences, particularly in winter when a slip can result in a very long fall.
Ensure all items of equipment are taken

By and large, few incidents result from equipment failure or misuse. However, a
significant number can be traced to a lack of equipment such as a forgotten
compass or low headlight battery. A few tragic accidents have resulted from
people not wearing crampons or using an ice axe. The need to be properly equipped
in winter continues to be an important message. It is critical to make the point
that the majority of incidents where equipment is cited are avoidable ones.

The majority of casualties live outside Scotland

Over half of all incidents involve people from England and other countries outside
Scotland. The majority are English. It is a difficult task to sell safety messages
to those who do not reside in Scotland. This may be an area where information
could be usefully conveyed through the outdoor magazines, course providers,
hostels and other places of accommodation, car parks, etc..

Support mountain rescue - get lost!

A tongue in cheek comment but with a serious message. The most commonly cited
contributory cause of mountain incidents is poor navigation. The majority of
incidents involving lost people result from poor navigation. Over one quarter of all
incidents are connected with poor navigation. There is a need to convey this
message to both experienced and inexperienced hillwalkers as well as those who
belong to Clubs and guided groups. It should also be impressed on those who
scramble and winter climb because navigation is often cited as a factor with these
activities.

Preparation is fundamental

There is scope for much improvement in terms of planning, preparing and timing
routes. Males and those in the younger age group are especially weak in these
areas. Over one third all incidents result from poor planning and underestimation
of time, severity of terrain and ability. Inadequate planning is a problem not only
for hillwalkers but also those who scramble and climb in winter and summer. Whilst
poor planning is an all -year round problem, it is especially so in the spring and
autumn which mark the beginning of the most active times of the year.

Skills Training

Several of the points above require hillgoers to change their attitude/approach in some
manner. For example, there is a need for people to think more carefully about the
equipment they take with them and to prepare more thoroughly. However, there is one
area which points to the need for hillgoers to improve their level of skill, viz., navigation.
It is widely acknowledged that this is the number one skill. The survey on safety
promotion which accompanies the present study revealed this very clearly. What is to
be done here? Clearly, there is something wrong when the skill which is acknowledged as
one of the most critical for all hillgoers, proves to be the weakness connected with so
many incidents. It is not satisfactory to just acknowledge this matter. At the very
least, there should be an audit of the kinds of courses on offer in Scotland, together
with an examination of their content. An evaluation like this would provide a basis to
judge whether the present provision was adequate/appropriate. Such as survey would
highlight the importance of navigation in the mountain leader and other award schemes,
the targeted training carried out by the MC of S and Boots across Scotland, courses
delivered by local authority outdoor education centres and private organisations,
together with the emphasis on navigation within the world of orienteering. It would also
recognise current developments in navigation technology and the national navigation
award scheme.

An analysis of all the various ingredients might lead to closer co-ordination of the
various agencies, development of new courses or other initiatives. It requires
involvement of the MC of S or SMSF to take the matter forwards, in conjunction with
the author.

Further Research

The study revealed many differences between men and women. Most fundamental is the
fact that males are three times more likely to be involved in an incident compared to
females. At a time when gender equality is high on the National agenda, it is logical to
examine why men are at such risk. Possible avenues for examination include looking at
differences in risk-taking behaviours, skill levels, equipment/clothing factors as well as
differences in the kinds of activity in which men and women engage. An understanding
of the reasons behind these differences may have implications for training (eg, males
display poor navigation) and safety promotion campaigns.
The ratio of males to females involved in incidents changes with age. With older groups,
a greater proportion of women are involved relative to men. Why are women more
accident prone with age? Again, an understanding of this issue may have implications
for safety promotion.

Much of the evidence from the present study can be accounted for if it is assumed that
men take part in more hazardous activities, compared to women. Many findings lead to
the conclusion that in overall terms, men tend to climb whilst women tend to walk. It is
partly academic to determine the demographic profiles of men and women, but it would
certainly help a fuller understanding of mountain incidents and assist course providers
wishing to target their product. Research in this area is thwart with difficulties, not
least of which is the task of identifying and locating the target population. Whilst it
may be possible to contact hillgoers who belong to Clubs and other organisations, these
people are only a subset of a vast group who are otherwise unaffiliated. There are
difficult, but not insurmountable methodological problems here.

Recommendation

It is recommended that the many organisations identified in this report which have an
interest in mountain safety, training, leadership, instruction and rescue, read this
document and examine how they should respond to those matters which have direct
relevance.

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COMPARATI VE ACCI DENT RATES

It is possible to estimate the accident rates for walking/climbing and thereby make
comparisons with other activities. However, this hinges on making assumptions about the
absolute figures for participation.

PARTICIPATION

The data provided by sportscotland/System Three is taken to represent the most
accurate picture of hillwalking/mountaineering participation by those who live in
Scotland. According to the sportscotland surveys, the average level of participation
over the past 6/7 years is 5% of Scotlands population. Martin & Coalter (2000) note
this corresponds to approximately 164,000 people. This is the number of people (living
in Scotland) who indicate they have walked or climbed at some time in the four weeks
prior to the survey. From this it can be estimated that there are approximately
2,132,000 participant days (i.e., 164,000 x 13) in the Scottish mountains each year.
This does not provide a complete picture however, since it precludes those living outwith
Scotland who visit Scotland to walk and climb. How large is this group of people? An
estimation can be made by looking at the accident figures which suggest that the
proportion of Scots/Others is 52%/48% (based on all incidents between 1996 and 1999).
These figures lead to an overall figure of 4,100,000 participant days - which is only
marginally less than the upper figure suggested by Davidson (1994).

Accidents

The average number of incidents over the period 1996 to 1999 was 320 per year. This
includes all search and rescue incidents regardless of their nature (searches for lost
walkers, fallen climbers who are injured, fatalities through medical conditions, etc.).

Accident rates

If the figures for participation (4,100,000) and incidents (320) are combined, then it
can be deduced that the risk of a walker/climber being involved in an incident is
approximately 1:13,000. The comparable risk of being involved in a fatal accident (based
on an average number of fatalities from 1994 - 1999 of 35.7) is 1:110,000. A practical
way of interpreting this is to say that if a hillgoer spent 13,000 days on the hill, they
would be expected to be involved in a single incident. For that accident to prove fatal
would require they spent around 110,000 days in total on the hill (i.e., 300 years non stop
walking/climbing!).

COMPARISON WITH OTHER ACTIVITIES

It is interesting to compare this figure with those reported for fatal accidents in other
areas. However, it is not easy to make comparisons because whilst the absolute numbers
of people who die or injured are known, the rate of injury/death in regard to levels of
participation is unreported or unknown. In the figures above, the accident figures are
judged against the expected number of participant days . Statistics in other areas
(e.g., road traffic accidents) are measured against the numbers of people - the Scottish
population. The calculated rates in each case are therefore not directly comparable. If
we take the actual number of fatalities regardless of number of people or how long they
are involved then the relative figures show that mountaineering is far less risky than
some other activities (see Table 1). This shows for example that nine times as many
people die from accidents in the home (mostly slips/stumbles) as do in the mountains.
And over ten times as many die in road accidents. Conclusions like this have to be
treated with caution however, since many fewer people are involved in mountaineering
than comprise the Scottish population and it is also likely that roads in Scotland are
crossed many more times than mountains are climbed.

Table 1 Number of fatalities in different activities relative to mountaineering

Area Source Multiplier

Mountaineering MRC of S Annual Reports 1.0
Accidents in the home Scottish Office (1994) 9.0
Road traffic accident Scottish Executive (2000) 10.3
Falls (home, work, etc.) National Health Service (1997) 20.7
Accidents in the home UK Dept. of Trade and Industry (2000) 110.5
Swimming, angling etc. National Health Service (1997) 0.6
Water activities ROSPA (2000) 2.4
Home DIY Dept. of Trade and Industry (2000) 2.5

COMPARISON WITH OTHER SPORTS

Other studies have compared fatal accidents in mountaineering with different sports.
Avery, Harper & Ackroyd (1990) suggested that swimming, fishing, horse riding and
motorsports are more hazardous than mountaineering when using deaths as the
criterion, In contrast, they suggested that mountaineering is 100 times more dangerous
than ball games, although it is unclear from their study how this was derived. The
General Household Survey which is carried out every ten years provides information
about injuries in various sporting activities according to the number of hospitalized
cases. Figure 1 shows the UK estimates for the number of people injured playing
selected sports (date taken from Grainger-Jones, 1999). It shows mountaineering in a
relatively good light, especially compared against rugby, skiing and horseriding. Again,
however, it should be noted that this Figure shows only the absolute numbers of people
who are injured; it does not reflect participation or frequency levels.

A strict comparison should take account of the amount of time involved where it is
possible to quantify this aspect. The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) uses a measure
of Fatal Accident Rate (FAR) to quantify the relative danger of different activities.
FAR is simply the number of fatalities per million hours spent on the activity. The HSE
has proposed a maximum tolerable FAR of 0.48 for workers in all occupations, below
which no action is required by the employer to reduce risks further. The figure given

Figure 1 UK estimates of numbers injured playing sport

0 20 40 60 80 100
Numbers in 000's
Trampolining
Mountaineering
Fishing
Golf
Motor Sport
Skiing
Riding
Rugby

for hillwalking/climbing in this study corresponds to a FAR of 1.14
13
. This suggests that
mountaineering is more than twice as risky than the level accepted for occupational
activity. The figure for mountaineering is also larger than the corresponding figures for
fishing (FAR = 0.37), but much less than that for smoking (FAR = 20.0). All figures
taken from Turner (1994). It is also worth comparing the FARs for mountaineering with
equivalent figures for various modes of transport (Roberts, 2000). Mountaineering is
less risky than all forms of travel with the exception of motor cycling (Table 2).

Other studies have examined injury rates in relation to the number of hours of activity.
Ashford, Knutson & Sacs (1999) showed that the accident rate in caving is 1 per 1,990.

13
This makes the assumption that one participant day = 8 hours activity
Table 2 FARs for various modes of transport and mountaineering

Mode of transport FAR

Passenger travel in bus/coach 0.001
Passenger travel by train 0.480
Passenger travel by car 0.150
Driving a car 0.200
Pedestrian 0.600
Motor cycling 3.000
Mountaineering 1.140

hours. If the injury rate in mountaineering is 1 : 13,000 days/104,000 hours, then caving
is around 52 times more risky than mountaineering. Macnab & Cadman (1996) showed
the injury rate in alpine skiing and snowboarding to be 1 per 2,749 hours which makes
these activities 38 times more risky than mountaineering. Davidson & Laliotis (1996)
noted a figure of 34 for alpine skiing. Gentile et al (1992) studied injuries over a five
year period in a wide variety of wilderness activities, to produce an injury rate of 2.3
per 1000 days of activity suggesting that these activities are 30 times more risky than
mountaineering. These figures are shown in Table 3. It should be remembered that
these figures show mountaineering in a better light than is actually the case since the
figures for mountaineering are only those reported to the emergency services. There
are likely to be many more accidents involving minor injuries which are not included here.

Table 3 Injury rates for mountaineering and other sports

Activity Injuries per hrs Multiplier

Caving 1 : 1,990 52
Alpine skiing/Snowboarding 1 : 2,749 38
Alpine skiing 1 : 3,058 34
Wilderness activities 1 : 3,478 30
Mountaineering 1 : 104,000 1

There is no way this factor can be quantified.

Finally, another method for making comparisons is to compare the rate of
injuries/deaths per frequency of outings. The Health and safety Executive (1999)
provided the data shown in Table 4. Again, rock climbing is cast in a favourable light
particularly when compared against hangliding and scuba diving.

Table 4 Average annual risk of death as a consequence of an activity

Activity Annual risk

Hangliding 1 in 80,000 flights
Scuba diving 1 in 150,000 dives
Rock climbing 1 in 250,000 climbs
Whitewater canoeing 1 in 2,000,000 outings

COMPARISON WITH OTHER OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES
IN SCOTLAND

To help contextualise (in a Scottish context) the number of incidents in mountaineering,
an attempt was made to collate similar information from other major outdoor activities
(canoeing, mountain biking, caving, hangliding, orienteering, skiing, sailing). This section
provides a summary of the limited information obtained. The information is very limited
since the national governing bodies from whom information was sought, do not maintain
tight databases on accident/injury information. Indeed, this highlights the general
problem which has been encountered by the Adventure Activities Licensing Authority in
collating accurate and comprehensive information on accidents in all areas of outdoor
activities.

For orienteering and mountain biking there is no information available. The Scottish
Canoe Association (SCA) maintains a list of members which has risen from just over
1700 to just over 2000 in the past 10 years. The SCA recognises that this probably
fails to recognise the total number of paddlers operating in Scotland, but it has
estimated there may be around 10,000 active paddlers. Accident statistics are not kept
by the SCA, but is aware there have been a couple of fatalities in the past three years
(none under instruction). The SCA suggests the accident rate is very low. Rather like
the SCA and the MC of S, the British Association of Snowsport Instructors (BASI)
does not compile accident statistics for anything other than training courses. However,
very comprehensive information is available through the Scottish Ski and Snowboard
Injury Database Study (Langram, 2001). This project which has been running for two
winter seasons collects all injury data from the three largest ski areas in Scotland. In
the season 1999/2000 there were a total of 197,033 skier days at the three areas over
the course of the season. There were 732 recorded injuries comprising 480 (alpine),
213 (snowboard), 31 (snowblade) and 8 (telemark ski). These figures suggest an injury
rate of 3.7 injuries per 1000 skier days. This can be compared to an incident rate of 1 in
13,000 for mountaineering. This suggests that skiing is around 48 times more risky than
mountaineering which compares with the figures shown in Table 3 and those reported by
Turner (1994), as well as figures for Canada (Macnab and Cadman (1996) and the USA
(Davidson & Laliotis, 1996). It should be recognised that this comparison is not strictly
accurate since the mountaineering figures are bound to be an underestimate and will
exclude many injuries to both walkers and climbers which would be included had the
person been skiing (the three ski areas employ full time ski patrollers who are on hand
to deal with minor injuries which a mountaineer would be able to cope with him/herself
or with the help of friends). Furthermore, the skiing statistics include only injuries
whereas the mountaineering figures also include date on those who are lost, overdue,
missing, etc..

The Royal Yachting Association (RYA) does not keep detailed accident statistics; rather,
that is kept by the RNLI, but it suggests that the rate is very low (Ritchie, 2000). It is
worth noting that ROSPA record the number of drownings each year for the whole of
the UK and Scotland in particular. The figures for 1999 show that 86 people drowned in
Scotland (sea and inshore) in total. The majority of these were fishing related. A small
number were swimming/bathing and walking related and a further small group either not
defined or suicides. It is notable that around three times as many people drown in
Scotland compared to those who walk/climb who die in the mountains.

The Scottish Hang Gliding and Paragliding Federation (SHPF) maintains records of
accident and near misses for the sports of hang gliding, paragliding and powered hang
gliding/paragliding in the UK. The average number of pilots registered each year (1996 -
1999) was 6076 and the average number of injuries was 177. This yields a figure of 1
injury per 34 persons. This compares to a figure of 1 incident per 512 persons for
people who walk/climb in Scotland. Whilst the ratio of 1 : 34 appears very high, it does
not take account of the frequency of participation. The figures are much lower when
this is accounted for as noted by the Health and Safety Executive (1999). They
reported on the annual risk of death for various activities. For hangliding the figure is
1 in 80,000 flights. The point is that to gain any meaningful figures which permit
reliable comparisons there is a need to quantify the number of people involved, their
frequency of participation, as well as the severity of the injury. This was alluded to in
the previous section which focused on Participation. No information is available for
Scottish caving (there is very little activity in Scotland). A US survey (Ashford,
Knutson & Sacks, 1999) showed an injury rate of 1 per 1,990 hours of caving activity.
Hypothermia was the most common injury followed by fractures, animal bites and
concussions. This figure compares to a figure of 1 incident per 102,500 hours of
mountaineering, which makes caving about 52 times more risky than mountaineering.
Again, as with skiing, the same limitations apply to this comparison.

CONCLUSIONS

The conclusion from these few studies is that whilst mountaineering is clearly a high risk
activity when measured against many other sports, it is less so when compared against
other outdoor sports and activities such as smoking and driving a car. For this reason, it
is very frustrating when the Press give a high profile to a tragic mountain accident when
a fatal accident on the roads is given scant attention. However, it is not easy to make
comparisons because there is no standard basis for judgement. Various agencies report
on the number of deaths or number of injuries and some take into account a
participation factor whilst others do not. Some report the absolute number of
injuries/deaths whilst others report these figures in regard to the numbers taking part,
frequency of participation or number hours involved. It is a puzzling picture to decipher
which makes it very difficult to arrive at any definitive answers.

REFERENCES

Ashford, D. A., Knutson, R. S., & Sacks, J. J. (1999). Injury among cavers: Results of a
preliminary national survey. Journal of Sports Medical Physical Fitness, 39, 1, 71-73.

Avery, J. G., Harper, P., & Ackroyd, S. (1990). Do we pay too dearly for our sport and
leisure activities? An investigation into fatalities as a result of sporting and leisure
activities in England and Wales, 1982 - 1988. Public Health, 104, 6, 417 - 423.

Davidson, R. (1994). Levels of use and safety on the hills. In: Mountain Safety in the UK
Seminar Report. Edinburgh: The Scottish Sports Council.

Davidson, T. M. & Laliotis, A. T. (1996). Alpine ski injuries. A nine year study. West
Journal of Medicine, 164, 4, 310 - 314.

Davidson, T. M., & Laliotis, A. T. (1996). Alpine skiing injuries. A nine year study. West
Journal of Medicine (USA), 164, 4, 310 - 314.

nd
annual report 1998 data. London: Department of Trade and Industry.

Gentile, D. A., Morris, J. A., Schimelpfenig, T., Bass, S. M., & Auerbach, P. S. (1992).
Wilderness injuries and illnesses. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 21, 7, 853 - 861.

Grainger-Jones, B. (1999). Managing leisure. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Langram, M. (2001). Scottish Ski and snowboard injury database study. Results from
the 1999-2000 season. Retrieved 27
th
July 2001 from the World Wide Web:
www.ski-injury.com/studies.htm

Macnab, A. J., & Cadman, R. (1996). Demographics of alpine skiing and snowboarding
injury: Lessons for prevention programs. Injury Prevention, 2, 4, 283-289.

sportscotland.

National Health Service. (1997). Scottish health statistics. Edinburgh: The National
Health Service.
Ritchie, D. (2000). Personal communication with the Chief Dinghy and Powerboat Coach.

Roberts, L. (2000). The estimation and meaning of risk. In P. A. Beetham (Ed.). Risk!
Life is a risky business. Oxford: Christ and The Cosmos.

Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents, (2000). Drowning statistics in the UK
1999. Birmingham, ROSPA.

Scottish Executive. (2000). Key road accident statistics. Edinburgh: The Scottish
Executive.

Scottish Office Interdepartmental Working Party on Accidents (1994). Scottish
accident statistics 1980 - 1991. Edinburgh: The Scottish Office.

Turner, M. (1994). Skiing safety: Death and injury in sport. In: Mountain Safety in the
UK Seminar Report. Edinburgh: The Scottish Sports Council.
PARTICIPATION IN MOUNTAINEERING

INTRODUCTION

The current research project (Leverhulme) focuses on mountain safety in Scotland.
This presupposes there is a problem in need of investigation! There is a certainly a
concern since it is known that many people are injured, die or are lost every year in the
Scottish mountains. But how extensive is this problem? And how does the number of
people who are injured, etc., compare to the number that participate? It makes sense to
explore these matters to get a feel for the scope and breadth of the issue.

There are three inter-related variables central to this issue, viz., levels of participation,
number of accidents and accident rate. The first two variables when combined provide
an indication of the accident rate and show whether it is falling, rising or static.
Information on accidents is readily available, particularly those accidents which result in
the mobilisation of emergency services. The incidents which require emergency
assistance are well documented and full data is available. Every incident is documented
by way of an incident report form which is maintained by the Statistician of the
Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland. Copies of these are also held by the various
Police Forces throughout Scotland and, in the case of fatal accidents, are also
accompanied by official fatal accident reports. Each year, the Statistician summarises
every incident and a summary report is published in the Scottish Mountaineering Club
Journal. This report also includes a brief description of each and every incident.
Summary statistics make it possible to make comparisons with data from previous years
and examine trends.

The information maintained by the MRC of S is probably an underestimation of the
actual number of incidents. It is very likely that many incidents of a minor nature take
place which do not require use of the emergency services. Those people involved will
effect their own rescue either with the help of others on the hill at the time or via
friends contacted via a mobile phone call. Consequently, they will remain unknown and
unrecorded by the Police/MRC of S. There is no way of quantifying the scale of such
incidents, but it is likely that the majority will be of a minor nature. It is a reasonable
assumption that the number of such incidents mirrors the number of recorded incidents
each year, and therefore will not bias any trends noted in the official incidents.

It is notoriously difficult to quantify hill recreation (Aitken & Scott, 2000). Indeed,
exact information about levels of participation is impossible to acquire because of the
practical difficulties of monitoring activity on every mountain in Scotland across the
year. It is only feasible to make estimates about participation but even then, the task
of estimation is thwart with sampling difficulties relating to numbers, location, timing,
etc. A further difficulty is that many people who walk/climb in Scotland do not live in
Scotland so it is impossible to judge the number of people who visit Scotland along with
their commitment to hillwalking. These problems are reflected in the widely differing
results obtained by the surveys which have attempted to monitor participation. Some
of these studies attempt to report on the actual number of people involved whilst others
estimate the number of hill days across the year. Other studies focus on participation
in selected areas of Scotland or on particular mountains whilst some adopt a more
general view and estimate overall levels of participation in Scotland. These differences
makes comparisons between studies very difficult.

PARTICIPATION

Trend Surveys

A number of studies make it possible to examine trends in participation. Since 1987, the
Scottish Sports Council has collected data on adults living in Scotland (Scottish Sports
Council, 1994; MacGregor & Martin, 1999; Coalter, 1998; Martin & Coalter, 2000). The
research has been carried out by System Three as part of their omnibus household
survey; the Scottish Opinion Survey. This data provides the most comprehensive and
systematic picture of participation over the past 13 years. For the purposes of the
present study this data is used as an important basis for judgements about participation
in hillwalking, climbing, etc., over this period.

System Three selects approximately 1000 adults at the end of every other month from
40 sampling points in mainland Scotland and questions them about their participation in
sport and physical recreation in the four weeks prior to the interview. This provides
data on approximately 6000 adults per year. The data is weighted by gender, age and
social class to ensure the sample is representative of the adult population in Scotland.
Sportscotland urge some caution when interpreting this data, drawing attention to the
problem of sampling error. They suggest that all data may contain an error of up to
plus/minus three per cent. So for example, a measured participation rate of 45 per cent
may lie within the range 42 per cent to 48 per cent. They urge that interpretation of
any data should be made within the context of this qualification. Despite this caution,
the data provided by sportscotland/System Three provides the most comprehensive and
complete picture of hillwalking/mountaineering participation in Scotland and is taken to
be the most accurate available.

Figure 1 shows the trend for participation in hillwalking/climbing/mountaineering since
1987. Each data point represents the average of the figures for three years (moving
mean). Thus, the point for 1986 is the average for 1984-86, and so on. Sportscotland
adopts this strategy because year on year fluctuations are often within the margin of
error. The moving mean approach thus makes it possible to draw conclusions about
year-on-year changes, which a graph of yearly figures would make difficult. This figure

Figure 1 Participation in hillwalking, climbing and mountaineering in Scotland

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
87/89 88/90 89/91 90/92 91/93 92/95 93/95 94/96 95/97 96/98 97/99
Three year categories

suggests that participation in these activities has not increased markedly over the
1990s. Indeed, it suggests a position of stability. In addition to asking people whether
or not they have walked or climbed, System Three also asks if they have been simply
walking (2+ miles) in the past four weeks. The data for this activity is shown in Figure 2.
Walking is defined as any walk greater in length than 2 miles and this may take place on
roads, in forests or in the hills. It is probably not an accurate measure of participation
in hillwalking per se. Indeed, the gender balance across the years for walking is
approximately 55% women/45% men and this is at odds with data given elsewhere in this
report which shows a reversal for hillwalking and climbing. The figure shows a clear
upward trend in participation, especially in the last seven or eight years and it may be
that this reflects a general rise in interest by the public in walking for fitness.

Figure 2 Participation in walking (2+ miles)

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
87/89 89/91 91/93 93/95 95/97 97/99
Three year categories

Anderson (1994) reported on two Mintel surveys of 1992 and 1993 which examined the
number of people taking part in walking and climbing. The surveys were UK-wide and
based on approximately 25,000 adults. The resulting figures are given in Figure 3.
There are slight increases in both activities over this period. It is worth noting that

Figure 3 UK participation in climbing and hillwalking

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Annual Trips
(Millions)
1992 1993
Year
Walking
Climbing

Mintel uses the figure annual trips as a measure of participation. This figure is simply
the product of the estimated number of people and the estimated number of times
those people walked/climbed in one year. It is clear there will be a degree of error
associated with this method of estimating participation. In her overall analysis of
participation, Anderson (1994) suggested that participation increased by almost 500%
over the period 1964 - 1990,

It is estimated that participation increased over the 26 year period 1964 to
1990, by a conservative 494%, increasing from 185,000 day visits per year to
1,100,000.

Anderson does not elaborate on how this figure is derived.

The National Trust for Scotland carries out counter surveys to determine the number
of people who walk in the mountains areas under their authority. Data is available across
several years which provides trend information, but of course this applies only to
selected parts of Scotland. In all of the cases reported below, the data has to be
treated with a degree of caution since counters do not always provide full or accurate
information. Counters placed on paths (electronic or pressure pad based) are subject to
equipment failure and cannot be guaranteed to pick up movements of people alone. They
are unable to discriminate between people and animals such as sheep and deer and some
are sensitive to movement of snowflakes and rain drops! In some cases, counters fail
and data has to be estimated. In addition, counter information only indicates the
passage of a person and does not indicate where they travel, what they do or how long
they were on the hill.

Data from the Ben Lawers National Nature Reserve (Beinn Ghlas path) shows fairly
levels of participation across several years (see Figure 4). Data for Ben Lomond is given

Figure 4 Number of people climbing Ben Lawers

0
5000
10000
15000
20000
Number of
people
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year

in Figure 5. The data, albeit somewhat fragmented, would suggest there is little change

Figure 5 Annual number of people climbing Ben Lomond

0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Number
of people
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Year
Both paths
Ptarmigan path

in participation over the period of the study. Data for Goatfell on the Isle of Arran is
given in Figure 6. The data indicates there is little change in participation over the
period of the study. Data for Glencoe (footpaths at An Tor, Coire Nan Beith, Coire nan

Figure 6 Annual number of people climbing Goatfell

0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
Number
of people
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Year

Lochan and Lagangarbh) is given in Figure 7. It shows a significant rise in the seven year
period for which data is available.

Figure 7 Annual number of people climbing in Glencoe

50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
110000
120000
130000
140000
150000
Number of
people
92/93 99/00
Year

The view of the Ranger Service based in Torridon is that numbers have fallen in recent
years. This is based on evidence of fewer parked cars in popular areas as well as reports
from others who frequent the area (stalkers, MR personnel). Overall, the data from the
National Nature Reserves would indicate a position of relative stability over the period
of the 1990s.

A number of studies have suggested a general rise in mountain recreation in recent
years. For example, Evans (1997) used statistical evidence to comment that -

trends in leisure suggests a rapid growth in demand for outdoor, countryside
and water based activities - adventurous and glamorous pursuits and new
activities

Aitken & Scot (2000) in their discussion paper on recreational issues relevant to the
proposed Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park stated -

Other indicators, mostly of surrogate measures like mountain rescues and
number of Munro completers, all suggest substantial growth in hill recreation.

Wightman (1996) noted that the:

traditional activities of mountain walking and climbing have been growing in
popularity for over 100 years and the 1980s saw a great increase in mountain
walking which is now one of the most popular recreational activities in
Scotland

Wightman used three indices of growth in mountain recreation to support his argument,
viz., mountain rescues, club membership and number of Munro compleaters. It should
be noted however that his data only extends to 1994 and each variable shows a levelling
or down turn in the final few years.

Greene (1996a) showed there had been a slight increase in mountaineering activity from
1987 to 1991, but she later noted there had been very little change in the frequency
that people walked in the countryside between 1990 and 1995 (Green, 1996b). Anderson
(2001), in a recent investigation to assess the influence of the school on participation in
outdoor recreation concluded -

there is very little evidence indicating falls in participation

Hanley, Alvarez-Farizo & Shaw (2000) examined ways of rationing access to outdoor
recreation areas based on the increasing problem of overcrowding. They use three
measures to support the argument that increasing numbers are heading to the hills.
Firstly, they cite the increasing number of Munro completers which has risen from 10
per year in 1960 to 140 per year in 1990 (data taken from Crofts, 1995). They also
draw attention to the rapid rise in mountain incidents in Scotland through the 60s, 70s
and 80s, and the rise in membership of Clubs affiliated to the Mountaineering Council of
Scotland (data taken from Wightman, 1996).

Snapshot Surveys

A number of studies have been carried out in the past ten years or so which provide an
indication of the number of people who walk and climb at particular locations/points in
time. They provide only site specific information about the numbers who visit an area
or climb a particular mountain in one particular year. They do not indicate whether
numbers or increasing or decreasing over time. They are mentioned here simply for
completeness.

Scottish Natural Heritage carried out two studies recently (Scottish Natural Heritage,
2000a; 2000b) designed to examine recreation participation in selected mountain areas
in Scotland. In the Cairngorm mountain recreation survey (SNH, 2000a), self
administered questionnaires were distributed to groups of mountain users leaving the
area spanning the September 1997 to August 1998 period. From the returns it was
estimated that around 123,000 days were spent by mountain users in the Cairngorms
over the survey period. The majority of these people were walkers and only small
percentages climbed (1%) or ski toured (2%). The other study of recreation in the
Rothiemurchus and Glenmore area (SNH, 2000b) showed that 500,000 people visited
the area from April 1998 to March 1999.

A survey by System Three carried out in 1996 on behalf of Scottish Natural Heritage,
the Scottish Tourist Board and the Highlands and Islands Enterprise (System Three,
1998) showed that walking is the most popular outdoor leisure activity undertaken in
Scotland with over half of the Scottish adult population having taken a walk in the
countryside or along the coast in the previous 12 months. The English Sports Council
(English Sports Council, 1998) reported similarly that walking is the most popular
recreational pursuit with over 44% of the population taking part at least once a month.
In both of these studies, the activity walking refers essentially to trips along roads or
paths which does not extend to walks in the hills and mountains.

The Highlands and Islands Enterprise estimated that approximately 506,000
mountaineers (between 2% and 4% of the Scottish population) visited the Scottish
Highlands in 1995 (Highlands & Islands Enterprise, 1996). Blackshaw (2000) indicated
that around 750,000 hillgoers visit Scotland each year.

Anderson (2001) carried out a recent investigation to assess the influence of the school
on participation in outdoor recreation. This study, which was based on interviews and
questionnaires to 2500 people in the Lochaber area, did not provide any trend
information, but the author did suggest there was little evidence to indicate falls in
participation. Davidson (1994) reported on a variety of site specific surveys including
several visitor surveys designed to provide numbers of people who have climbed
particular mountains. He estimated that between 1 and 5 million trips are made each
year to the Scottish hills. Furthermore, he suggested that participation doubled
between 1970 and 1990.

Views of Experts

A variety of individuals representing the National Outdoor Training Centre,
Mountaineering Council of Scotland, Scottish Mountain Leader Training Board and
Scottish Advisory Panel in Outdoor Education were contacted for their views on a
number of participation matters. In particular, they were asked for their views on how
participation has altered in the past 10 years as well as their feelings about the number
of men/women who climb/walk in Scotland. Marshall (2001) suggests there is a
noticeable increase in numbers of people walking and climbing in the Northern Highlands
- even when the apparent fall in tourist traffic is accounted for. Fyffe (2001) considers
that participation over the past 10 years has increased slightly. He bases this on the
number of people seen on the hill as well as the increased number of cars seen in car
parks popular with climbers and walkers. Pothecary (2001) considers that participation
is quite static. Williams (2000) suggests that the number of people taking courses at
the National Outdoor Training centre (Glenmore Lodge) indicates that participation is on
the increase.

Other Indicators of Participation

It is worth recording information on matters which are related to participation in
hillwalking, about which there is reasonable clear information. Figure 8 shows the
number of people embarking on the Scottish Mountain Leader Training Scheme over the
past few years and it reveals a consistent increasing trend. One might expect an
increase in leaders with number of participants, although there have been so many
developments with the scheme in recent years that it is very difficult to predict a
straightforward connection.

Figure 8 Number of people registering with the SMLTB

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
No. of
Registrations
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year

Two surveys which focus on commercial matters are worthy of mention. The National
Tourist Board (cited in Outdoor Industries Association, 2000) estimated the amount of
money spent on activity holidays in the UK. Figure 9 shows that the figures have
changed little over the years.

Figure 9 Spend on UK activity holidays

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Millions of
s
1992 1994 1996 1998
Year

Mintel (1998) estimated how much the public have spent on outdoor clothing. Figure 10
shows the figures over a seven year period. The data reveals an increase over this

Figure 10 Spend on outdoor clothing, footwear, etc..

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Millions of s
1992 1995 1998
Year
Clothing
Footwear
Equipment

period but a deceleration in the last four years. Mintel suggests the growth is
accounted for largely by the fashion trend towards the outdoor look which began to
emerge in the 1980s. They also suggest the growth reflects -

the increased care taken by hillgoers to buy expensive clothing and footwear
which has a fashionable look as well as performance qualities.

A survey of all of the climbing walls in Scotland was undertaken, but it generated
fragmented and incomplete data. It would appear that most centres do not keep year by
year data on numbers and can only estimate usage. Those Centre Managers that replied
(4 from 14) indicated that numbers have not risen in recent years. Figure 11 shows the
only clear data obtained from this survey.

Figure 11 Beach Complex, Aberdeen: Climbing wall admissions

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Number of
Admissions
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Years

Incidents

In order to gauge accident rate there is a need to determine the number of accidents
which have taken place over the years. One would expect the number of people involved
in mountain incidents to relate directly to the number of people taking part in mountain
activities. It would not be unreasonable to expect twice as many people to succumb to
the various hazards in the mountains if the number of hillgoers were to double. This is
of course a simplification as many factors such as the weather contribute and play a
part in mountain accidents. Figure 12 records the number of incidents in Scotland over
the past 10 years. It shows very clearly that there has not been an increase over this
period. Figure 13, illustrates the same data expressed as a moving mean which suggests
there may be a downward trend. Figure 14 presents comparable information for England
and Wales and it too shows that the accident trend is stable. The moving mean analysis
suggests there may be a downward trend as with the Scottish data.

Figure 12 Scottish mountain incidents (absolute numbers)

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Number of
Incidents
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year

The incident data from Scotland and England/Wales suggests there is common trend
across the UK with the number of mountain incidents stabilising. All other things being
equal, this provides reasonably strong evidence that participation numbers have also
stabilised over the same period.
Figure 13 Scottish mountain incidents (moving mean)

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Number of
Incidents
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year

Figure 14 England/Wales mountain incidents involving hillwalkers/climbers
0
200
400
600
800
Number of
Incidents
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year
Absolute N
Moving Mean

SUMMARY

The data on participation levels is fragmented. Apart from the few studies which
actually count the number of people walking up/down particular mountains, little absolute
data is available. It is therefore difficult to make a clear judgement about levels of
participation. However, when all the studies are taken together, with particular
emphasis being placed on those which provide comparable information over several years,
it is possible to state with some certainty that -

Participation in hillwalking, climbing and mountaineering in Scotland has not
altered markedly in the past 10 years. It may have stabilised or risen slightly
following previous periods of growth.

The view taken here therefore is that the number of people hillwalking and climbing in
Scotland during the 1990s has remained reasonably static - a view supported by Coalter
(2001).

Given this assumption, it is possible to make a judgement about the accident rate over
this period. If the incident statistics show that the number has stabilised over the past
10 years, then when combined with the data on participation it follows that -

Over the period of the 1990s, the accident rate is reasonably static or
possibly falling

- a view supported by Fyffe (2001).

REFERENCES
Aitken, R., & Scott, P. (2000). Recreation issues and recreation planning for the park: A
discussion paper. Edinburgh: Aitken & Scott Partners.

Anderson, A. (2001). Influences on participation in outdoor sports activity. Edinburgh:
sportscotland.

Anderson, K. (1994). The Scottish mountain rescue study 1964-1993. Edinburgh: The
Scottish Education Department.

Ashford, D. A., Knutson, R. S., & Sacks, J. J. (1999). Injury among cavers: Results of a
preliminary national survey. Journal of Sports Medical Physical Fitness, 39, 1, 71-73.

Avery, J. G., Harper, P., & Ackroyd, S. (1990). Do we pay too dearly for our sport and
leisure activities? An investigation into fatalities as a result of sporting and leisure
activities in England and Wales, 1982 - 1988. Public Health, 104, 6, 417 - 423.

Blackshaw, A. (2000). The law and lore of Scottish access. The Scottish Mountaineer,
4, p22.

Coalter, F. (1998). Sports participation in Scotland (1987-1996). Edinburgh:
sportscotland.

Coalter, F. (2001). Personal communication, 15
th
march, 2001.

Crofts, R (1995). The environment: Who cares? Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage.

Davidson, R. (1994). Levels of use and safety on the hills. In: Mountain safety in the UK
(Seminar report). Edinburgh: The Scottish Sports Council.

Davidson, T. M., & Laliotis, A. T. (1996). Alpine skiing injuries. A nine year study. West
Journal of Medicine (USA), 164, 4, 310 - 314.

English Sports Council (1998). Information sheet 17 - Basic facts about sport. London:
The English Sports Council.

Department of Trade and Industry. (2000). Figures reported in The Scotsman, March
19
th
, 2001.

nd
annual report 1998 data. London: Department of Trade and Industry.

Evans, G. (1997). Trends in outdoor pursuits. London: CELTS for Health Education
Authority, University of North London.

Fyffe, A. (2001) Personal communication with Secretary of the Scottish Mountain
Leader Training Board, March, 2001.

Gentile, D. A., Morris, J. A., Schimelpfenig, T., Bass, S. M., & Auerbach, P. S. (1992).
Wilderness injuries and illnesses. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 21, 7, 853 - 861.

Greene, D. (1996a). Walking in the countryside in Scotland. (Survey and Monitoring
Report No. 11). Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage.

Greene, D. (1996b). Leisure day trips to the Scottish countryside and coast 1987 -
1992. (Survey and Monitoring Report No. 10). Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage.

Hanley, N., Alvarez-Farizo, & Shaw, D. (2000). Rationing an open-access resource:
Mountaineering in Scotland. Discussion paper, Institute of Ecology and Resource
Management, University of Glasgow.

Highlands & islands Enterprise. (1996). The economic impacts of hillwalking,
mountaineering and associated activities in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland.
Edinburgh: Highlands & Islands Enterprise.

MacGregor, C., & Martin, I. (1999). Sports participation in Scotland 1998. Edinburgh:
sportscotland.

Macnab, A. J., & Cadman, R. (1996). Demographics of alpine skiing and snowboarding
injury: Lessons for prevention programs. Injury Prevention, 2, 4, 283-289.

Marshall, W. (2001) Personal communication with Chairman of the Mountain Rescue
Committee of Scotland, March, 2001.

sportscotland.

Mintel. (1998). The Sports Market - September, 1998. London: Mintel International
Group Limited.

National Health Service. (1997). Scottish health statistics. Edinburgh: The National
Health Service.

Outdoor Industries Association. (2000). Outdoor trend survey. www.go-
outdoors.org.uk.

Pothecary, F. (2001). Personal communication with the Mountain Safety Officer of the
Mountaineering Council of Scotland, March, 2001.

Scottish Executive. (2000). Scottish transport statistics No. 19. Edinburgh: Scottish
Executive.

Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents. (2000). Drowning statistics in the UK
1999. Birmingham, ROSPA.

Scottish Natural Heritage. (2000a). Cairngorms mountain recreation survey (Report No.
162). Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage.

Scottish Natural Heritage. (2000a). Rothiemurchus and Glenmore recreation survey
(Report No. 166). Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage.

Scottish Office Interdepartmental Working Party on Accidents. (1994). Scottish
accident statistics 1980 - 1991. Edinburgh: The Scottish Office.

Scottish Office. (1998). The Scottish abstract of statistics. Edinburgh: The Scottish
Office.

Scottish Executive. (2000). Key road accident statistics. Edinburgh: The Scottish
Executive.

System Three. (1998). Study of walking in Scotland. Edinburgh: System Three.

Turner, M. (1994). Skiing safety: Death and injury in sport. In: Mountain safety in the
UK. Edinburgh: The Scottish Sports Council.

Wightman, A. (1996). Scotlands mountains; An agenda for sustainable development.
Perth: Scottish Countryside and Wildlife Link.

Williams, N. (2000). Personal communication with the Head of Training, Glenmore Lodge,
March, 2001.

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PARTICIPATION

STUDY FINDINGS -RATIO of Males/Females

Anderson (2000)
Participation in Outdoor Sports Activity
79%/21%
Non random sample in Lochaber (N = 1109.
All outdoor activities included not just
walking, climbing.
Comment: do not use this data seriously.

SNH (1999)
Rothiemurchus and Glenmore recreation
Survey
54%/46%
Non random sample at two locations (N =
1762)
Comment: Difficult to generalise

SNH (1998)
Cairngorms mountain recreation survey
66%/34%
Questionnaires on car screens at 17 access
points (N = 2494). Included walking,
climbing, cycling and ski touring
Comment: Difficult to generalise but
location is a popular one for all kinds of
hillgoers.

HIE (1996)
The economic impact of hillwalking, etc..
66%/34%
various random sample surveys across the
UK, but including all mountain activities
such as ski mountaineering and touring.
Comment: Good generalisation but to a
wider set of mountain activities

Scottish Sports Council (1993)
Sports participation in Scotland 1991-
1993
62%/38%
System three random sample across
Scotland. Reliable but what is the
category Hillwalking, etc.? %s based on
average of previous three years.

Sports participation in Scotland (1994-
1996
63%/37%
Scotland. Reliable and includes Hillwalking,
climbing, mountaineering. %s based on
average of previous three years.
Comment: probably the best estimates
available.

1998
59%/42%
Scotland (N = 165,720). Reliable and
includes Hillwalking, climbing,
mountaineering. %s based on average of
previous three years.
available.

1999
60%/41%
Scotland (N = 162,720). Reliable and
includes Hillwalking, climbing,
mountaineering. %s based on average of
previous three years.
available.

Mintel (1993)
??
71%/29% - Climbers
60%/40% - Walkers
N = 25,358
Nothing else reported by Anderson (1994)

?? (1992)
The Scottish are participation data
Hillwalking and Rambling 1992

59%/41%
Nothing else reported by Anderson (1994)
SNH (1996)
Glen Shiel hillwalking survey 1996

70%/30%
Questionnaires to users at 5 main access
points (N = 1094) over summer/autumn
period
Comment: Good sample but only one area.

NTS (1993)
Ben Lomond visitor survey 1992
61%/39%
Single day survey (N = 205) in June on one
hill - Ben Lomond!
Comment: Very specific

Hanley, Alvarez-Farizo & Shaw, 2000
Rationing am open access resource:
Mountaineering in Scotland, 2000

79%/21%
Random sample of members from Clubs
affiliated to MC of S. (N = 267)

Average Male/Female ratio is = 65%/35%
USE OF WALKING POLES IN WINTER

I was asked by the Mountain Safety Advisor (Fran Pothecary) if I would examine the
issues surrounding the use of walking poles in winter. To this end, I contacted the team
leaders (N = 28) of all Scottish MRTs for their advice and comment. Sixteen Team
Leaders replied to my brief questionnaire which asked for views about incorrect usage
and switching from pole to axe. I also contacted manufacturers/suppliers (N = 11) of
walking/trekking poles, of whom five replied. In addition, two experts on outdoor
equipment were also consulted. The following is my interpretation of the responses. In
the event, this was a straightforward task since there were common (and sometimes
strong) feelings on most issues.

FEEDBACK FROM MOUNTAIN RESCUE PERSONNEL

General

There is a strong feeling that it is currently fashionable to buy/use walking poles. For
many, it makes them look like a mountaineer. How and when to use poles correctly does
not seem to be a major concern for many hillgoers. It is considered that many walkers
do not know how or when to use poles correctly and there is a clear misunderstanding
about using poles properly in winter conditions. It is felt that poles may give the user a
false sense of security, particularly on steep slopes, and instil a level of confidence
which is not matched by skill or experience. Indeed, Ken Ledward (1996) advises that -

The use of the modern trekking pole is not the panacea for all. I would
recommend it only for use by those who are currently involved in regular
outdoor activities

It is felt that too much faith is placed in poles when the ice axe should be used. A
number of leaders expressed pleasure this matter was under investigation. One
suggested a useful line of enquiry would be to explore the development of an extendable
ice axe, which might then allow poles to be returned to the ski industry! (see note by
Chris Townsend later)

When are Poles Appropriate?

There was an over-riding view that poles should be used only if there is absolutely no
chance that a slip will result in a fall which could otherwise be arrested using an ice axe.
Paths and flattish ground in summer conditions or easy angled soft snow cover were seen
to be the most appropriate place for their use. It was agreed they play a very useful
role in relieving pressure on knees and the lower limbs and can benefit those with lower
limb weaknesses/injuries. They can also be a useful aid to balance.
When are Poles Inappropriate?

There was a clear view that poles are not really a tool for winter travel. Several
expressed this very forcibly (poles in winter mean death), whilst one or two were more
relaxed. Chris Townsend disagrees with this view. He suggests its the inappropriate
use of poles thats the problem. He notes that ski tourers use poles all the time,
including on steep ground. A key theme about use in winter is that poles fail to provide
a useful aid to self arrest when the user slips on a steep snow/neve slope. There was
unanimous agreement that poles should not be used when descending a snow slope. Not
only are they useless for self arrest, but their angle to the slope on descent means that
adequate penetration of the tip is almost impossible. When descending snow/ice slopes,
the only tool to use is the ice axe ( ones best friend in winter).

Using Poles and Axes Together - When to Switch

It was commented that a number of incidents have arisen in connection with the decision
about when to cease using poles and replace them with an axe and crampons. There is a
strong feeling that walkers tend to use their poles well beyond the point when crampons
and an ice axe should be used. This may arise because poles provide an inflated sense of
security. Or it may just reflect laziness or poor anticipation. It was suggested by a
small number of people that if a pole and axe are used together when moving on steep
ground, then the pole wrist loop should always be detached. And the two should be used
together only if the user is absolutely sure that if they slip, they can jettison the pole
without compromising use of the axe for self arrest. Poles should always be consigned
to the sac early; the switch should take place as soon as the user feels that a slip would
result in an injurious fall.

FEEDBACK FROM SUPPLIERS

Provision of Information

Most trekking/walking poles are accompanied by swing tickets or leaflets which provide
information on topics such as materials, types of pole, locking mechanisms, guarantees,
health and safety benefits. Emphasis seems to be placed on the health/injury-avoidance
aspect. For example:

Using trekking poles pair-wise will automatically promote the correct
posture, enabling you to breath more efficiently and this increasing your
stamina

. . . walking poles are proven to decrease fatigue and to save your knees from
strain and abuse. They will aid balance and stability on steep hills.

In some cases, diagrams show how poles should be used in relation the slope of the
terrain. Some companies provide websites and user helplines. One company indicated
that its sales force are trained to give relevant advice to retailers which is then passed
on to users.

Poles are invariably marketed as walking, hiking or trekking poles. There is no explicit
reference to the use of poles in snow/ice conditions.

Advice on Winter Use/Transfer to Axe

Two companies made it clear they have no policy in regard to use of poles in winter
conditions and winter climbing. Furthermore, they offer no advice on the use of poles in
winter conditions. One company said it did not have a view on use of trekking poles.
Another indicated very clearly that it was very concerned to learn there is a conflict
between use of poles and axes; they expected hillgoers to be well aware of different
uses of poles and axes. One company expressed a personal view that if there was any
question at all, then an ice axe should be used.

All the companies that responded expressed a keenness to receive further information
on this matter and one indicated that if would be a simple task to add a warning note to
their instructional information, it they felt it appropriate.

VIEWS OF OTHER AUTHORITIES

Ken Ledward is an authority on the ergonomics of trekking poles and has carried out
intensive studies over many years to examine the benefits of trekking poles. His results
are quite clear in showing a significant weight transfer from lower to upper limbs when
using two poles. He suggests that poles have the potential to prevent joint and muscular
damage and possible avoid trauma of surgery in later years. Such benefits have been
confirmed by laboratory studies (eg, Wilkes, 2000).

Ledward has clear views about the use of poles in winter conditions. He does not believe
that poles can be used as a substitute for an ice axe. On steepening snow/ice covered
ground he switches to an axe in one hand and a pole in the other (without wrist loop
attached). When more serious ground he dispense with poles altogether. He suggests
that a common problem with using poles is that many users fail to appreciate the effect
a steep slope has on the pre pole (tip) contact made by the poles basket; often, the
basket makes contact and immediately slides away. So when the user commits his/her
weight to the pole, it moves away therefore unbalancing the user.

Chris Townsend draws attention to the wider issue of ice axe length and use of poles. In
reference to a previous point about the development of an extendable ice axe, he
believes that a better solution would be for walkers to return to longer axes. He says:

Ive spoken to a number of walkers who prefer to use poles even on fairly
steep ground because they feel more secure than with a short ice axe as the
poles are in contact with the ground. I think there is a fashion for short
axes as well as for poles. Using longer axes would mean walkers could put
their poles away and still feel secure.

He also makes the point that walking poles tend to be supplied with small, solid baskets
designed for summer use; these sink into soft snow and catch on hard snow. He says
that in winter they should be exchanged for wider snow baskets that lie flat on the
surface of the snow even on steep slopes, allowing the tip to penetrate. Most pole
companies offer such baskets though they dont advertise this. He adds further that a
pole cant be used for self arrest as the basket prevents deep penetration into the snow.

Finally, he underlines the importance of detaching wrist loops when using a pole and axe
together. And he also suggests that people who use both together should practise self-
arrest with both of them so they become used to discarding the pole.

The British Mountaineering Councils recent booklet on mountain safety (BMC, 2000)
displays a number of images of walkers using poles (two against a winter backcloth) but
makes no mention of their use in winter conditions. The Council reports that trekking
poles:

serve to reduce impact to the knees and improve balance. They are
particulary useful when carrying a heavy sack, but like all other equipment,
require thought as to how best they can enhance your mountain day. Too
short and they do not provide support, too long and they can trip you up. They
can be packed away for sections of rocky terrain or scrambling.

A recent article by Simon Hale (Hale, 2001) focuses on uses of equipment for safe
travel in the winter mountains. He notes that:

Many folks are now using ski poles to aid balance and help reduce knee
problems. A pair of adjustable poles can be very useful and can help stability
in windy conditions on broken terrain, reducing the likelihood of a slip. The
key here is knowing when to put your poles away, and get your axe in your
hand.

FATAL (AND OTHER) ACCIDENTS

Four incidents have been reported in Scotland this year (three fatal), which appear to
be connected with inappropriate use of walking poles. There may be others which have
not been reported.

A girl fell 1000 ft whilst walking the Grey Corries. She had a single walking pole, but
no ice axe. It was felt that had she been in possession of an axe, it could have
been used to arrest her fall which would almost certainly have saved her life
(fatal).

A man fell on Ben Nevis. He had a short axe in one hand and a walking pole in the
other (fatal).

A women fell 500 ft on A Chrois (Arrochar) and was found to be using an extended
pole. Her axe was found further up the mountain. Had she only had an axe then
she may have been able to self arrest successfully (fatal).

A man fell down a steep neve slope and sustained serious injury. His fall was partly
broken by using the tip of his broken walking pole.

CONCLUSIONS

This is clearly a very small survey which targeted only a small sample of people from
specific (albeit very experienced) backgrounds. No one from the retail industry has
been consulted nor have hillgoers or course providers been questioned. However, there
are a number of clear conclusions.

6. There appears to be a strong fashion element associated with the current explosion
of interest in walking/trekking poles.

7. It is recognised (and well documented) that walking poles are a significant aid to
balance and stress reduction.

8. It appears that little advice is given to hillgoers about the limitations of using
trekking poles and the conditions under which their use is inappropriate. Attention
seems to focus on health and balance benefits, as well as how to use poles in regard
to aspect of slope.

9. In particular, there is very little information available (and perhaps none at all) on
how, or whether poles should be used on steep snow/ice covered ground.

10. The use of walking poles in winter conditions (especially steep ground) is suspect.

11. Poles should never be used as a substitute for an ice axe.

12. If a walking pole and ice axe are used together, the pole should be consigned to the
sac before the user feels that a slip would result in injury. Then, if a slip occurs
the axe is not compromised by the pole. In addition, the poles wrist loop should be
detached.
RECOMMENDATIONS

The popularity of trekking/walking poles does not seem to be matched by relevant
information to users in regard to scope of use and limitations. The number of fatal
accidents recorded this year which appear to be related to inappropriate use of poles
may not reflect a deep problem, but do signal a need to monitor the situation closely.
There is a need to examine accidents more closely, especially those which involve walking
poles in winter. It may be that much greater attention will need to be focused on the
techniques and limitations of using poles in winter conditions, and that much more
advice/information will need to be given to users on these matters.

It is recommended that:

All rescue teams in Scotland focus attention on trekking pole incidents over the
coming winter period and that a specific analysis is undertaken of the ensuing data
(by John Hinde or Bob Sharp).

A note of caution in regard to the use of poles in winter is publicised in the
popular press (TGO, Climber, Summit, The Scottish Mountaineer) prior to the
forthcoming winter period.

The Scottish Mountain Safety Forum and the MC of S (Safety & Training Committee)
add this matter to their agendas.

A study is undertaken into the safety related issues connected with the use of
trekking poles.

REFERENCES

British Mountaineering Council. (2000). Safety on mountains. Manchester: The British
Mountaineering Council.

Ledward, K. (1996). The trekking pole. Keswick: KLETS.

Wilkes, S. (2000). Trekking polemics. The Great Outdoors, 22, 6, 56 - 60.

Hale, S. (2000). Safety on mountains. Summit, 19, 10 - 16.

INFORMATION RECEIVED FROM:

John Allen Cairngorm MRT
Bill Amos Dundonnell MRT
Gerry Ackroyd Skye MRT
Nick Bramwell Bramwell Int
R. Denton Trezeta UK
Neil Hinchliff Torridon MRT
Alfie Ingram Tayside MRT
Brian Lane Glenelg MRT
Ken Ledward KLETS
Mark Leyland Arrochar MRT
Roger Manby Manby Int Sportswear
Jim Manson Moffat MRT
Willie Marshall Assynt MRT
Graham McDonald Braemar MRT
David Poyser Gelert Ltd
Bill Rose Killin MRT
Bob Sharp Various
Benny Swan Lomond MRT
Haydn Tanner Craghoppers
Chris Townsend Equipment Editor TGO
Mick Tighe Lochaber MRT
Paul Williams Glencoe MRT
Paul Wilson RAF Kinloss MRT

POSTSCRIPT

An invited article based on this research will be published in The Great Outdoors in an
issue prior to the start of the 01/02 winter season.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
IN MOUNTAINEERING

INTRODUCTION

As a co - opted member of the MC of S Safety and Training Committee, I was asked by
the Mountain Safety Adviser to prepared a paper which could be used to update the MC
of Ss policy document of the use of mobile telephones and other electronic gadgets. I
sought advice from a variety of people including Tony Wales (Silva Compasses), Tom
Taylor (Aeronautical Rescue Co-ordination Centre Kinloss) and Nick Forwood
(Communications Officer of the MRC of S). The following notes should be seen a first
draft which still require additional work.

SAFETY AND TECHNOLOGY
Bartle (2000) argues that the current trend towards greater safety may lead people to
underestimate dangerous pursuits or incorrectly perceive their own levels of
competence. Hs cites the example of driving where developments such as air bags, side
impact protection, internal structural cohesion have led drivers to take greater risks
and drive faster under the assumption that they are better protected in the event of an
accident. Gelberg (1995) showed how the introduction of plastic helmets in American
football led, initially, to the game being played more roughly than before. Bartle
suggests that one argument promoted in favour of technology is that it gives the leader
of a group more time to invest in teaching. He cites the example of tamper - proof
buckles in climbing harnesses; this reduces the time needed for peer and instructor led
safety checks which maximises climbing time. He also notes the increased use of GPSs,
electronic compasses and mobiles phones as aids to navigation and rescue. He considers
their use may detract from reliance on knowledge, skill and experience which would have
prevailed before the advent of such devices. The availability and use of such equipment
might persuade a person to take a more challenging route or endure inclement weather
when not advisable. Because there is no guarantee that such kit will work (batteries may
fail) there is always a need for back up skills. Indeed, Bartle (2000) suggests that new
technology should be used mainly as a vehicle to promote debate about what constitutes
self - reliance or isolation and not a substitute for skill, knowledge or experience.

Keay (1995) argues against developments in technology (e.g, mobiles) because they
destroy a groups sense of isolation, self reliance and dependence on their own
resources. In addition, they do not work much of the time. He says - technology can
never be a substitute for training and experience.

The consensus within the mountaineering world (at the present time) is that hillgoers
should not rely on any form of electronic aid for navigation or communication; all should
possess the fundamental skills (eg, in the use of map and compass) which can be applied
when electronic gadgets fail. Electronic aids should only be seen as a back - up or
supplement to the basic skills which have served the mountaineering fraternity for many
years.

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

Mobile Phones

Functions

Half the UKs population now owns a mobile phone. It is clear what mobiles can do, but in
the mountain they have three major uses, viz., initiating a rescue (own or other person),
telephoning a friend or expert for information, alerting the Police that one is overdue
and thus preventing a call-out. Mobile phones have the potential to cut down the call-out
time for mountain rescue teams because they avoid someone having to walk off the hill
to raise the alarm. There is evidence that mobiles have allowed rescue services to be
alerted much sooner than before and it is estimated that over half of all rescues are
initiated via mobile phone call. There is evidence that mobiles have been misused by
people who are not in significant need of help. There has been much careless and
indiscriminate use. There have also been incidents when mobiles have failed to function
properly when needed (e.g., messages have been sent but not received). The limitations
of mobiles have to be understood and accepted by all hillgoers. Future application.
There is the possibility that mobile phone calls can be traced to their exact location (by
triangulating from cells which have picked up the signal) rather like a global positioning
system.

Limitations

Mobile phones have a number of limitations. Most batteries are not designed to be used
in cold/wet conditions; mobile phone efficiency is severely reduced in poor weather
conditions. Batteries can also fail very easily and cannot be expected to function if not
fully charged. Communications may not be good both ways; reception may be significantly
better than transmission (and vice versa). Good communication relies on a strong signal
connection between phone and aerial. Topography can be a big limiting factor. Mobile
phones are delicate instruments and consequently not always suitable for hill use. That
they perform as well as they do in the mountain environment is tribute to their design.
Considerable understanding is necessary to get the best from mobile phones. Users
have a responsibility to know the location of the base stations and how the UHF signals
perform in mountainous areas. For example, some mobiles use various forms of
terrestrial position triangulation which usually doesnt work well in the hills as too few
base stations can be accessed. Possession of a mobile phone can tend to convince the
owner they have an insurance policy and can take more risks. Possession may also
persuade someone to precipitately throw in the towel when encountering minor
difficulties and shout for help when not needed. It can be argued that possession of a
phone conflicts with the spirit of the hills, and the quest for self sufficiency and
resourcefulness.

Electronic Compasses

Functions

Electronic compasses are very new devices which use magnetic sensors to display
information digitally on a small screen. They are designed to give all the features of a
traditional compass, plus several others such as memory of course being travelled,
automatic reversal of a route and the facility to follow a previously planned course.
Some also serve as barometers, watches, and so on.

Limitations

Battery discharged quickly because the units have a very high power consumption.
Batteries also tend not to perform so well in very cold weather. Like traditional
compasses, they are prone to magnetic distortion. Generally they are not as simple to
use, reliable or robust as a magnetic compass. Further, they tend to be bulky to use and
do not sit easily in the hand, and are not so easy to read in bad weather or snow as a
magnetic compass, and some are slow to respond. It is not easy to take a bearing from
the map as with a traditional compass and extensive time is required to understand the
various functions if they are to be fully taken advantage of.

Avalanche Transceivers

Functions

Avalanche transceivers send signals which can be monitored by those close by, to locate
the position quickly of an avalanche victim. Most ski tourers in the Alps carry
transceivers - to go without them is considered foolhardy. They are a group safety
item; there is no point in carry one if alone as there is no one to switch to receive to find
you! When in use they should all be switched to transmit mode. Note there are two
different kinds - analogue and digital.

Limitations

Batteries can discharge quickly (especially when in transmit mode). Although fairly
robust, they are sophisticated items of technology which can go wrong at the most
critical moment. There is some evidence that mobile phones which are switched on and in
close proximity to a transceiver in receive mode can distort the received information.
Mobile phones should be switched off at all times when using a transceiver.
Transceivers can go off frequency and substantial training is required to get the best
out of them. Their use in the Scottish mountains is questionable.

Global Positioning Systems (GPSs)

Functions

Global positioning systems (GPSs) are probably the most important advance made in the
development of any aid to navigation for a very long time. Their price has plummeted in
recent years (can be purchased for less than 100) and they are much smaller and
readily available than say five years ago. GPSs utilise satellites orbiting the earth to
facilitate precise positioning on the earths surface, day or night, in any weather. The
GPS needs to have line of sight of at least three satellites to give a fix. Position can be
given in lat/long or GR - plus height (although this is not so accurate). Improved
sensitivity gives accuracy to around 15 metres. Most units provide a wide variety of
functions, viz., they can guide one to a position entered previously, store locations along
a route to allow retracing, provide details of speed/ distance to an object. Some GPS
units have multi-functional capability (altimeter, electronic compass, mobile, etc.). They
are ideal in featureless terrain, particularly in remote locations where there are few
land features to help identify location. They need lot of practice and should not be
considered a shortcut to navigational accuracy; good map and compass skills are needed
to use them efficiently.

Limitations

Considerable knowledge and practice is required to get the most out of GPSs. The user
must be in a place where enough satellites can be seen by the unit - no roofs, overhangs
or trees in the way. GPSs cannot see around corners; they will not work in thick forests,
tunnels and deep valleys between mountains. They are not always as accurate as
advertised, and this accuracy can be degraded at the whim of the US government by
manipulation of the selective availability. They are usually fairly robust and waterproof,
but dropping and water ingress may be disastrous. It takes time to acquire a fix and
most are generally hard on batteries (they may not work at all in sub-zero temperature).
They are not easy to manipulate in extreme weather (e.g., changing batteries) and it is
easy to make mistakes when cold/wearing gloves. Spare batteries must always be
carried.

Personal Locator Beacons (PLBs)
Functions

Personal locator beacons (PLBs) can be purchased from newspaper advertisements and
hired from some retail outlets. These beacons, when activated, send a signal which is
received by a geostationary or polar-orbiting satellite. The transmissions are relayed by
the satellite to earth stations which in turn forward the information on to Rescue Co-
ordination Centres (RCCs). After analysis, and if seen to be valid, the RCC pass the
information to the appropriate search and rescue agency. PLBs are not authorised by
the Radiocommunication Agency therefore, an offence is committed if used on land in
the UK. The beacons are normally available in combinations of three frequencies.

121.5MHz - The source of many false alerts. Transmits signal, but no embedded
information. Therefore, many checks resulting in wasted time are usually completed
before SAR assets can be committed to tracking it down.

243MHz - This is the NATO equivalent of 121.5. Not normally available to the general
population. Modern military PLBs have 243 and 121.5MHz.

406.025/028MHz - These are not authorised for use on land in the UK but have the
huge advantage, if properly registered/policed and used, that they transmit owner
identification and 24-hour contact information. The 406 beacons usually transmit a
homing signal on 121.5MHz (some also on 243MHz) to enable air or ground assets to
source them. Some new-generation aircraft can home to 406MHz beacon transmissions.

Limitations

The chief problem with all three is careless or accidental activation. All three types
have to be seen by a satellite. High-flying aircraft can pick up transmissions. PLBs
contain sophisticated electronics which can breakdown, suffer frequency drift and
battery discharge.

Altimeter Watches

Functions

Altimeter watches have development from the traditional aneroid mechanical
barometer which does not use batteries. Although based on the aneroid barometer, the
information is converted into electronic visual information. Altimeter watches indicate
altitude by measuring differences in atmospheric pressure then calculating and
displaying this information as altitude above sea level. Battery failure is not so usual and
the watches are generally reliable and durable since they are made for hostile
environments. They provide simply a measure of altitude, whilst some can accumulate
altitude to give total height gained. Most have a chronograph facility, backlight, alarm,
etc. Many can also be used as a barometer to monitor barometric pressure changes over
time. When displayed graphically, the picture gives an indication of weather trend and
from that predictions can be made. Accuracy varies around 5 metres, but top quality
units are accurate to 1 metre.
Limitations

Unless knowledge is applied and they are regularly corrected, these can be dangerous
rather than helpful - weather fronts and rapid changes of pressure can all play havoc
with these devices. There is a need to re-calibrate (from a known height) often if the
weather is changing quickly. Whilst these units are very robust, they need to be able to
compensate for temperature changes with altitude in order to function accurately.
They are of very little use is the user is not familiar with maps and also posses a
relevant map of the area.

Radios

Functions

These devices (normally sold in pairs) provide license and call free communications
between two people on the mountain. They would appear to be ideal for short-range
communications. They are water resistant and economical to purchase and use. In the
correct context these devices can greatly enhance safety and enjoyment, but because
they are complex and fallible it is essential that they be relied upon only by those who
possess the understanding and skill to perceive failure and who can then do without
them.

Limitations

There is the possibility of interference from other radio channels, and they depend on
line of sight. Good communication is limited to around 3k but much less in urban
environment. As with other electronic devices they suffer battery problems, water
ingress and are not entirely shock resistant. The owner must know how V/UHF signals
work, otherwise the radios performance will be poor. If relied upon without this
knowledge, they can be dangerous.

Avalungs

Functions

Made by Black Diamond these devices are intended to help you breathe if covered under
snow through an avalanche. The device is attached to the chest and includes a
mouthpiece which permits the victim to breathe air extracted from the snow pack. The
CO2 which is expired is vented away from that part of the snow used for oxygen
extraction.

Limitations
The snow has to be soft enough to contain air capable of extraction. It only works if
the victim is conscious and able to use the mouthpiece.

Multi- Function I nstruments

Functions

There is a current rend for electronic instruments to serve a variety of functions and
not just one (e.g., altimeter). Many instruments can now be purchased which serve a
variety of functions - GPS (usual functions such as current position, record of journey
enabling backtracking), compass, altimeter, mobile phone, personal organiser (phone
book, calendar, etc.) barometer (historical trend over 24 hours to enable predictions),
electronic maps, etc.. Not all units embody all of these features but some contain
several. Multi-function instruments avoid the need to carry several items of equipment
and they use the same battery for a variety of functions thus avoiding the need to carry
multiple sets of spare batteries. Some instruments permit the downloading of map
sections to their internal screen. It may not be long before several manufacturers
produce a single device which serves the majority of a mountaineers navigation and
communication needs.

Limitations

These devices are generally heavier and bulkier than single function instruments. They
are also more costly. If the software designed to use each function is not user friendly
then users are inclined not to use them properly. Their use may take a lot of time and
patience, because of the software complexity and multi-purpose use. There is the added
problem that if the unit goes faulty or is lost then all of its functions are also lost!

Windwatches

Functions

Windwatches are portable wind gauges. They are light and can be handheld to yield a
variety of measures such as peak speed over a measured period, plus average speed,
current wind speed, wind-chill temperature, etc.. They are sensitive to position and
therefore have to be held as per the manufacturers instructions. Some offer multi-
function capability (wind speed, temperature, altitude, barometer). They are robust, not
a big drain on batteries and also float. Their accuracy is typically within 2/4%.

Ground Probing Radar

Functions
Ground radar was promoted by Hamish MacInnes in the early 90s as a way of locating
avalanche victims. A classic find was reported in 1994 when a man who had apparently re
on Beinn a Chaorainn near Roybridge was found using the device. It has previously been
used by the Police to locate bodies buried in concrete, etc.. Ground radar works by
sending out either 300 MHz or 500 MHz waves at an angle to the line of movement
across the snow field (or other terrain). Whenever the waves hit a boundary with a
different material, some reflection occurs and the waves are picked up by the antenna
which has now moved up the slope. The greater the difference in boundary layer, the
greater the amount of reflection. In tests, the unit has located rucsacs, people and
snow shovels. Little has been heard of since that time when the instruments were very
heavy and bulky to use in the mountain environment. It was suggested at the time that
if there was a real need to use ground radar in MR then a less sophisticated but smaller
unit could be developed. Used in the Channel 4 TV programme Time Team.

Limitations

Bulky, heavy and expensive to deploy. Requires two days to train an operator. Is there a
need in Scotland?

LEAFLET DESIGN

Should the MC of S decide to produce a leaflet on the subject, then the facing page
should have a catchy comment which is relevant, information but not humorous. There
should be a relevant backcloth - perhaps a walker using one of the devices. Possible
titles are:

Will IT be the end of you?
Are you getting enough of IT?
Will IT be the death of you?
Will IT help or hinder you ?
Navigating with IT!
IT may not be essential!
Can you handle IT?
IT all makes sense
Is IT good for you?
Will you live to enjoy IT?
IT - No substitute for experience
IT - Leading you on?

The content must fulfil a number of objectives. It must be accurate, up to date, not be
manufacturer specific, not patronise or advertise manufacturers, be date insensitive,
i.e., no reference to last years model etc... It should also provide some manufacturer
details. In terms of structure, there are several possibilities. The leaflet could be a
simple listing of every device available including functions and limitations. Alternatively,
it could be collapsed into two categories, viz., Navigation and Communication. Another
way to look at structure is to divide it into a technical/function section followed by a
policy and recommendations section. A desirable facet would be to include an
interactive section (e.g., questions with up-side-down answers). There is a clear need for
a graphic artist to design the leaflet once the technical information and content are
finalised and for this person to liaise with myself during production.

KEY QUOTATIONS

Tony Wales (Silva Compasses)

One should take every aid to navigation one can afford and carry. However
(then quote the MC of S policy)

With all electronic instruments, the benefits and especially the problems
(batteries, operating temperatures, reliability - which is lower than purely
mechanical instruments such as compasses) need to be highlighted

All instruments are just another aid to navigation and NOT a substitute for
dead reckoning with map and compass - mostly the map.

It is very difficult to imagine the end of the paper map in the foreseeable
future. Traditional navigation tools are more reliable, accurate and less
expensive.

Your choice of aids to navigation should be based upon the type of terrain
you are likely to be travelling through and your recent experience. However,
in order to minimise the risks, take every and you can and never stop
practicing their use.

Mountaineering Council of Scotland

These aids may be useful supplementary tools, especially for those leading
and training groups, provided that those who carry them are fully competent
in their use. They will not act as a substitute for acquiring the basic skills of
mountain navigation and judgement.

IT may appeal to the less experienced navigator who may be given a false
sense of security which could lead them into difficulties beyond their
experience and judgement
Aeronautical Rescue Co - Ordination Centre (Tom Taylor)

In the correct context (relevant situation), these devices can greatly
enhance safety and enjoyment, but because they are complex and fallible it is
essential that they be relied upon only by those who posses the understanding
and skill to perceive failure and who can then do without them.

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

OVERALL PERSPECTIVE

The major aim of the study was achieved along with most of the objectives. Whilst I
may have had slight doubts initially about the worth and viability of the project, I am
now sure that the project has made a substantial contribution to our knowledge about
mountain safety. Most important, the results have made it possible to be more precise
about the areas in need of further investigation. There now exists a solid foundation
for further discussion, action and research. Overall, the study provides a substantial
and objective platform for other organisations and individuals to use as a reference
point. The study has raised the profile of mountain safety both professionally and
academically. I am certain that some of the ideas and recommendations will betaken on
board by key agencies to help them plan, identify and prioritise messages within their
own safety strategies.

The study centred around two major surveys (safety promotion and mountain accidents)
and generated a number of documents relevant to professional, public and academic
audiences. I was asked by several organisations to make presentations and was also co -
opted to a couple of key committees (including the Scottish Mountain Safety Forum).
Throughout the year, I worked with the Mountain Safety Advisor of the MC of S.
Various sectors of the Press sought my advice from time to time which allowed me to
intensify my quest to highlight the facts about mountain accidents (as opposed to the
hype). Indeed, this was one of the projects six objectives, the fulfilment of which is
ongoing. The project allowed me to refresh and develop my research expertise and has
provided a momentum to continue research in the area. Indeed, there are numerous
projects which the current study has generated (see Recommendations section) which
will be developed with the help of undergraduate and postgraduate students at the
University of Strathclyde. I am also confident that funding opportunities will be
secured in the short term to continue the research and develop some of the
recommendations. At the time of writing, applications have been submitted to two major
funding agencies to establish a Centre for Research in Mountain Safety.

Throughout the study I was conscious of (possibly) being seen by others within the
wider mountaineering fraternity as a do - gooder; someone who wishes to remove risks,
stifle challenge and limit adventure. I have made it clear that nothing is further from
the truth. I am a staunch supporter of adventure and advocate for individuality and
freedom in the mountains. But I believe there is a lot to learn about mountain safety,
how it is promoted, the best methods to use and who is at risk. My interest in safety
and support for freedom are not contradictory. I expect and hope that the study will
promote further discussion and research and in so doing, permit the relevant agencies
and individuals who are concerned about promoting mountain safety to pursue the matter
in a more informed and focused light. I accept that accidents will always happen, but I
would hope that in the long term, more informed approaches to promoting safety, better
targeting and more effective education, will combine to reduce the number of avoidable
accidents.

THE PROMOTION OF SAFETY

The Stakeholders

The extent to which each group of stakeholders promotes the safety message and the
methods they adopt is variable. Manufacturers exist primarily for commercial reasons
but safety is still important. It depends on the product in question and invariably is
linked with design, function, standards and materials. Manufacturers work closely with
retailers, testing agencies and other groups through sponsorship. Retailers have direct
access to customers and are therefore able to exert a degree of control over the kinds
of (safety) items purchased. They provide information in regard to weather/avalanche
reports, safety leaflets/posters, insurance, courses and advice about gear from
trained/experienced staff. For those who deliver courses, safety is central from both
operational and promotional perspectives. It is reflected in preparation, course
delivery, leadership style, selection and use of equipment, review procedures and choice
of activity/location. Safety is normally implicit and low profile (and contained within an
overall safety management plan), but is sometimes visible and focused, particularly when
treated as part of the educational process. All of the other agencies (eg, governing
bodies, safety agencies, youth organisations) have a clear concern for mountain safety.
Some provide information on safety matters through leaflets, talks and seminars whilst
others provide expert advice on request. Many highlight the importance of safety
through good leadership and leadership/qualifying courses, as well as the need for
approving procedures, maintenance and risk assessments. With the outdoor magazines
there is substantial potential and scope for presenting ideas, information and advice
about safety in the hills. Some have a stated policy of promoting safety on the hills
which is reflected in editorial content, tone and style as well as features and advertising
materials that focus on safety issues. Others are less up front on safety matters and
adopt the view that readers should make informed choices about what is/is not safe.
The mountaineering clubs underline the value of practical experience through courses
and the wisdom of experienced members in promoting mountain safety. They place high
value on the use of videos in conjunction with informed discussion and talks from
experienced persons.

What can be concluded? There is no doubt that safety is taken seriously by all
stakeholders, but in most cases it is a one way process; the stakeholders inform the
hillgoing public. As a result, there is little scope for dialogue and feedback, except in
the case of clubs and providers where interaction between people permits a closer
examination of and discussion about safety issues. There is an underlying assumption
that the various methods used to promote mountain safety actually work. This is
understandable since the messages conveyed all have face validity (eg, Do not go
walking in bad weather unless you can use a map and compass). However, the act of
providing good advice is no guarantee that it will be taken on board. This is one problem
with the whole issue of safety promotion, but there are others. There is no way of
knowing whether those people who are in most need of receiving the message, actual do
so. Also, there is no control over, or monitoring of the messages which are promoted by
the various agencies or of when they (should) take place. It might be, for example, that
if there was a co - ordinated effort by all agencies to highlight the pitfalls of using
trekking poles in winter just prior to the winter season, there would be a reduction in
related accidents. It seems that all of the various agencies and groups adopt their own
policies and methods which they deem to be appropriate within their own context,
without a thorough examination of the wider safety picture. It might just be that some
kind of co - ordinated effort might be more cost effective and productive in safety
gains.

Evaluation of Safety Promotion

By and large, the approaches used to evaluate safety messages are not monitored or
measured in any systematic way. In some cases, no attempts are made. This state of
affairs is questionable but, none - the - less understandable. Manufacturers for
example, do not have direct contact with customers and very limited opportunity to test
whether their efforts to sell the safety message work. The outdoor magazines are
similarly placed. The other groups are better placed because they do have greater
contact with hillgoers and therefore more scope to question and receive feedback and
generally test whether their advice is useful . It would appear that most agencies and
individuals make assumptions (based on face validity) that their efforts to sell the
safety message actually work. Having said that, it is a fact that in all likelihood, they do
not have the time, expertise or resources to carry out structured and lengthy research
on the mater. Furthermore, it can be logically argued that safety promotion is a long -
term matter where the steps taken to enhance safety can only be measured over a
substantial period of time. There is then the further problem of assigning gains to
particular strategies. The process of increasing safety awareness is likely one which
involves a whole chain of processes and experiences making it impossible to attribute any
particular gain to a particular experience.

There are fundamental problems therefore in measuring the outcomes of any safety
promotion strategy. What should be done? Firstly, it is important for any organisation
which purports to promote safety, to examine the issue of monitoring. It may be that a
detailed examination might reveal methods so far undiscovered. If that examination
shows that monitoring cannot be accomplished, then the organisation should consider
whether it is worth pursuing its promotional work. Secondly, if the organisation finds
that it cannot monitor, but still plans to continue then it should do its best to maximise
the effectiveness of its campaigns. It should do this by:

10. Ensuring the accuracy of its messages
11. Considering whether timing is critical, and if so when is the best time
12. Examining the best means of conveying its messages within the constraints of its
resources
13. Targeting its messages (again within the available resources) to those in most need

And it may be that a comprehensive analysis of the methods used by others (eg, the
Health Education Board for Scotland, Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents) to
monitor their safety campaigns, may reveal approaches applicable to those interested in
the promotion of mountain safety.

Strategies and Methods

There are a wide variety of methods by which the safety message is sold. Each
organisation tends to adopt methods which are suited to its mode of operation. For
example, manufacturers use booklets and swing tags, whereas retailers and course
providers rely very much on verbal communication. When all of the methods are
examined, those which actively involve the hillgoer in some way are seen to be the best.
Hence, courses, discussion, talks from experts, quality leadership are all viewed as
exceptionally good methods for promoting safety. The use of TV programmes, videos
and leaflets are also seen as important, although their use may be restricted to
particular groups or particular types of message. The use of slides, posters,
newspapers, brochures and radio broadcasts are seen as having little value. It is worth
noting that these findings mirror what is generally understood about how people learn.
The literature suggests that skills are best learned and information better remembered
if the individual is involved actively in the learning process, especially if they are given
an opportunity to practice and question the key ingredients. This may be the reason
why courses of a practical nature are viewed as so important. There is a fundamental
dilemma here because the methods which are most effective also tend to be costly to
finance and limited in the number of people they can reach. In contrast, methods which
are less effective (eg, leaflets, posters) are relatively cheap to produce, simple to
distribute and able to reach many more people.

Turning to the content of the safety messages, the overall view is that information
should centre around the nature and importance of hazards, the importance of key skills
and to a lesser extent, the value of using correct clothing and equipment. Shock/scare
tactics are not seen to be useful, but hazards should still be expressed in terms which
are direct but not designed to scare. Similarly, messages which describe the correct
skills should be expressed in clear language and encourage people to question whether or
not they are competent to deal with the hazards. And posters describing such
information should be located at key mountain access points. There is also a very clear
feeling that promotional campaigns should involve all key agencies working in partnership.
Again, all of these findings agrees with the literature in other areas of research.

SKILLS: THE WEAK AREAS

Navigation

It is felt strongly that navigation is the key skill hillgoers need to develop. Messages to
sell navigation should underline the consequences of poor navigation and the need to be
aware at all times of ones position on the hill. They should be conveyed in a variety of
ways with posters at access points along with traditional uses of leaflets and talks.
There is a sense that a co - ordinated campaign involving TV (in particular) and relevant
organisations such as the MC of S, course providers and retailers would be very useful.
In terms of skill development the firm feeling is that people only really improve through
practice and experience in a wide variety of settings. Organised courses and club
settings are seen as especially valuable. The value of effective teaching was mentioned
numerous times as well as the need for serious consideration to be given to how
navigation is taught. The importance of trying to bring about a culture change where
hillgoers practice key skills regularly (in the same way that many practice self arrest
techniques at the start of each winter) is underlined by many people.

Self / Mountain Awareness

The critical nature of self awareness, self reliance and general mountain awareness is
highlighted. This seems to be a double - edged problem. On the one hand many feel
that hillgoers generally lack an awareness of their own skills and weaknesses. A key
problem is the general underestimation of ability, which places people at a higher risk
than those who are fully aware of what they are capable. It is important to say that
this view is not quantifiable. Furthermore, it may be that many of those who responded
to the surveys in this study (eg, course providers) deal primarily with novices and
inexperienced people. They may not therefore come into direct contact with the vast
majority of hillgoers who (may) be much more aware of their abilities and weaknesses.
However, if it is true that many hillgoers lack self awareness, this may not be
unconnected with the tendency for some to go for the quick fix route where good
equipment and easy access can compensate for skill and wisdom.

The related problem is that of mountain awareness. It is also felt that many people fail
to realise the potential problems which the mountains present in the way of changeable
weather, route selection, rockfall and avalanches. This is certainly one reason why so
many tourists are involved in mountain incidents, but the picture may be more
widespread than this. Again, this is a view expressed by many people, and is not
quantifiable in any way. But if correct, it follows that both an awareness of oneself and
of mountain hazards are closely tied together. One would expect that with experience
(especially varied experience in different terrain and weather at different times of the
year), an individual would become more sensitive not only to their own abilities and
shortcomings, but also more knowledgeable about the mountains and the various hazards
which exist.

There is some uncertainty about the steps which can be taken to help people here. Self
awareness is a quality which is highly personal, depends on long and varied experience,
and is not directly susceptible to outside influences. The potential role played by Clubs
in providing an opportunity for beginners to learn alongside those more experienced is
underlined by many people. And the value of courses is also underlined, although it is
thought their strength lies in demonstrating the importance of qualities such as
confidence, self reliance, awareness and so on, rather than the actual development of
these characteristics. Overall, it is emphasised by many that it is not easy to enhance
self reliance; there are no quick fixes to developing qualities such as self-reliance and
mountain awareness; personal qualities like this require an enormous investment in time
and effort (both alone and in partnership with those more experienced).

Winter Skills

All groups feel there is a general lack of awareness of the special hazards of winter (eg,
navigating in white out, avalanche prediction), although the extent of concern is not so
great as it is with navigation. It is well known that winter mountaineering places extra
demands on those who seek to climb and walk on snow/ice covered terrain. In particular
there are a variety of distinct skills in regard to navigation, security on steep ground,
movement on ice and avalanche awareness, which require specialised instruction and
practice and equipment. The net result is that winter mountaineering is less forgiving
than walking/climbing in summer conditions. It is not surprising therefore that many
believe skill levels for winter travel are generally poorly developed. The key to improving
winter mountain skills is through practice, courses and club involvement. The importance
of quality instruction and education through formal courses is highlighted once more.
Courses should be fundamental in content, affordable, accessible and delivered by
experienced instructors.

Mid - way through the project, I was asked to examine in some detail some of the
issues/problems surrounding the use of trekking poles in winter conditions. Having been
involved in a fatal incident which appeared to result from the mis - use of trekking poles,
I was more than pleased to respond. As a result, a small survey was carried out, the
findings of which will be published in an Autumn issue of The Great Outdoors magazine.
The findings are unequivocal and hopefully, will alert hillgoers to some of the dangers
involved; a good example of action research.

MOUNTAIN ACCIDENTS

Almost every mountain incident in Scotland over a four year period (over 1000 incidents
and 1200 casualties) was examined. The essential purpose was to describe the profile of
those most at risk. In general terms, the analysis confirmed much of what is already
known about the causes of mountain accidents and who is most likely to be involved in an
incident. It is important to note that confirmatory evidence is very useful for it
provides an objective basis for judgement and decision making. Anecdotal information is
also valuable but it lacks rigour and can be invalid. The present study represents the
most comprehensive one ever carried out in Scotland and stands as a valuable benchmark
for future comparisons. A subsidiary study was carried out which focused entirely on
those incidents involving a slip/stumble. Everyone involved in such an incident (with a
few exceptions) was contacted and asked to describe the factors surrounding their
accident. There was a massive response to this survey (65%) revealing a clear interest
in the subject. Many people took the opportunity to provide extensive and detailed
reports of their accident.

Who is At Risk?

The question Who is most at risk? can be answered in absolute and relative terms. The
present study permits a detailed description of those involved in mountain accidents in
absolute terms, ie, with regard to the population at large. It does not take account of
the actual number of people who take part in mountaineering and the proportions who
climb or walk. It does not do this because such information is unavailable. Indeed a key
recommendation (see later) is to examine how this kind of information can be gained, and
then to carry out the research to both quantify and profile participation. The question
can also be answered in relative terms. Here, the numbers of people involved in
accidents are compared against the known profile of mountaineers - a much smaller
group within the overall population. Both types of analyses may yield different answers,
and both are important. Absolute figures are important for public consumption whilst
relative figures are perhaps more pertinent to the mountaineering organisations.

So what types of people are involved in incidents? They can be profiled in the following
manner. They tend to be males between the ages of 21 and 40 years. In overall terms
there are three times a many men as women; and within the male group, almost 50% lie
within the stated age range. Referring to the absolute/relative distinction just raised,
it follows that - in absolute terms - young males are an at risk group. However, in
relative terms, this may not be the correct conclusion. For example, if the figures for
participation showed that three times as many men as women climb, then men are no
more at risk than women; the proportions are the same! It is important therefore to
examine the data in both ways. However, the absence of participation data makes this
impossible. So, staying with the absolute figures, it can also be concluded that the
majority of casualties are experienced hillgoers who are not affiliated to any particular
club or group. Over half do not reside in Scotland and almost one third are employed in
professional occupations. Almost twenty percent are students or scholars. This
provides a biographical picture of those who are involved in mountain accidents, but
there is further information about the nature of accidents, injuries sustained and
weather/terrain encountered at the time. Incidents occur across the year but there
are high points in the winter months of February and March and the summer months of
July and August. No doubt, these correspond to good conditions for winter
mountaineering and summer walking/climbing. Many incidents take place when the
weather is inclement (windy, wet, cloudy) and the terrain awkward (scree, rock, icy), but
many also take place when conditions are favourable. Three quarters of all incidents
involve those who go hillwalking and the most common injuries are sustained to limbs
(often the lower leg). The most common reason for calling out the emergency services
(almost 40%) is because the hillgoer has slipped/stumbled. Over one third result
because someone (or a party) is lost and/or overdue. Therefore, three quarters of all
mountain incidents arise because the casualty slips, is lost or is late off the hill.

The Causes of Mountain Accidents

An attempt to attribute cause is not simple. The incident report form (Appendix VIII)
permits the recording of causes and contributory causes but in the majority of cases, it
is impossible to say exactly what particular event/s is the root cause of the incident. It
would appear that in many cases, a set of events work in sequence to generate an
accident (eg, party started out late, weather turned bad, navigation skills weak, poor
choice of route, descent in dark, slip on wet rock, benighted). Many others are pure
accidents which cannot be predicted; blame cannot be apportioned to any single event or
person (eg, handhold gives way, falling rock strikes climber). Furthermore, there are
numerous cases where an individual suffers a medical complaint (stroke, heart attack,
stomach pains) which renders them immobile and in need of assistance. It is worth
pointing out too that only a small number of incidents (7%) are related to poor clothing
or footwear. It would appear that the message about the need for good quality gear has
been communicated very well. However, even though there are numerous incidents which
can be described as pure accidents, there are many others which can be attributed to
human inadequacy. In fact, almost one third are associated with poor navigation. The
same number are associated with bad planning (eg, tackling a route beyond ones fitness
levels) and about 20% are associated with poor timing (eg, underestimation of length of
time required to complete the route). In many cases, all three occur together. These
are the most frequently cited contributory causes of incidents. A much smaller number
are linked to equipment (mentioned before), river crossing problems, group separation,
and so on. It is not surprising to note a good parallel between the three common causes
and the weakness cited by those who responded to the safety promotion survey. In
both cases, navigation is a common ingredient. In fact, if there is a single message from
the current research, it is that something must be done to improve the overall level of
navigation awareness/skill amongst hillgoers. As one respondent reported, there is a
need for a culture change regarding navigation. The prevalence of poor planning and
timing is also linked to the view that many hillgoers lack a keen awareness of their own
abilities and of the mountain environment in general. There is clearly a need to find
ways to develop not only navigational skills amongst hillgoers, but self awareness and
mountain awareness.

It is important to note some important gender differences which tend to qualify some of
the general statements already made. Women are more likely to be involved in an
incident with increasing years. Women are generally less experienced than men. There
are very few climbing incidents involving women but many more are involved in hillwalking
incidents. Women are more likely to be involved in a summer incident and more likely to
suffer a limb injury, hypothermia or medical problem. They are far less likely to suffer
fatal or multiple injuries. Young men are more likely to suffer bad planning or timing.
Finally, women tend to slip/stumble or get lost whereas men tend to fall, become
cragfast or avalanched. There are no significant difference in navigation ability. It is
tempting to conclude that these differences arise because that men and women take
part in different activities. Indeed, a logical conclusion is that, in general, men climb and
women walk!

Slips

In view of the vast number of incidents involving slips, a separate survey was targeted at
those individuals involved. It revealed a number of clear findings. Women are more
likely to slip than men, especially those in the older age groups. It is not known if this
reflects physiological differences or differences in activity profiles. Slips are more
common with those who walk rather than climb. Experienced men and inexperienced
women tend to slip more than their counterparts. Slips tend to take place on footpaths
in the summer months, but also the winter months of February and March. They
invariably result in lower limb injuries but disturbingly, over 20% of all slips result in
fatal or multiple injuries. Surprisingly few incidents are associated with navigation or
planning problems (around 15%). The vast majority are associated with wrong foot
placement, lack of concentration, fatigue, walking too fast, etc.. Around 20% of slips
are attributed to poor footwear or absence of crampons. It general, it seems that the
majority of slips are pure accidents. It would be wrong to blame people for momentary
distraction or fatigue. Unfortunately, some hillgoers pay the price with their lives. But
that is the name of the game!

Safety Messages

Whilst numerous detailed conclusions are possible there are a small number of key
messages supported by the data. Some of these are well known and have been
emphasised many times in the past. What are they?

Experience cannot guarantee against failure

Over half of those involved in mountain incidents are classified as experienced hillgoers.
Experience males are especially at risk. It is likely that high risk activities (eg, ice
climbing) attract mainly those who are experienced and it is also probable that
experienced hillgoers participate more than those who are less experienced. It is also
possible that complacency and familiarity which can accompany experience are partly
responsible. There is a need to reinforce the message that experience do not always go
hand in hand; caution should prevail at all times even when the risks are apparently low.

Hillwalking; A risk activity!

Most incidents are hillwalking ones. Those who are inexperienced, professional people,
student and club groups are at particular risk. It may be that the volume of people who
walk, especially in the summer months partly explains this problem, but whatever the
explanation, the general message that hillwalking is not without risk should be stressed.

Slips are central to many incidents

Slips and stumbles account for almost half of all incidents. Slips can take place when
conditions are least expected - on footpaths, walking uphill, in summer months and when
conditions are dry, etc.. Momentary lapses of concentration, distraction and fatigue are
frequently associated with slips. Slips can have dire consequences, particularly in winter
when a slip can result in a very long fall.

Ensure all items of equipment are taken

Few incidents result from equipment failure or misuse. However, a small but significant
number are equipment related such as a missing compass or low headlight battery. A
few tragic accidents have resulted from people not wearing crampons or using an ice axe.
The need to be properly equipped in winter continues to be an important message. It
would appear that the majority of incidents where equipment is cited are avoidable ones.

The majority of casualties live outside Scotland

Over half of all incidents involve people from England and other countries outside
Scotland. The majority are English and many are tourists. It is a difficult task to sell
safety messages to those who do not reside in Scotland. This may be an area where
information could be usefully conveyed through the outdoor magazines, course providers,
hostels and other places of accommodation, and especially mountain access points such
as walkers car parks.

Support mountain rescue - get lost!

A tongue in cheek comment but with a serious message. Navigation is the most commonly
cited contributory cause of mountain incidents is poor navigation. There is a need to
convey this message to both experienced and inexperienced hillwalkers as well as those
who belong to Clubs and guided groups. It should also be impressed on those who
scramble and winter climb because navigation is often cited as a factor with these
activities.

Prepare in haste, repent at leisure!

There is scope for much improvement in terms of planning, preparing and timing routes.
Over one third all incidents result from poor planning and underestimation of time,
severity of terrain and ability. Young males are especially weak in these areas.
Inadequate planning is a problem not only for hillwalkers but also those who scramble
and climb in winter and summer. It is a special problem in the spring and autumn which
mark the beginning of the most active times of the year.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following list identifies the key matters which arise from the present investigation.
In each case, action by particular agencies is proposed, although this is not necessarily
complete. No timescale or prioritisation is given.

Safety Promotion

Evidence from the present study and others suggests that campaigns to promote
change in safety awareness are best dealt with in a co - ordinated manner involving
all relevant agencies. It is recommended that all the agencies involved in actively
promoting mountain safety in Scotland give consideration to combining their
efforts. Further, the Mountaineering Council of Scotland and the Scottish
Mountain Safety Forum/Mountain Safety Adviser in particular should serve as
catalysts for co - ordinating promotional strategy. This would involve consideration
of topics, methods, timing, agencies to be involved, targeting and resources.
ACTI ON: All saf ety agencies, MC of S, SMSF, MSA

There are fundamental (and perhaps insurmountable) problems in measuring the
outcomes of safety promotion strategies. However, it is incumbent on any
organisation which purports to promote safety to consider the issue of monitoring.
If monitoring cannot be accomplished, the organisation should consider whether it
is worth pursuing its promotional work. If the organisation cannot monitor but still
plans to continue, then it should give serious consideration to the accuracy and
relevance of its messages, the timing of its campaign (if this is important), methods
used to convey its messages and the methods of distribution/publication so that
messages reach those in most need.
ACTION: All safety agencies

Notwithstanding the difficulties involved in monitoring the effectiveness of safety
campaigns, a thorough examination should take place of the methods adopted by
other agencies such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents to see if
anything is of relevance to mountain safety.
ACTION: The University of Strathclyde

Evidence from this study, supported by research from the psychology of learning
suggests the most effective methods to promote safety are those which involve
the individual in a practical or interactive manner (eg, practical courses, discussion
and workshops). The value of methods which attempt to promote safety in other
ways are limited. This general principle should be considered by those agencies
involved in preparing new materials/strategies.

Evidence from this study and others shows that messages are more likely to be
heeded if they are expressed in non - patronising and non - threatening ways.
Tactics which attempt to shock or scare people can be counter productive.
Messages which are informative or instructive are seen to be more effective than
those which simply warn (eg, Danger). Each of these principles should be born in
mind by those agencies producing leaflets, posters and booklets.

Notwithstanding the general lack of support for posters and leaflets, there is a
suggestion that signs (which meet the criteria mentioned in Recommendation 5)
located at mountain access points (eg, car parks) may be effective in alerting
hillgoers to particular hazards and to their own ability to cope with these hazards.
The usefulness of local signs lies in their relevance and immediacy of impact, but
there is a body of opinion which argues against their placement on the grounds that
warning signs contradict the policy of freedom. It is recommended that the
agencies which have some control over this matter (eg, National Trust for
Scotland) consider the merits of placing safety signs.
ACTION: Scottish Landowners Federation and others

Skill Development

Navigation is seen as the single most important area which hillgoers need to develop.
It is well recognised that navigation is the number one skill. However, it also the
most frequently cited contributory cause of mountain accidents. It is worrying
that the technical skill seen as most important is also the one which is viewed as
the weakest and in most need of development. This is a subject which needs much
fuller examination. It is recommended that a comprehensive audit is carried out -
which organisations teach navigation, what methods are used to teach navigation,
what topics are emphasised, what emphasis is placed on electronic aids to
navigation, who takes courses in navigation, why is navigation seen to be difficult,
and so.
ACTION: The University of Strathclyde, sportscotland National Centre
Glenmore Lodge, Mountain Safety Adviser

Self reliance, self awareness and mountain awareness are critical in helping hillgoers
make sound decisions; there is an unquestioned relationship between awareness and
safety. It is recognised that the development of these qualities takes time and is
based on vast experience under varied conditions of terrain, weather, activity, etc.
There is a strong view that many hillgoers attempt to bypass this process and as
such, lack critical awareness. It is recommended that all agencies continue to
impress upon hillgoers the importance of practice, experience and variety in
developing awareness of their own skills/limitations and knowledge of the mountain
environment. The value of learning in the company of others more experienced
should not be underestimated.

There is a concern that many hillgoers lack particular skills when operating in winter
(eg, predicting weather, time management, avalanche awareness, moving on steep
ground). There is a special concern in the way people use trekking poles when
moving across steep ice/snow. There is a need for the relevant providers to
continue offering winter skills courses and to consider important criteria such as
affordability, flexibility and relevance. Organisations which provide safety
lectures in winter (eg, MC of S, Boots Across Scotland) might consider how they
can extend their programmes to widen coverage, and the outdoor press should also
continue to give high profile coverage prior to the winter period.
ACTION: Course providers, outdoor press

Public Relations

There is an ongoing need to impress upon the media that incidents in the mountains
generally, are not caused through lack of skill, poor judgement or inadequate
equipment. There is also a need for the media to consider the issue of mountain
incidents within the wider context of risk in other areas (eg, three times more
people drown each year in Scotland compared to those who walk an climb). It is
wrong that the media should pounce on mountain incidents; they should encourage
rather than attempt to shock or scare. Furthermore, the media should be
convinced about the true costs (minimal) of mountain rescue to the taxpayer. At
the time of writing a press release is under preparation highlighting some of these
issues. It will be distributed to all national and local newspapers in Scotland.
ACTION: The Media, The University of Strathclyde.

Participation in Mountaineering

To gain a full understanding of those who are at risk in the mountains requires a
complete picture about who/how many take part in the various activities. There is
a need to know the numbers who take part, what is their profile in terms of gender,
age, etc, how often they take part, when they take part and the activities in which
they engage. This is a major study which has yet to be undertaken and is a logical
follow - on from the present investigation. It is a study, the results of which will
be of interest to many others, especially the tourist industry. It is not a simple
task and is thwart with methodological difficulties. For example, it is impossible to
monitor the activities of every single person and so careful consideration would
need to be given to an appropriate sampling strategy/s. A complete profile of the
hillgoing public might be useful to other organisations for reasons not associated
with risk and safety (eg, marketing by equipment retailers and magazine editors).
It is recommended that consideration be given to this problem within the short to
medium term.

Accident Reporting

The Incident Report Form which is used for recording details of mountain incidents
includes comprehensive sections on causes and contributory causes. However,
there are many occasions where it is not possible to identify the exact cause/s of
an incident because there is a lack of detailed information. The person/s reporting
the incident at the time are in the best position to provide comprehensive
information. In the interests of establishing as accurately as possible the exact
causes of incidents, it would be useful if mountain rescue teams and the police
authorities could provide a detailed narrative with each form. Some teams/police
authorities demonstrate exemplary practice which are good models to follow.
ACTION: MRC of S Statistician, mountain rescue teams, police authorities

A full understanding of the scope and nature of risk in the mountains is helped if
comparisons can be made with other activities (sporting and other). An attempt
was made in the present study but it was not an easy task, nor was it very
successful. There are two major problems. Firstly, the manner in which accidents
are reported is extremely variable. In some cases there is only a record of
numbers of deaths. In others, fatalities are reported relative to the population or
number of participants. In other areas, injuries/deaths are reported in regard to
the time spent in participation. Secondly, in the case of several outdoor activities
there is little or no information available about accidents nor does there appear to
be a good mechanism for collating such information. Indeed, the HSE has
recognised that it is difficult to collate accident information from the leisure
industry in general. The Adventure Activities Licensing Authority is presently co -
ordinating a pilot study involving National Governing Bodies to record fatal accident
information. In order to establish a means for making accurate comparisons across
different activities there needs to be a common basis for judgement. It is
essential that the National Governing Bodies and other agencies examine how they
can devise accurate and comprehensive accident reporting procedures for all
accidents and incidents in their subject.
ACTION: National Governing Bodies

Mountain Incidents: Remaining Questions

The survey of mountain incidents generated a long list of findings many of which were
difficult to explain because of the absence of accurate information on
participation. Some findings suggested there are significant differences between
males and females. Whilst some findings are only of academic interest, others are
worthy of further investigation. For example, is it accurate to say that males are
at greater risk than females? And if so why? Are men greater risk takers? Do
men generally take part in higher risk activities compared to women? Is it accurate
to say that men tend to climb and women walk? Why are women more likely to be
involved in an accident with increasing years? Why do men suffer more serious
injuries? Why are women more accident prone in the summer months and men in the
winter? Why do so many who travel from south of the border become casualties?
Why are so many experienced people involved in incidents? It is recommended that
when clear information is available on participation (see Recommendation 11) these
questions are addressed.

There are a number of current developments in regard to equipment which have
generated much concern from a safety viewpoint. The use of trekking poles has
accelerated in the past five or so years and their apparent mis - use has recently
been associated with a number of fatal accidents. There is a need to examine this
matter in more detail. Similarly, concern has been expressed in regard to the
introduction and widespread use of numerous electronic aids to navigation and
communication. There is a fear that many hillgoers may become reliant on these
aids at the expense of fundamental skills. There is a need to examine the validity
of this statement.

General

Whilst this study has been successful in meeting its aims and objectives, it has also
generated many related questions in need of further analysis. A momentum has
been established which, if maintained, will continue the positive quest to highlight
the importance of mountain safety and determine more about its many facets. It is
recommended that attempts are made to secure funding to establish a Centre for
Research in Mountain Safety (or similar) on a permanent basis.

Mountain Accident Research Report

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