Edited Report

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT 2013
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

INTRODUCTION


BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF KAIVARA

Kaivara is a small town in Chickballapur district of
Karnataka state.This town is famous for the saint called
Narayanappa or popularly known as Kaivara Thatayya in
Kannada and Telugu. He lived here during the last half of
eighteenth century and first half of nineteenth century. There is
an Ashram dedicated to the Thatayya. Kaivara has become a
pilgrimage and a tourist place because of the cave in which
Thatayya meditated and attained the supreme spiritual
enlightenment. The bonus point is the beautiful park maintained
by the forest department of Karnataka.
Thus village is gaining importance, as a result population
has increased to cautions level along with the floating
population who need good and potable water as well as a
hygienic sewage system which is of most important failing in
which health may break up making public unrest.
Thus as a fundamental duty of the Government and being a
social obligation it was proposed to carry out water supply and
sanitary surveying work. With this the present and existing
details such as source of water, quality of water, type of supply,
demand of the water and disposal system could be assessed and
a water supply scheme fulfilling present need and future demand
would be designed.



SL
NO.
CONTENTS
1. NEW TANK PROJECT
2. OLD TANK PROJECT
3.
WATER SUPPLY AND
SANITARY PROJECT
4. HIGHWAY PROJECT


1.
NEW
TANK
PROJECT



NEW TANK PROJECT

1. INTRODUCTION
New tanks are constructed to provide water for multipurpose irrigation purpose.
Tanks and reservoirs requires careful planning, design, and operation for which
certain observations relating to selection of site, relative merits of different types of
tanks, storage capacity, coordinated uses of storage for different purposes etc. are to
studied in detail.
The irrigation reservoir is primarily meant to store the excess water during the period
of large supply and release it gradually for irrigation when required.
A scheme of this type of formation of new tank near KAIVARA has been taken up as
mini project work as per university regulations.

1. OBJECT OF NEW TANK PROJECT
The main object of new tank project is to construct an earthen dam across the stream
which is situated in between for the purpose of the irrigation. Since the irrigation land
is very small and population of the town is very less. If it is not necessary to construct
a major work but it is sufficient to provided minor tank project.
The New tank project [NTP] involves three major operations
The selection site for proposed dam.
The selection site for waste weir.
The selection site for canal alignment.

2. IRRIGATION
Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificial supply of water to soil for raising
crop. It is a science of planning and designing of efficient low cost, economical
irrigation system tailored to fit the natural conditions. It is the engineering of the
controlling the various natural sources of the water by the construction of dam and
reservoir, canal and headwork and finally distributing the water to the agricultural
field. Irrigation engineering involves the study and design of work in connection with


river controlled drainage of the water logged areas and generation of the hydro
electric power.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation is classified as two methods
Flow irrigation.
Lift irrigation.

FLOW IRRIGATION
Flow irrigation is the method of taking water to the land to be irrigated by the flow or
gravitation. The water is stored at such a level in reservoirs, tanks that it can be easily
transmitted to the irrigable lands by gravitation through canals.

THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF FLOW IRRIGATION ARE,
1. Perennial irrigation.
2. Inundation irrigation.
3. Direct irrigation or River canal irrigation.
4. Tank irrigation or Storage irrigation.

LIFT IRRIGATION
When the water available for irrigation is at a lower level than the land, then it has to
be lifted by pumps or other water lifting devices and this method is known as lift
irrigation. This water is sometimes stored in the tanks and then distributed to the lands
by gravity system.

TANK IRRIGATION
Tank irrigation may be defined as the storage irrigation scheme which utilize the
water stored on the upstream side as a smaller earthen dam called as Bund
These earthen bund reservoirs are thus in fact called as Tanks.
This terminology is limited to India only. There is no technical relationship between
the reservoir and tank except that a large sized tank will be termed as reservoirs. More
over a reservoir will be generally formed by dam of any materials such as masonry
dam. Concrete dam, earthen dam where a tank is generally said to be formed to


earthen dam as earthen bund .South India passes a maximum depth of 4.5m while a
few is as deep as 7.5m to 9.5m and only a few are exceptional one which exceeds
11m depth. When the depth of the tank exceeds 12m or so then the tank is generally to
as a reservoir.
Like all earthen bunds, tank bunds are generally provided with sluice or outlets for
discharging water from the tank for irrigation and other purposes. These tank sluice
may be of pipes or rectangular as arched opening passing near the base of the bund.
For carrying the water to the dam downstream side channel below the bund
transporting at distance where required through pipes or canals. Sometimes these
supply sluices may not be carried adjacent to it through hill side one end of the bund.
Similarly tanks are provided with the arrangements for the spilling the excess, surplus
water that may be enter into the tank so as to avoid over lapping of the tank bund.
These surplus escape arrangements may be in the form of the tank bund or some other
arrangements like siphon spillway may be provided in the case of the earthen dam
project. The surplus escape weir in a masonry weir with its top i.e., crest level equal to
full tank level [F.T.L] when the tank is full up to F.T.L and extra water comes in, then
it is discharged over the surplus escape weir, surplus escape weir will also be
designed that water level in the tank never exceeds the maximum water level, the top
of the tank bund will be kept at a level so as provided a suitable free board above the
maximum water level [M.W.L].Since the surplus escape weir is a masonry weir then
it will have to be properly connected to the earthen bund by suitably designed tank
connection.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO IRRIGATION
GROSS COMMANDED AREA (G.C.A)
It is the total area lying between drainage boundaries which can be irrigated by a
canal system.

CULTURABLE COMMANDED AREA (C.C.A)
It is the area in which the crops can be grown satisfactorily.
INTENSITY OF IRRIGATION


It is the percentage cultural commanded area proposed to be irrigated during a crop
season.

CROP PERIOD
It is the time taken by a crop from the instant of its sowing to its harvesting.

BASE PERIOD
It is the period during which the water supplied to the crops to bring the crop to
maturity. The base period is slightly less than the crop period. It is denoted by the
letter B.

DUTY OF WATER
It is defined as number of hectares brought to maturity by a constant flow of water per
second during the crop period or it is the relative ship between the volume of water
and area of crop brought to maturity. It includes both cultivable and non cultivable
area.
It is given by the formula

D = 864 x

Where,
in cm [Delta]
B in days [Base period]
D in hectare/comics [Duty]
DELTA
Each crop requires certain quantity of water at regular intervals of time throughout its
period. If this total quantity of water is made to stand without any lose on an area, the
depth of water required per hectare for the full growth of crops is called as delta. It is
expressed by the symbol
Delta = depth of each watering X number of watering.



WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
For the full successful growth of the crops, every crops requires a definite quantity of
the water, suitable agricultural soil, good irrigation and the proper method of
cultivation. The total quantity of water required by a crop from the instant of sowing
till it comes to the harvesting is known as water requirement of crops. It depends upon
the following.
The season in which the crop is grown.
Its period of the growth i.e., its crop period.
The climatic conditions of the region.
The rainfall in the season.
The water requirement of a crop varies from the place to place and from season to
season.

3. RESERVOIR
A storage structure for irrigation is formed by an embankment or dam across a natural
water course or river and the water collected on the upper side of this structure. Water
is drawn by means of the sluices in the dam, through the channels which supply water
to the irrigation land.

NECESSITY
Storage reservoirs are very much necessary for the following reasons,
When in an area, the usual rainfall is not enough for the crops, water is stored in
reservoirs and allowed to lands whenever necessary.
In some areas, the rainfall may be confined to certain parts of the year, and even here
water will have to be first stored and then distributed to the lands during the other
periods of the year.
In places like Baluchistan and Rajasthan, where the streams flow like torrents fore
only a few days in the year, storage is a necessity to endure the proper water supply to
the crops.


REQUIREMENTS OF A STORAGE RESERVOIR
An ideal reservoir should satisfy the following conditions
1. It should have a channel bringing down an ample supply of water.
2. There should be a broad expanse of nearly level ground in front of the
embankment or dam to form the bed of the reservoir, having a slight dip towards
the bund.
3. The land to the rear or the downstream side of the bund should be much greater
extent than the bed and slightly lower in level, in order that every portion of it
may be commanded by the tank and irrigated by the sluice in the embankment,
from which one of two channels take off and lead the water to the fields.
4. Rock or other foundation, impervious to water, should be met at only a small
depth from the surface.
5. Stone, fuel, lime and other materials required for the construction should be
available within a reasonable distance for a masonry dam and good suitable earth,
as well as stones for pitching, for an earthen dam.
6. The soil for the construction of the earthen dam for the reservoir should be of
retentive nature.
7. Valuable garden lands or wells or village sites should not be submerged under the
reservoir contour.
8. The site selected should give the required storage with the shortest length of the
dam.
9. The site should be favorable to locate the waste weir preferably in a saddle, so as
to pass off all the flood water into natural drainage stream without artificial ones
and protects the embankment.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR RESERVOIR
The final selection of site for a reservoir depends upon the following factors
1. The geological conditions of the Catchment area should be such that percolation
losses are minimum and maximum runoff is obtained.


2. The reservoir site should be such that quantity of the leakage through it is
minimum, Reservoir site having the presence of the highly permeable rocks
reduce the water tightness of the reservoir.
3. Suitable dam site must exist. The dam should be founded on water tight rocks
base and percolation below the dam should be minimum. The cost of the dam is
often a controlling factor in selection of the site.
4. The reservoir basin should make narrow opening in the valley so that the length of
the dam is less.
5. The cost of the real estate for the reservoir including road, soil, road welling,
etc must be less as for as possible.
6. The topography of the reservoir site should be such that it has adequate capacity
without submerging excessive properties.
7. The reservoir site should be such that it avoids as excludes water from these
tributaries which carry high percentage of the silt in the water.
8. The reservoir should be such that the water stored in it is suitable for the purpose
for which the project is undertaken.

INVESTIGATION FOR RESERVOIR PLANNING
The following investigations are required for reservoir planning
Engineering survey.
Geological investigation.
Hydrological survey.

1. ENGINEERING SURVEY
The area of the tank site is surveyed in detail and a control point is prepared from the
plan. The following physical characteristics are obtained.
1. Area elevation curve.
2. Storage elevation curve.
3. Map of the area.
4. Suitable site selection for tanks.

2. GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION


In almost all civil engineering projects geological advise is most essential. Geological
investigation cost very little in the comparison to the total cost of the project.
Geological investigations are required to give detailed information about the
following items.
1. Water tightness of reservoir basis.
2. Suitability for foundation of the bund.
3. Geological and structural features as floods and faults.
4. Type and depth of the rocks at basin.
5. Location of permeable and soluble rocks if any.

3. HYDROLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
The hydrological investigations are very important aspects of reservoir planning.
These investigations may be designed in two needs.
1. Study of runoff patterns at the proposal bund site to determine the storage capacity
corresponding to the given demand
2. Determination of the hydrograph of the worst flood at reservoir site to determine
the spillways capacity and design.

STORAGE ZONES OF RESERVOIR
DEAD STORAGE
It is the volume of the space provided for the deposition of the sediments in a
reservoir. It is the level below which water is not stored. It is not of much use in the
operation reservoir.
LIVE STORAGE
The volume of the water stored between dead storage and full tank level is called as
live storage. Live storage assures the supply of water for specified period of time to
meet the demand.
MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL
The maximum level to which the water level rises during high flood is known as a
maximum water level. During floods, the maximum water level run off will takes
place and water level rises to this level.
FULL TANK LEVEL


It is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir water surface rises during normal
operation condition.
SILL LEVEL OF SLUICE
It is provided at the minimum storage level as dead storage level.
TOP OF THE BUND LEVEL
It is fixed considering the aspects of the free board to prevent overtopping of the dam.

RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION
The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as reservoir silting or
reservoir sedimentation. Every river carries certain amount of sedimentation load.
The sediment particles try to settle down at the bottom of the reservoir due to the
gravitational force that may be kept in the suspension due to the upward currents in
the turbulent flow which may overcome the gravity force. These sediments will settle
down in the reservoir because of the less velocity inside the reservoir.
The deposition of the sediment will automatically reduce the water storing capacity of
the reservoir and if this process of deposition continues longer a stage likely to reach
when the whole reservoir gets silted up and becomes useless.
In order to see that the capacity of the reservoir does not fall short for requirements
even during the design period. The silting should be taken into the account, the total
volume of the silt likely to be deposited during the designed life period of the dam is
therefore estimated and approximately that much of the volume is left unused to allow
the silting and it is known as a dead storage.

5. DAM
A dam is an impregnable and impervious barrier thrown across a natural drainage line
to impound water up to a certain limiting height which is usually lower than the top of
the dam on its upstream side. Its main function is to store water either for irrigation or
water supply or to produce power



CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS
Dams are usually classified as,
1. RIGID DAM
Gravity dams.
Arched dam.
Arched buttress dam.
Steel dam.
Timber dam.
Reinforced cement concrete panel and Buttress dams.

2. NON RIGID DAMS
Earthen dams.
Rock fill dam.

EARTHEN DAM
Earthen dams and earthen embankments are the most ancient type of embankment as
they can be built with the natural materials with a minimum of processing and with
primitive equipment.

EARTHEN DAMS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS
o Type A Homogeneous embankment type
o Type B Zoned embankment type.
o Type C Diaphragm type

1. HOMOGENEOUS EMBANKMENT
The simplest type of an earthen embankment consists of a single material and is
homogeneous throughout sometimes a blanket of impervious material may be placed
on the upstream face. A purely homogeneous section is used when only one type of
material is economically or locally available such sections is used for low to
moderately high dams and for large dams are designed as homogeneous embankment.



2. ZONED EMBANKMENT
Zoned embankments are usually provided with a central pervious core, covered by a
comparatively pervious transition zone which is finally surrounded by much more
pervious outer zone. The outer zone gives stability to the central impervious fill and
also distributes the load over a layers area of foundation.

3. DIAPHRAGM EMBANKMENT
Diaphragm type embankments have a thin impervious core, which is surrounded by
earth or rock fill. The impervious core called diaphragm is made up of as a
impervious soil, concrete, steel, timber or any other materials. Its acts as an water
barrier to prevent escape through the dam. The diaphragm may be placed either at the
central or at the upstream face as a blanket.

THE COMMONLY ADOPTED STANDARDS USED FOR A FINDING THE
DIMENSION OF TANK BUND IN THE SOUTH INDIA

SL
NO.
DEPTH OF DEEP BED
LEVEL BELOW F.T.L(M)
FREE BOARD
(M)
WIDTH OF TOP OF
BUND (M)
1 1.5 to 3.0 0.9 1.2
2 3.0 to 4.5 1.2 1.5
3 4.5 to 6.0 1.5 1.8
4 Over 6.0 1.8 2.7

The favorable soil, such as red and white gravel, red and black looms, etc the side
slope of the bund may be kept as 1.5:1 for smaller tanks with water depth not
exceeding 2.5 and 2.1 for larger ones above 5m in depth. In tight sandy soils PR black
cotton or clay soil however the slope may be kept between 2.1 and 2.5:1. the upstream
face of the tank bund is generally lives bed against stone apron or so as to protect it
against erosion and if this is done then the upstream face is generally adopted and
1.5:1 even up to 6m depth for inferior soils are greater depth however the riveted
slope may be flatter , say 2:1.



6. LEVELING
1. Direct leveling
2. Indirect leveling
A) DIRECT LEVELING

1. SIMPLE LEVELING
When the difference of level between two points is determined by setting the leveling
instrument between the points. This process is called as a simple leveling.Suppose it
is required to know the difference of level between A and B. the instrument is setup at
O exactly mid where between A and B. after proper adjustment. The staff reading on
A and B are taken. The difference of these reading gives the difference of points
between A and B.

2. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
This is adopted when
1. The points are at a great distance apart.
2. The difference of elevation between the points is large.
3. There are obstacles between the points.
This method is also known as a compound leveling or continuous leveling. In this
method the level is setup there at several suitable positions and staff readings are
taken at all these points.

3.FLY LEVELING
When the differential leveling is done in order to connect a benchmark to the starting
point of alignment of any project it is called as a fly leveling.
In such leveling only back sight and fore sight readings are taken at every setup of the
level and known distances are measured along the direction of the leveling. The level
should be setup just mid where between back sight and fore sight.



4. LONGITUDINAL OR PROFILE LEVELING
The operation of taking levels along the center line of any alignment. (Roadway,
Railway, Canal) at regular intervals is known as longitudinal leveling or profile
leveling.
In this operation, the back sight, intermediate and fore sight readings are taken at
regular intervals at every setup of the instrument. The chain age of points are noted in
the level book. This operation is carried out in order to determine the undulation of
the ground surface along the profile line.

5. CROSS SECTIONAL LEVELING
The operation of taking levels transverse to the direction of the longitudinal leveling
is known as cross sectional leveling. The cross section are taken at regular
intervals along the alignment. Cross sectional leveling is done in order to know the
nature of the ground across the centerline of any arrangement.

6. CHECK LEVELING
The fly leveling is done at the end of the days work to connect the finishing point
with the starting point on that particular day is known as check leveling.
It is undertaken in order to check the accuracy of the days work.

B) INDIRECT LEVELLING

1. BAROMETRIC LEVELLING
The barometric leveling is based on the fact that the atmospheric pressure varies
inversely with the height. As air is compressible fluid, strata at low level will have a
greater density than those at higher altitude. the higher the place of observation the
lesser will be the atmospheric pressure. A barometer is used for measuring the
difference in pressure between two stations and there relative altitudes can be deduced
approximately.



2. HYPSOMETRY
The working of a hypsometer for the determination of altitudes of stations depends on
the fact that the temperature at which water boils varies with the atmospheric
pressure. A liquid boils when its pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The
boiling point of vapor water is lowered at higher altitudes since the atmospheric
pressure decreases there. Temperature is measured using a sensitive Thermometer.

7. VARIOUS SURVEYS CONDUCTED FOR THE NEW TANK
PROJECT

1. RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
A site for the new project will be fixed based on the following preliminary
investigations.
1. Catchment area of a place.
2. Average rainfall of a place.
3. Suitable site for the bunds, weirs and sluice.
4. Extent land to be irrigation with nature of the crop.
5. Availability of the construction materials.
6. Financial feasibility of the project.

2. LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTION ALONG THE CENTER LINE
OF THE BUND
a. From the permanent benchmark fly levels are carried out to establish a benchmark
on the left bank or right bank wherever the work is to be started.
b. The end points of the bund are fixed and the wooden pegs are driven at regular
intervals.
c. The centerline bearing is noted using prismatic compass.
d. Form the both the ends of the bund bearing to the permanent object such as
transformer, electric pole, building, etc
e. Above the centerline of the bund already fixed longitudinal section at every 15m
interval on centerline and cross section at 30m interval up to or beyond the
embankment cases on either side taken at 5m interval


f. Height of the bund = tank bund level = ground level base = width of the bund =
[U/S slope X Height + Top width + D/S slope X Height] .
g. The days work is constructed at temporary benchmark established.

3. BLOCK LEVELING AT WASTE WEIR
The top of the weir should be at FTL. Fix the centerline and mark left and right
points.
1. Construct a block of 60m length on U/S side and 40m length D/S side.
2. Carry out block leveling at every 5m interval.
3. Work is started and closed at established benchmark.

4.SURVEY FOR CAPACITY CONTOUR
1. In order to plot the contour at FTL, LWL, MWL, Surveying for water spread
contours was conducted due to certain physical constraints, indirect leveling is
adopted.
Radial leveling is carried out at u/s side using the following procedure
2. Prismatic compass was fixed on the centerline of the bund such that main area
could be covered on the U/S side.
3. Radial lines at an angle of 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 were set out from the
compass point.
4. Fly leveling was adopted to carry benchmark from permanent benchmark to
compass point.
5. Staff readings were taken along the radial lines at 15m interval.
6. Cross section were taken along the radial lines at 5m intervals
7. The cross section was increased along the radial lines such that the whole
upstream side is covered.
8. The work is closed by the fly leveling on established benchmark.

8. WEIR
Weir is a structure constructed at right angles to the direction of the flow. Its purpose
is to raise the water level and then divert it into the canal. As the tanks are the small
storage works constructed to meet the local requirements obvious by attempting is not


made to contain full run off coming down from the Catchment area. It is therefore
necessary to make suitable arrangement to pass from the excess water beyond F.T.L.
The structure constructed to provide passage to excess water is called as escape
weir. It is also called as a Tank surplus weir.
The water starts spilling over the weir as soon as tank is filled up to its crest.
However, temporarily due to rush of the incoming water. The level in the tank rises
above the F.T.L, the new level is reached is called as maximum water level
[M.W.L]. it depends on the extent of the flood for the design purpose M.W.L is
calculated taking in to an account maximum flood discharge likely you carry and
water may available at the site for the escape weir. The surplusing as spillway water is
carried down through a channel which is generally a natural discharge and has
enough capacity. As Weir may be constructed in the masonry, rock fill, cement
concrete, etc

TYPES OF WEIR
Escape weir constructed in the tank irrigation system is similar to a diversion weir are
constructed across the river channel.
It may be classified as following types
1. Masonry weir.
2. Masonry with the horizontal floor.
3. Masonry weir with depressed floor.
4. Masonry weir with the stepped floor.
5. Rock fill weir.
6. Concrete weir.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR A WEIR
Following are the points may be taken into consideration while selecting a site for a
tank weir
Tank weir performs the function of the surplusing excess flow therefore it is
preferable to locate the weir in a natural saddle away from the tank bund.
To carry surplus flow existence of a well-defined escape channel is very necessary
at a site selected for the construction of a weir.


The saddle where natural surface level is approximately same as tank level [FTL]
should be given first performance.
Hard foundation if available at the site reduces the cost of the construction.
When a site away from the tank bund is not available as for as possible weir may
be located on one end of the tank bund.
Surplus weir may be hosed in the body of the tank bund only as a last resort.
Care should be taken to see that escape channel surplusing water is not likely to
damage cultivated land.

9. CANAL
Canal is a passage for the flow of the water from reservoir or tank to an irrigational
field or any other field necessary. Water in a canal flow under gravity and the upper
most surface of the water is exposed to the atmosphere.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CANAL
BASED ON THE CANAL ALIGNMENT
10. Contour canal
11. Water shed canal
12. Side slope canal

BASED ON DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1. Main canal.
2. Branch canal.
3. Major distributary
4. Minor distributary
5. Water course



GUIDELINES FOR ALIGNING A CANAL
1. The alignment should follow a falling contour and shall be in cutting.
2. The depth of the cutting should be minimum.
3. Alignment should be straight.
4. Curve should be long, minimum radius should be twenty times the bed width of
the canal.
5. Number of cross drainage works should be minimum.
6. Longitudinal slope of the canal bed should provide non silting and non scoring
velocity of flow.
7. Alignment shall progress as far away from natural drain to yield large command
area.
LONGITUDINAL SLOPE FOR CANAL
Longitudinal slope for canal shall be as far as a possible and is guided by minimum
permissible velocity in the channel should neither be silting non scoring. The value
generally varies from 1 in 2500. It depends on the natural terrain and type of the
canal.
SIDE SLOPE OF THE CANAL
Side slope of the canal is an important feature in canal generally steeper slope section,
narrower, deeper, increased velocity and discharge permits width. It also decreases
evaporation and percolation loses. Side slope in filling is 1.5:1 is generally used in
hard and rocky soils.

TYPES OF CANAL CROSS SECTION
1. Fully embankment.
2. Partial cutting and partial filling.
3. Fully cutting.

LINING OF CANAL
The impervious layer which protects the beds and sides of the canal is called
as canal lining.



NECESSITY OF CANAL LINING
Following are the necessity of the canal lining
1. To minimize the seepage loses in the canal.
2. To increase the discharge in canal section by increasing the velocity.
3. To prevent erosion of the bed and sides due to high velocity.
4. To reduce maintenance of canal.

REQUIREMENT OF CANAL LINING MATERIALS
1. The materials used for lining should provide the water tightness.
2. The materials chosen should be strong and durable.
3. The materials should withstand the high velocity.
4. The material used should be able to resist the growth of weeds and attack of
animals.
5. The material should permit the construction of the required slope easily.

TYPES OF CANAL LINING
The canal lining are of following types,
Cement concrete lining.
Brick lining.
Cement mortar lining.
Asphaltic lining.
Soil - cement lining.
Sodium - carbonate lining.
Precast concrete block lining.

SILTING OF CANAL
Silt if allowed into the canal causes much annoyance and expense. Instance are nor
rare, where the silt, etc carried into the canal during high floods, so depleted its
capacity, that it could not carry the water needed for irrigation and it became
necessary to close the canal and clean it during the height of irrigation, season at great
expense and to the great injury to the crops. Hence measures should be adopted to


prevent the entrance of slit and sand into the canal. Water carrying capacity of the
canal gets reduced due to the deposition of the silt.
Silt is of two classes namely,
Bed silt which is also called the dragged or rolled silt.
Suspended silt.
The nature of the silt depends upon the
The topography of the area
Rainfall
Silt must be prevented as far as possible from entering into the canal, but it is
impracticable to do so, measures should be adopted to remove the same from the
canal.
FOLLOWING ARE THE MEASURES ADOPTED TO REMOVE THE SILT,
1. When the canal is not carrying the water, the silt is removed by the manual labor.
2. Silt is removed by increasing the velocity of the water.
3. Using dredges silt is removed.
4. Silt entry into the canal can be prevented by the silt excluder
5. Silt ejector is used to remove the silt that has entered into the canal.



DESIGN



CAPACITY OF RESERVIOR
Area of the contour at D.S.L (869.000 m) A
1
= 2.125 hectares
Volume water stored in D.S.L = Area x Height from ground to DSL
= 2.125 x 1.155
V
1
= 2.454 hectare-meter
Area of contour at F.T.L (875.000 m) A
2
= 6.354 hectares
Volume of water stored between D.S.L and F.T.L
= Difference in elevation b/w D.S.L and F.T.L x (A
2
A
1
)
= 6.000 x (6.354 2.125)
V
2
Area of contour at M.W.L (875.750 m) A
3
= 8.085 hectares
Volume of water stored between F.T.L and M.W.L
= Difference in elevation b/w M.W.L and F.T.L x (A
3
A
2
)
= 0.75 x (8.085 6.354)
V
3
Total Capacity of Reservoir=V
2
+ V
3
=25.374+1.298= 26.672 hectare-meter

10[A]DESIGN OF SLUICE
Assume,
Gross Commanded Area = 17327.2 hectares
Culturally Commanded Area=9529.96 hectares
THE MAJOR CROPS GROWN IN THIS REGION AND NECESSARY DATAS
ARE CALCULATED AND TABULATED BELOW

CROPS

MAIZE PADDY RAGI
INTENSITY OF
IRRIGATION(in%)
35 25 10


AREA UNDER[A]
CROP(hectares)
3335.486 2382.490 952.996
BASE PERIOD[B]
(in days)
120 120 120
AMOUNT OF
WATER
REQUIRED(in m)
0.70 1.70 0.40
DUTY[D]
(hectare/comics)
1481.14 671.20 2382.00
DISCHARGE[Q]
(in m
3
/sec)
2.25 3.44 0.40

Total Discharge Q = 2.25 + 3.44 + 0.40 = 6.09 m/s
Assuming 20 % of transmission loss,
Total discharge to which canal is to be designed
=6.09+ (0.2x6.09)=6.699 m/s
Assuming discharge through large rectangular orifice for sluice,
We have discharge
Q=
x Cd x b x x [
]
Where
Q=discharge in m/s
C
d
=coefficient of Discharge=0.62
b=width of rectangular orifice=1.0 m (assumed)
g =acceleration due to gravity=9.81m/s
H=height from the surface of water to bottom of the orifice in m
h= height from the surface of water to top of the orifice in m
a. = 0.67 x 0.62 x 1.0 x x [17.36/ - h/]
h=16.60 m
Depth of orifice (d) = H - h = 17.36 16.60 = 0.59 m



10[B] DESIGN OF CANAL
Let us adopt KENNEDYS METHOD for designing of Canal,
Assume,
m= critical velocity ratio = 1
d= depth of canal = 1.5 m
S=Bed Slope = 1 in 4500 m
Side Slope = 1:1
We have,
Area (A) = (b+d)d
= (b+1.5)1.5
= 1.5 b + 2.25
.. (i)
Perimeter (P) = 2.828 d + b
= 4.242 + b
(ii)
Critical velocity (V)=0.546 x m x

= o.546 x 1 x

(V) = 0.707 m/s
We have,
Discharge Q =A.V
b. = A x 0.707
A = 9.47 m(iii)
Equation(iii) in (i)
We get,
b= 4.80 m (iv)

Equation (iv) in (ii)
We get,
P=9.042 m ..(v)
Hydraulic Mean Depth (R) =
= 1.04 m
From MANNINGS Equation,
We have,
Velocity (V) =
x R
2/3
x S
1/2
where,
N = Co-efficient of Rugosity.
R = Hydraulic Mean Depth in m
S = Bed Slope = 1 in 4500 m
V =

V = 0.683 m/s
We have,
m =

m =

m= 0.98 1
Hence, the values obtained can be adopted for the canal section.



DESIGN OF CANAL LINING
Let us use cement concrete for lining for the length of600.00m
Therefore,
The total quantity of the cement concrete required for canal lining
Q=L X W X T
Where
T=Thickness of the lining = 0.10m
W=wetted perimeter=9.042m
L=length of lining=600m
Q=600 x 0.10 x 9.042
Q=542.52 m/s

10[C] DESIGN OF WEIRS
Assume,
Catchment area (M) = 5.75 km
2

Co efficient (C) = 9
Discharge equation (Q) =CM
(2/3)
= 9 X 5.75
(2/3)
Q = 28.8 m
3
/sec
Adopting the BROAD CRESTED WEIR,
Discharge equationQ =1.66 x L x h
(3/2)

L =

L = 17.5 m
Length of the weir (L) = 17.5 m
Height of the weir above the foundation
H = Full Tank Level (Average Ground level Level of hard soil below the
ground level + Thickness of the concrete Head over weir)
Where
Level of the hard soil below the ground level = 1m
Thickness of the concrete = 0.5 m
Head over weir = 1m
Average ground level = 872.388m
Height of the weir = Full tank level (Average ground level 1+ 0.5 1)
= 875.000 (872.388 1 + 0.5 1)
= 4.112 m
Height of the weir (H) = 4.112m
D =(Full tank level Average ground level)
D = 875.000 872.388
D = 2.612m
Top width (b) =0.55(+)


b = 1.665m
Top width of the weir (b) = 1.665m
Bottom width (B) =

B = 6.33m
Say bottom width of the weir (b) = 6.35 m
Depth of the foundation concrete = 1.0 m
Length of the solid apron = 2(D+H)
= 2(2.612+4.112)
= 13.448m
Length of the solid apron = 13.448m
Length of the grouted apron = 4(D+H)
= 4(2.612+4.112)
= 26.896 m
Length of the grouted apron = 26.896m
Depth of the grouted apron = 1.0 m

10. DETAILS OF PROPOSAL
1. SITE PLACE : KAIVARA
NATURE : NEW TANK PROJECT
TYPE OF BUND : EARTHERN BUND WITH PUDDLE CORE WALL

2. STORAGE RESERVIOR
CATCHMENT AREA OF TANK : 5.75 Km
2
(Assumed)
AREA TO BE IRRIGATED : 9530 HECTARES
CROPS GROWN : MAIZE
PADDY
RAGI

3. WASTE WEIR
TYPE : BROAD CRESTED
CREST LEVEL : 876.500 m
DEPTH OF SPILLAGE : 1.04 m
LENGTH : 17.50
TOP WIDTH : 1.80 m
BOTTOM WIDTH : 6.35 m
LENGTH OF SOLID APRON : 17.0 m
DEPTH OF GROUTEDAPRON : 1.0 m
LENGTH OF GROUTEDAPRON : 34.0 m
DEPTHOF GROUTED APRON : 1.0 m



4. BUND
TYPE OF BUND : ZONED EMBACKMENT
LENGTH OF BUND : 245 m
MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL (M.W.L) : 875.750 m
FULL TANK LEVEL (F.T.L) : 875.000 m
DEAD STORAGE LEVEL : 869.000 m
SLUICE LEVEL : 869.000 m
TOP WIDTH : 3.0 m
UPSTREAM SLOPE : 1.5 : 1
DOWN STREAM SLOPE : 2 : 1
ROCK TOE : D/S BLANKET
U/S PITCHING : 30cm THICK STONE RVT

5. MAIN CHANNEL
BED SLOPE : 1 in 4500
BOTTOM WIDTH : 4.80 m
DEPTH : 1.50 m
SIDE SLOPE : 1 : 1
TYPE OF SLUICE : PLUG SLUICE
LENGTH :

12. CONCLUSION
The survey carried out at KAIVARAwas effective as the site is suitable for the
proposal of dam or reservoir.The required surveys were carried out for dam or
reservoir economic and safe design.A new road over the dam is proposed to connect
right bank and left bank canal for communication and maintenance purpose.



Sl
no
Chainage
in m
Length
in m
Redused
level
Formation
level
Depth
of
cutting
Depth
of
filling
1 0 0 119.205 120.000 0.795
2 20 20 118.215 120.000 1.785
3 40 20 117.443 120.000 2.557
4 80 40 116.970 120.000 3.030
5 100 20 116.155 120.000 3.845
6 120 20 115.325 120.000 4.675
7 140 20 115.230 120.000 4.770
8 160 20 116.050 120.000 3.950
9 180 20 114.850 120.000 5.150
10 200 20 115.005 120.000 4.995
11 220 20 116.175 120.000 3.825
12 240 20 115.475 120.000 3.825
13 260 20 117.995 120.000 2.045
14 270 10 117.705 120.000 2.295





Restoration of an existing tank
Description of the survey work

Instruments used
1) Dumpy level
2) Chains and tapes
3) The compass plane table with stand
4) Ranging rods, pegs etc
Capacity contouring
Capacity contours were plotted by the direct contouring using plane table and dumpy
level. The live storage and dead storage were worked out by multiplying the contour
area by the contour interval.
Dam alignment
The earthen bund includes waste weir. Longitudinal section and cross section
surveying is done at central and terminal ends. The length of bund is 540.00m.
Name of the work and location: restoration of an existing tank at
Doddajala,Bangalore District, Karnataka.

Thus, totals capacity of water storage =
Previous capacity present capacity = silt deposition
Hence, silt deposition =
Records of previous M.I. Tank
1. Catchment area
2. Average annual rainfall
3. Mean monsoon rainfall (90% of 24.94)
4. Type and length of dam: earthen bund
5. R.L of the F.S.L of the tank
6. R.L of the outlet sill level
7. H.F.L of tank
8. R.L of the top of the dam
9. R.L of the nallah bed
10. Maximum height of the dam
11. Gross storage including evaporation and absorption losses
12. Storage between the F.S.L and the lowest sill
13. Type & length of the waste weir: ogee type
14. Number and length of irrigation canals
15. Area under command
16. Irrigable area
17. Duty of water
Necessity of tank restoration
The primary purpose of an irrigation tank is to act as reliable source of water for
agricultural uses. If within the design period of the tank, the command area is
supposed to irrigate if not served, then the possible reason for this decrease in the
capacity would be the deposition of silt at the basin of the tank rendering the tank


unusable over a period of time. It is due to this reason that restoration of the tank is
essential in order to maintain in order to maintain efficient in order to maintain
efficient operation of the tank.
Design and data of survey
1. Type and length of dam: earthen bund : 540
2. R.l of bed level
3. R.l of D.S.L
4. R.L of F.S.L
5. R.L of H.F.L
6. R.L of the top of the dam
7. Storage between the F.S.L & the lower sill
8. Type and length of waste weir
9. Number & length of irrigation canal
Capacity of water storage
1. Area of the RL
2. Area of the RL
3. Area of the RL
4. Area of the RL

Volume by trapezoidal rule is given by
V= d {
}
V = 1[

]
V = 1831850 M
3

By Prismoidal rule
V =

{ }
V = 1



Sl
no
Chainage
in m
Length
in m
Redused
level
Formation
level
Depth
of
cutting
Depth
of
filling
1 0 0 800.305 801.032 0.750
2 5 5 797.755 801.032 3.280
3 46 41 797.400 801.032 3.635
4 50 4 799.555 801.032 1.480
5 60 10 799.900 801.032 1.135
6 75 15 800.075 801.032 0.960
7 90 15 800.065 801.032 0.970
8 105 15 800.055 801.032 0.980
9 120 15 800.155 801.032 0.880
10 135 15 800.175 801.032 0.860
11 150 15 800.115 801.032 0.920
12 165 15 800.145 801.032 0.890
13 180 15 800.060 801.032 0.975
14 195 15 799.975 801.032 1.060
15 210 15 799.520 801.032 1.515
16 225 15 799.510 801.032 1.525
17 240 15 799.525 801.032 1.510
18 255 15 799.655 801.032 1.380
19 270 15 799.480 801.032 1.555
20 285 15 799.520 801.032 1.515
21 300 15 799.555 801.032 1.480


22 315 15 799.550 801.032 1.485
23 330 15 799.470 801.032 1.565
24 345 15 799.480 801.032 1.555
25 360 15 799.460 801.032 1.575
26 375 15 799.570 801.032 1.465
27 390 15 799.465 801.032 1.570
28 405 15 799.510 801.032 1.525
29 420 15 799.645 801.032 1.390
30 425 05 799.715 801.032 1.320
31 450 25 799.890 801.032 1.145
32 465 15 800.010 801.032 1.025
33 480 15 800.150 801.032 0.885
34 495 15 800.125 801.032 0.910
35 510 15 800.175 801.032 0.860
36 525 15 800.085 801.032 0.950
37 540 15 800.225 801.032 0.810



3.

WATER SUPPLY
AND
SANITARY
PROJECT


1. INTRODUCTION
Water is a chemical compound which is useful to man in all its forms, providing him
all the comforts along with basic requirements. No life can exist without water. Water
is absolutely essential not only for survival of human being but also for plants and
animals. Therefore in order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good
quality water, it becomes almost imperative in modern society to plan, to build
suitable water supply schemes which may provide water to the various sections of
community in accordance with their demands and requirements.
In preparing schemes of water supply the duties of engineer is to collect all the
information that may prove useful for preparing plan and all the estimates of the
project. Before actual construction of water supply work it is necessary to prepare
plan and full design of various components of project. The proper planning will
ensure an economic and efficient function of the water supply scheme which will
serve various objectives in view efficient and with minimum recurring operational
troubles.
2. NECCESSITY OF WATER SUPPLY
For every human being water, air, food and shelter is a must and primary need.
Water is required for many purposes like drinking, cooking, bathing, washing and for
growing crops. Water is also essential for maintaining gardens and lawns, washing
streets, fire fighting, and industries and for recreation.While designing the water
supply scheme to the town it is necessary to determine the total quantity of water
required for various purposes. This quantity of water required for carrying out various
activities is called water demand.
3. WATER DEMAND
a. Domestic water demand
b. Commercial water demand
c. Industrial water demand
d. Fire demand


e. Demand for public use
f. Compensate water loss demand

DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND:
It is the quantity of water required for carrying out various domestic activities like
cooking, flushing, bathing etc...In India under normal conditions domestic water
demand in 135L/c/day where as in other developed countries like USA it is about
350L/c/day.
DOMESTIC DEMAND FOR ONE PERSON
SL NO. PURPOSE LPCD
1 Flushing 25
2 Cooking 05
3 Cleaning Utensils 15
4 Bathing 55
5 Drinking 05
6 Washing cloths 20
7 House washing 10
Total 135

COMMERCIAL DEMAND:
Commercial water demand is 30L/c/day. This includes water required for office
buildings, shopping complex, schools, hospitals, railways, bus station and Cinema
Theater.
INDUSTRIAL WATER DEMAND:
Water demand in industry like paper, textiles, sugar, pharmaceuticals, milk processing
industries etc...Industrial demand is about 20% of the demand.
FIRE DEMAND:
It is the demand when there is occurrence of fire which causes damages to properties.
It might be due to faulty wires and short circuiting, improper material, explosions


etc...This demand is around 150L/c/day. It can also be determine using various
formulas.

DEMAND OF PUBLIC USE:
This includes cleaning of sewers, watering in public parts, maintaining fountain,
cleaning streets etc.This demand is around 5% of total demand.
COMPENSATE WATER LOSS DEMAND:
Generally 15% allowance of total quantity of water is made to compensate for the
loses and wastage of water. Some portion of water in the distribution pipes are
wastage due to defective pipes joints and also faulty fitting. Some people keep the tap
open and allow continuous wastage of water. Water is also lost due to unauthorized
connections.
TOTAL PERCAPITA DEMAND
Per capita demand is the total quantity of water required per person per day in term.
Per capita demand =

lcpd
Where,
Q=Total quantity of water required for a city in one year
P=population of the city
PER CAPITA DEMAND FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
SL NO. PURPOSE LPCD
1 Domestic Demand 135
2 Industrial/Commercial 50
3 Fire Demand 15
4 Public Demand 25
5 Water Loss 45
Total 270



FACTORS AFFECTING THE WATER SUPPLY DEMAND
1) Climatic condition
2) Cost of water
3) Distribution pressure
4) Habits of the people
5) Industries
6) Policy of metering
7) Quality of water
8) Sewage system
9) Size of the city
10) System of supply
1. CLIMATIC CONDITION
The requirement of water in summer is more than that is in winter. Hence during
summer the rate will be more. In winter water requirement will be less hence the rate
of demand will also be less.
2. COST OF WATER
The cost at which water is supplied to a consumer may also affect the rate of demand.
Higher the cost lower will be the rate of demand.
3. DISTRIBUTION PRESSURE
The consumptions of water increases with the increasing distribution pressure. This is
due to the loss of water at high pressure. As distribution pressure increases the rate of
demand also increases.
4. HABIT OF THE PEOPLE
For high value of premises consumption of water will be more due to standard of
living. Hence the rate of demand will be high. For middle class premises the rate of
demand will be average. But in case of slum areas the rate of demand will be low.
5. INDUSTRIES
The presence or absence of industries in cities will affect the rate of demand. If
industries are present in city, the rate of demand will be high. If not the rate of
demand will be less.
6. POLICY OF METERING


The quantity of supplied to a building if it is recorded by installing water meters then
quantity of water used will be less hence it decreases the rate of demand.
7. QUALITY OF THE WATER
If there is improvement in the quality of water there will be increase in the water
consumption. The public will use the good quality of water by considering it to be
safe, on the other hand if the is unpleasant in taste and odor the rate of consumption
will decrease.
8. SEWAGE SYSTEMS
The existence of sewerage system in the locality will lead to increasing use of water
for public purpose. People will also use more quantity of water for flushing, sanitary
uses, hence rate of demand will also increase with good sewerage system.
9. SIZE OF THE CITY
Smaller the city, lower will be the demand. Larger the city with heavy industry will
increase the rate of demand.
10. SYSTEM OF SUPPLY
The system of supply may be continuous or intermittent. In continuous system water
is supplied for 24hr hence the rate of demand will be more. In intermittent system
water is supplied only for 3hr a day. Hence the rate of demand will decrease.
4. DESIGN PERIOD
No. of years for which design of water works have been done is known as design
period of design. For the present water supply scheme we have assumed the design
period of 30 years.
POPULATION FORECASTING BY GEOMETRIC INCREMENT
METHOD
In this method, per decade percentage increase or percentage growth rate (r) is
assumed to be constant and the increase is compounded over existing population
every decade. This method is also known as uniform increase method. Hence the
assumed constant value of percentage growth rate per decade is analogous to the rate
of interest per annum.


P
n
= P
0
+ (1 +
)
n
Where,
P
0
= Initial Population
P
n
= Future population after n decades
r = Assumed growth rate =r =
(By Geometric Mean Method)

GOI Manual on Water and Water Treatment recommends the use of Geometric mean
method and can be used safely.
5. SOURCES OF THE WATER SUPPLY
1. SURFACE WATER SOURCES
a. STREAMS
There are formed by surface run off. The discharge of water in the stream in more
during rainy season. The quality of water in the steams are normally good but
sometimes water while flowing over the ground is mixed with sand, impurities etc...
All the suspended impurities can be removed by settling process but dissolved
impurities requires special treatment.
b. LAKES
In mountain and at some places natural beds are formed with impervious bed. Water
from springs and streams generally flows through basins and lakes are formed. The
quantity of water in lakes depends upon the basin capacity. Lakes which are situated
at high altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used without treatment.
c. PONDS
These are depression in planes like land in which water is collected during rainy
season, generally quantity of water in ponds is very less and contain lots of
impurities. This water has to be purified before supplying to the cities.
d. RIVERS
River contribute chief source of water supply to many cities. River is also subject to
self purification action. In summer quality of river water is somewhat better than in
monsoon. In rainy season the runoff water carries clay sand etc...


River water should be used only after treatment. Some river is snow fed and perennial
and therefore they have water throughout the year. But Non-perennial River is mostly
dry during summer and have heavy flood in monsoon.
e. IMPOUNDED RESERVOIRS
Impounded reservoirs are those structures which are constructed across the river water
which is impounded if the reservoir can be used for irrigation, water supply for
domestic and industrial use. Reservoirs also stores flood water and that can be used
for hydro electric power plant generation.
2. UNDERGROUND SOURCES
SPRINGS
Spring is the natural outflow of subsurface water to the surface. The quantity of water
obtained from spring is very small therefore they are not suitable for major water
supply schemes. Quality of water depends upon outcrop distance from the springs.
Generally shallow spring water should be used for domestic purpose after
chlorination. The quality of water in deep springs is good and can be use directly
without any treatment.
a. ARTESIAN SPRING
In this type of spring the water comes to the surface under pressure. It may be form
due to the pressure of cracks in the impervious layer
Artesian springs are formed when a porous strata is enclosed between two impervious
strata. It gives uniform quantity of water throughout the year and the quality is better
than that of gravity springs. It can be used for drinking purpose without any treatment.
b. GRAVITY SPRINGS
This is developed due to increased in water table. The flow is variable with the rise or
fall of water table. In order to meet with such fluctuations a trench must be
constructed near a spring which acts as the storage area.
c. SURFACE SPRINGS
This is formed when sub-soil water is exposed to the ground surface by the
obstruction of an impervious strata. The quality of water available from such springs
is quiet uncertain and cut off walls may be constructed to develop such springs. The


quality of spring depends upon the geographical condition. The spring water which is
not distributed by rainfall is of good quality.
3. WELLS
The vertical opening drilled to the ground to get sub surface water is termed as wells.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELLS
a. SHALLOW WELLS
These are the wells which are left in a previous strata and do not meet any impervious
strata. The quality of water obtained is uncertain and not so good therefore it cannot
be used for drinking purpose. Water should be purified by using bleaching powder
and lime.
b. DEEP WELLS
Wells which rest on impervious soil and gets the supply from the under lined to a
small board in a impervious layer. The quantity of water is more and there is no
fluctuation of water level as the yield is constant. The quality of water is good due to
straining action provided by pervious strata. Chlorination is done to kill bacteria.

c. TUBE WELLS
It is a pipe sunk into the ground and filtered at the bottom with a filter to take the
underground water. The tube well is a deep well having diameter of about 50-
200mm.The depth of the tube well is decided with respect to quantity of water
required.
d. ARTESIAN WELLS
When aquiferis enclosed between impervious strata making cup shape. This well is
called artesian wells. When a well is drilled in the middle water come out of the well
in the form of fountains. Pressure of water in the aquifer is greater than atmospheric
pressure. These wells are generally formed in valleys. No pumping is required in such
wells. The quality of water in these wells is very good and can be used for drinking
purpose without any purification.
e. INFILTRATION WELLS


These are vertical wells provided along the banks of the river to draw ground water
even during dry season. These wells are circular in shape and constructed in brick
masonry. The diameter of these wells are mostly 6m.Near the base steel porous piped
are driven vertically to draw water from the surrounding areas. Quantity of water
depends upon water table, nature of soils and length of radically placed strainers. In
this case water is collected after it has passed through sand layer, quality of water is
better.
4. INTAKE STUCTURES AND CONVEYANCE OF WATER
An intake is a structure which is constructed across the water source so as to permit
the withdrawal of water from the source. It may be of stone masonry.It has to be
constructed water tight and it should be design for all force lightly to come upon it.
The force may include water pressure, earth pressure, floating matters etc.
CONVEYANCE OF WATER
The pipe through which the water is carried is called conduct. The size of the pipe
depends on the discharge of the water through the pipes.
The selection of material of the of the following basis,
Quantity of water
Pressure of water
Durability of the pipe
Funds available
Maintenance cost
Corrosive effect of water on the material of the pipe
Following are the various material which are used for the pipes,
1. ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES
These pipes are made from a mixture of asbestos fiber and cement. These pipes are
used to convey water under low pressure.
ADVANTAGES
a. The inside surface of pipes is very smooth
b. Joining of the pipes is easy
c. Cost of pipes are economical
d. The pipes are light in weight and hence they can be easily transported.


DISADVANTAGES
a. The pipe are brittle and hence they cannot withstand impact force during handling
and transportation.
b. They cannot be able to resist the vibration of traffic
c. The pipe cannot be laid in exposed places and cannot withstand high pressures.

2. CAST IRON PIPES
These pipes are extensively used for conveyance of water. They are available up to a
diameter of 120cm to 2m.Cast iron pipe are manufactured from pig iron and they are
classified into four categories namely
Class A- 60m head of pressure
ClassB-120m head of pressure
Class C-180m head of pressure
Class D-240m head of pressure
ADVANTAGES
a. The cost is moderate
b. Pipes are easy to join
c. Pipes is not strong and durable
d. Service connection can be easily made
e. Pipes are not subjected to corrosion
f. The life of cast iron under normal condition is about hundred years
DISADVANTAGES
a. The failure of pipeline is mainly due to cracks/breakages
b. The water carrying capacity of this pipes reduces when increasing in life of the
pipe
c. These pipes are not used for the pressure greater than 7kg/cm
2

d. The pipe becomes heavier and uneconomical when size increased beyond 1.2m

3. CEMENT CONCRETE PIPES
Cement concrete pipes may be plain, reinforced or pre-stressed of diameter varying
from 50cm-45cmor more.


1. Plain concrete pipes can be used till a pressure of 15m head
2. RCC pipes can be used till a pressure of 75m head
3. pre stressed concrete pipes can be used till a pressure greater than 75m
RCC pipes consist of reinforcement of circular and longitudinal bars. The
reinforcement is placed in mould and cement concrete poured into it. The mould is
rotated with great speed around its longitudinal axis. They are mainly adopted in
conveyance of water.
ADVANTAGES
1. Inside surface of the pipes can be made smooth.
2. Maintenance cost is low
3. Pipes is durable
4. No skilled labor is required and expansive joints
DISADVANTAGES
1. Pipes are heavy and difficult to transport
2. The repair of the pipes are difficult and are likely to corrode due to salt water or
alkaline water
4. GALVANISED IRON PIPES
These pipes are widely used for service connections in residential and commercial
areas. The diameter of these pipes varies from 6-75mm
ADVANTAGES
1. The pipes are light in weight and hence easy to handle and transport
2. Pipes are easy to join
3. Pipes is durable and they are not subjected to rusting action
DISADVANTAGES
1. Cost of pipes are high
2. These pipes are affected by acidic and alkaline water
5. PVC PIPES
Plastic pipes are manufactured from organic polymers poly-vinyl-chloride. These are
used to carry small quantity of water.
ADVANTAGES


1. They are cheap, durable and flexible
2. The pipes are flexible and process low functional resistance
3. The pipes are free from corrosion
4. The pipes are good electric insulator
5. The pipes are light in weight and it is easy to bend, install and join.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The coefficient of expansion is high
2. It is difficult to obtain plastic pipe of uniform chemical composition
3. They are less resistant to heat.
6. MILD STEEL PIPES
Steel pipes are manufactured from mild steel. Joints of these pipes are either revised
or welded. Generally they are used for pipes having diameter more than 120cm.
ADVANTAGES
1. Pipes are available in long length and hence no. of joints becomes less.
2. The pipes are cheap in initial cost.
3. The pipes are durable and strong to resist high internal pressure.
4. The pipes are flexible to some extent and hence they can be laid easily on curves.
5. Pipes are light in weight and hence transportation becomes easy.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Maintain cost is high.
2. The pipes are likely to be rusted due to the action of alkaline and acidic water.
3. They required more time for repair during breakdown and therefore not suitable
for distribution pipes.
7. MILD STEEL PIPES
They are used to carry hot water in buildings and steam boilers. They can be bend
easily and has less co-efficient of thermal expansion. They are not used for
distribution of water in large quantity.
8. LEAD PIPES


Lead pipes are used in places of water purification such as apparatus from alum
and chlorine dosage. There should not be any contact between acid and lead which
causes lead poisoning.

\

7. QUALITY OF THE WATER
The water required for public water supply should be potable. The water fit for
drinking purpose is known as potable water.
IMPURITIES IN THE WATER
It is impossible to find pure water in nature. The rain water as it reached the surface of
the earth absorbs dusts and gases from the atmosphere. It is further exposed to organic
matter or surface of the earth and by the time it reaches the surface of the water
supply. This is found to contain various impurities like
1. Suspended impurities
2. Colloidal impurities
3. Dissolved impurities

1. SUSPENDED IMPURITIES
The solid particles which are dispersed in water are called suspended impurities.
These exist in finely divided conditions the particles which are lighter floats and
particles which are heavier settles down. The suspended impurities are silt, clay,
mineral matter organic matter etc. Suspended impurities imparts turbidity in water
2. COLLOIDAL IMPURITIES
It is very finely divided dispersion of particles in water, which are not visible to naked
eye. They cannot be removed by ordinary filters. These partials remain in continuous
portion as they are electrically charged particles and hence they do not settle and their


removal is difficult. Mostof the color which the water process is due to the presence
of colloidal impurities. Colloidal impurities are determined by the color test.
3. DISSOLVED IMPURITIES
When water moves over soil or rocks some of the impurities gets dissolved. These
impurities may contain organic compound, inorganic salts and gases. The amount of
solids dissolved is expressed in parts per million. The important dissolved salts are
salts of calcium magnesium, sodium, lead, manganese, arsenic etc... Some of the
dissolved gases are oxygen, carbon dioxide.
8. ANALYSIS OF WATER
It is the process of finding out the quality of water and quantity of impurities present
in the water. In water analysis following test are conducted.
1. PHYSICAL TEST
The temperature of water to be supplied from storage reservoir depends on the depth
from where it is drawn. The desirable temperature of potable water should be between
20
o
- 25
o
c.The bacterial activity is more when temperature reaches above 35
o
c. Hence
20
o
25
o
c temperature is desirable
a. TASTE AND ODOUR TEST
The water process taste and odor due to the various causes and makes water
unpleasant. The test is carried out by inhaling through table holes of osmoscope. One
tube is kept in flash containing distilled water and another one in a flask containing
water to be tested. The odor is compared and it is expressed as earthy, filthy sweetish
etc.
b. COLOR TEST
Stock solution is prepared i.e., 1.245g of potassium chloride and 1g of cobalt chloride
is dissolved in 100ml of conc. HCL and dilute in 1L of distilled water. Prepare
standard in nectars tube having 50ml capacity. Prepare 50ml of each containing
5,10,20,25 up to 100 hazes unit by diluting the stock solution in nesters tube.
Take the given sample of water in another nesters tube, and match color against the
standard color solution by looking through the tube with white background.
c. TURBITY TEST


The colloidal suspended matter present in the water gives the turbidity. The cloudy
appearance in water due to the turbidity is harmful for drinking.Turbidity is expressed
in NTU.In field turbidity is measured using turbidity rod and in lab turbidity is
measured using Jackson and Balylies turbidity meter.
2. CHEMICAL TEST
a. CHLORIDES
The presence of chlorides is an indication of pollution. An excess is dangerous and it
gives saline taste to water. Chlorides in water should be limited to 250ppm.It should
be determine using titrating water with silver nitrate solution using potassium
chromate as an indicator.
At the end if titration yellow color changes to reddish color and amount of silver
nitrate used the presence of chloride.
b. HARDNESS TEST
The hardness of water is of two types,
TEMPORARY HARDNESS
It is also known as carbonate hardness and it is mainly due to the presence of
bicarbonate of Ca and Mg can be removed by boiling water or by adding lime to
water.
PERMANENT HARDNESS
It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of Ca and Mg can be removed by
ion exchange process or permuted process. The excess of hardness causes more soap
consumption, corrosion and scale formation in boilers. The hardness is expressed in
ppm.
c. DISSOLVED GASES
The water contains various desired gases such as nitrogen, methane, hydrogen
sulphide, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The methane gas gives odor to water and hence
its presence should be minimum. The gas such as carbon dioxide and oxygen causes
corrosion.
d. pH VALUES


The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured in term of its pH value. It determines
the strength of acid or alkalinity in water. The different method used for Ph
measurement is electro metric and calligraphic method.

e. IRON AND MANGANESE PARTICLES
These particles are highly objectionable in water supply because it causes stains in
clothes, color and odor in water. It also causes corrosion of metals.
PHYSICAL STANDARDS OF WATER
1. Color should be 10-20Hazens/unit
2. Odor should be 0-4
3. Temperature should be 20'-25'C
4. Turbidity should be less than 500ppm
CHEMICAL STANDARDS OF THE WATER
1. Total solids should be less than 500ppm
2. Ph value should be equal to 7
3. Fluorides should be less than 1.5ppm
4. Arsenic should be less than 0.005ppm
5. Lead should be less than 0.01ppm
6. Coppershould be less than 1ppm
7. Cadmium should be less than 0.9 ppm

3. BACTERIAL TEST
Natural water contains various types of living organisms such as bacteria, algae,
protozoan etc...Bacterial occurs in forms of microscopic a macroscopic. Some are
harmful while other is useful to nature. Pathogenic bacteria cause diseases and are
harmful. Aerobic bacteria are the bacteria which require oxygen for their survival.



9. WATER TREATMENT WORKS
Following are the steps involved in the purification of water,
1. SCREENS
These are generally provided on front of the pump or intake so as to remove large size
floating matter as they affect the treatment process and damage
These are three types of screens,
1. Coarse screens
2. Medium screens
3. Fine screens
The coarse screen first removes the bigger floating matter and medium size particles
and screen remove finer particles.
2. PLANE SEDIMENTATION (Settling tank)
Most of the suspended particles present in water have specific gravity more than 1.In
water this impurity tries to settle down under gravity. But in normal water supply they
try to remain in suspension because of continuous motion. As soon as velocity of
water reduced the suspended particle will try to settle in the bottomed the tank. The
basin is which flow of water is reduced and particles are made to settle is called
settling tank or sedimentation tank.
3. SEDIMENTATION AIDED BY THE COAGULATIONS
Very fine suspended matter and colloidal particles will have specific gravity nearer to
1 or less than 1.Hence these colloidal particles will not settles at the tank, when
coagulants are added to the water and stirred. These will attract the colloidal particles
and size of the colloidal particles will increase and will settles in the bottom of the
sedimentation tank. This process is called coagulation.
4. RAPID SAND GRAVITY FILTERS
In the effluent controlled type of filters, the filter effluent lines are connected to a
common header. A fixed orifice is built into the effluent piping for each filter so that
no filter after washing will take an undue share of the flow. The filtered water header


pressure may be regulated by a throttle valve which discharges to filtered water
reservoir. Costly rate controllers are replaced with fixed orifices and therefore, would
make the units economical particularly in large water works involving batteries of
filters. For equal duration of filter runs the total output per day from a declining rate
filter is higher than that in the conventional filters. In group of filters operating at an
average rate of 10 m3/m2/hr, the fixed orifice will be so designed that a recently
cleaned filter will begin operation at 15 m3/ m2/hr while the filter next in line for
cleaning will have slowed down to about 5 m3/m2/hr. Usually the depths of filter
boxes for declining rate filters are more than those for the conventional ones. These
would permit longer filter runs and consequent reduced wash water requirements.
The filter beds are operated by scheduled cleaning in such a way that each of beds
will be in different stage of filter cycle producing the required average flow. When the
rate of flow is reduced to the minimum design rate, the filter is removed from service
and backwashed. In an inlet-controlled filter, the rate of flow is controlled
proportional to the rate of filtration with float control arrangement to the inlet valve.
Inlet control reduces the amount of work which has to be done on the filter to just
clean it.
5. CHLORINATION (DISINFECTION)
a. PLAIN CHLORINATION
If water chlorine water is given to raw water it is termed as plain chlorination. The
chlorine is added to raw water to remove bacteria and to control the growth algae.
Plain chlorination is done if the water is sufficiently clean. The quantity of chlorine
added to raw water is 0.5ppm
b. PRE CHLORINATION
If the chlorination is done before the treatment and the quantity of chlorine added in
the water is about 0.5ppm
c. POST CHLORINATION
If chlorine is added after all the treatment of purification is completed it is known as
post chlorination. Chlorine is added to water after it leaves the rapid sand filters
before it enters distribution system.


d. DOUBLE CHLORINATION
When chlorine is added to raw water at more than one point it is known as double
chlorination
e. DECHLORINATION
The removal of excess chlorine from water is known as DE chlorination.It is done by
using chemical compound such as sodium bisulphate and potassium permanganate. At
the end of DE chlorination some residual chlorine should remain in water. This
residual chlorine will disinfect water when it is flowing through the distribution
system.
f. BREAKPOINT CHLORINATION
For water containing organic matter chlorine is added to remove bacteria from water
and to oxidize organic matter present in water. The chlorine added starts to
accumulate up to a certain height. At this stage further chlorination is done followed
by a sudden decrease in residual chlorine. The extra chlorine added is utilized in
oxidation of the organic matter with further addition of chlorine it decreased the
residual chlorine and the point is known as breakpoint chlorination.
g. SUPER CHLORINATION
The addition of chlorine after the stage of breakpoint is called super chlorination. It is
usually adopted where there is epidemic in the locality and water is likely to contain
high organic impurities.
6. COLOR ODOUR AND TASTE REMOVAL
Some of the treatments such as coagulation, pre-chlorination and super chlorination
are used to remove color taste and odor. It can also be removed by aeration, treatment
with activated carbon and by copper sulphate.
AERATION
It is the process of bringing water in contact with air. Due to the agitation of water
during aeration bacteria will be killed. It also results in less corrosion because oxygen
and carbon dioxide is reduced.
10. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM


It is the process of supplying water from treatment plant to the consumers. For
maintaining good quality of water during distribution system the following factors
should be considered.
1. CIRCULATION OF WATER
The layout of distribution system should be such that there is free circulation of water
and number of dead ends should be reduced.
2. CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN
The construction and design should be such that desired quantity of water is available
at all types. The minimum pressure at each inlet should be such that the inlet of a
building should be 7m,12 m and 17m for single, double and three storey building.
3. PREVENT OF CONTAMINATION BY SEWAGE
The water pipe line should be laid above the sewers at a vertical distance of 2m and
the horizontal distance between water pipe should be above 3m
4. ECONOMY
Layout and design of distribution system should be economical. The cost of
distribution system should be 90% of the total cost of water supply project hence
water distribution system should be carefully design by taking various factors such as
pumping, types of pipes and its diameter and storage requirement
5. GRADIENTS
The gradients of main pipes should be laid such that at every point there should be
positive pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.
6. LEAKAGE
The distribution system should be water tight and the loss of water due to leakage
should bebrought down to minimum possible extent.
7. SAFETY OF POLLUTION
The layout of distribution system should be such that it does not contribute to the
pollution of water flowing in it.
8. SANITATIONS


The sanitation of the area through which the distribution system passing should be
good so that there is no chance of water to be polluted during repairs or replacement.
METHODS
Depending on the topography of the region the methods must be adopted
1. GRAVITATIONAL SYSTEMS
In this system water is conveyed through pipes by gravity flow only. A gravity system
will be useful only when the source is situated at higher level than the distributed
areathis system treated water is pump and stored in higher level of elevated reservoir.
The excess water during low consumption will remain in elevated reservoir and
supplied during the peak
ADVANTAGES
1. Pumps are working at uniform rate
2. This method is economical
3. Small quantity of water is available during breakdown of pumps

2. PUMPING SYSTEMS
In this system the water treated is directly pumped in to distribution mains without
storing it. This is also called as pumping without storage systems. High lift pumps are
required in this system which has to be operated at variable heads so as to meet the
various demands. Thus continuous attendance is required at the pumping system to
ensure the desired flow in distribution system.

3. COMBINATION OF BOTH GRAVITATIONAL AND PUMPING SYSTEM
In this system, the treated water is pumped at constant rate and stored into an
elevated distribution reservoir, from where it is distributed to the consumers by
the action of gravity.
SERVICE RESERVIORS
Service reservoirs are generally provided to store treated water before it is dispatched
to the consumers. They are mainly constructed of brick, stone masonry or RCC. The
service reservoir will serve the following purpose


1. If pumps are used the provision of these reservoir makes it possible to run the
pumps at uniform rates
2. They maintain constant pressure in the pipe fan they serve as storage for
emergency such as breakdown of pumps, rusting of pipe, fire etc...
TYPES OF SERVICE RESERVIORS
1. SURFACE RESERVOIR
These are also known as ground level reservoirs. They are constructed at ground
level and they are mainly used to store water. It has two compartment one that can
be used while the other being cleaned or repaired. The two compartments are
connected to each other by control valves. Due to the storing of water silting will
take place to some extend and it can be removed by cleaning through wash water.
The surface of the reservoir should be water tight and it can be constructed using
stones, bricks etc....
2. ELEVATED RESERVOIR
These reservoirs are also known as over head tanks. They are constructed at an
elevation from ground level. The elevated reservoir is rectangle, circular or
elliptical.
SYSTEM OF WATER SUPPLY
Based on the duration of supply there are two system of water supply.
o Continuous system
o Intermittent system

1. CONTINUES SYSTEM
In this system water is supplied to the consumers for 24hrs.These is the most ideal of
supplying and should be adopted as far as possible. The only disadvantages of this
system are that considerable wastage of water occurs if consumers do not understand
the importance of treated water.
2. INTERMITTENT SYSTEM


In this system water is supplied during fixed hours of day only. The usual period is
about 1-4hrs in the morning or afternoon. The distribution of water is done in zones
and the timing for each zone is adjusted so that working pressure is maintained.
METHODS AND LAYOUTS OF DISTIBUTION PIPES
Following are the four methods of laying distribution pipes
1. DEAD END METHOD
It is also known as tree system of layout and it consist of one supply main from which
supply main are taken. The sub main are again divided into several branches from
which service connections are given to the consumers.
ADVANTAGES
1. It is easy to work out, discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution
system.
2. The cut off valves required is less.
3. The diameter of the main and sub main are to be design for the population likely
to be served
4. Lying of the pipe is simple.
DISADVANTAGES
1. During the repair large portion of the area distributed are affected.
2. Chances of water being polluted due to the stagnation of water at dead ends.
3. The water available for firefighting is limited.

2. CIRCULAR METHOD
This is also known as ring system and a ring of main is formed around the distribution
area. The distribution area is divided into a number of rectangle or circular box and
water mains are laid in the periphery of these blocks. It is more suitable for towns
having well planned roads and streets.
3. RADIAL METHOD
This is the reverse of the ring system. In this method water is taken from the mains
and pump in to the distribution reservoir which are situated at the centers of the


different zones. The water is then supplied through the radically laid pipes. The radial
method is suitable for towns having road laid out radically.



11. CONCLUSION
The report contains all the necessary information regarding the existing, projected
population along with a village map. The surveys were conducted effectively to
obtain the best possible datas with minimum errors. The required water supply and
sanitary schemes can be implemented effectively in order to meet the requirements of
the individual.



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EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT 2013

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

(By Geometric Mean Method)

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