HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

Accessories Division, Lucknow

PROJECT REPORT

ON

Instruments used in Cockpit of Aircraft






SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-
Mr. S.P. Singh VARUN MISHRA,
Sr. Manager (Trg.) Branch- E.C.E
(HAL-ADL)


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very thankful to everyone who all supported me, for i have
completed my project effectively and moreover on time.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teachers who
given the valuable knowledge at HAL-ADL training center as well as
Manager Mr. S.P. Singh who gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on the topic Instruments used in Cockpit of Aircrafts,
which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to know
about so many new things.

Last but not the least, I would like to thank my parents who helped me a
lot in gathering different information, collecting data and guiding me
from time to time in making this project .despite of their busy schedules
,they gave me different ideas in making this project unique.

I am making this project not only for professional academics but to also
increase my knowledge.
Content

Introduction.
History.
Evolution of H.A.L.
Production
Licensed production
Indigenous production
Costumers & Services.
Divisions.
Introduction to HAL ADL
Products by HAL - ADL
Factories in HAL ADL
Mechanical System factory.
Fuel System Factory.
Instrument/Electrical System Factory.
Cockpit Instruments
Barometric Instruments.
Gyroscopic Instruments.
Fuel Measurement.
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction

H.A.L. one of the most significant and prestigious aeronautical and its accessories
company from the country of varied culture and traditions, INDIA. As H.A.L. acronym
for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. And having Sales Turnover of Rs.14,204 crores
during the Financial Year 2011-12. The Profit of the Company (Profit Before Tax)
soared to Rs.3,329 crores.
H.A.L. has is registered office based in Bangalore, India, is one of Asia's largest
aerospace companies. Under the management of the Indian Ministry of Defence, this
state-owned company is mainly involved in aerospace industry, which includes
manufacturing and assembling aircraft, navigation and related communication
equipment, as well as operating airports.
H.A.L. built the first military aircraft in South Asia and is currently involved in the
design, fabrication and assembly of aircraft, jet engines, and helicopters, as well as
their components and spares. It has several facilities spread across several states in
India including Nasik, Korwa, Kanpur, Koraput, Lucknow, Bangalore and Hyderabad.
H.A.L. made and assembled many types of fighter aircrafts, helicopters, civil aviation
aircrafts, etc. like Sukhoi (SU 30-MKI), Jaguar, Kirat, Cheetah, Tejas(L.C.A.), MiG Series
Aircrafts, Mirage 2000, etc. under licensed and indigenous production both.
Today, HAL has 19 Production Units and 10 Research & Design Centers in 8 locations
in India. The Company has an impressive product track record - 15 types of
Aircraft/Helicopters manufactured with in-house R & D and 14 types produced under
license. HAL has manufactured over 3658 Aircraft/Helicopters, 4178 Engines,
Upgraded 272 Aircraft and overhauled over 9643 Aircraft and 29775 Engines.
History

HAL was established as Hindustan Aircraft in Bangalore in 1940 by Seth Walchand
Hirachand to produce military aircraft for the Royal Indian Air Force. The initiative
was actively encouraged by the Kingdom of Mysore, especially by the Diwan, Sir
Mirza Ismail and it also had financial help from the Indian Government. Mysore was
favored because of the availability of cheap electricity.
[2]
The organization and
equipment for the factory at Bangalore was set up by William D. Pawley of the
Intercontinental Aircraft Corporation of New York, an exporter of American aircraft to
the region. Pawley managed to obtain a large number of machine-tools and
equipment from the United States.
The Indian Government bought a one-third stake in the company and by April 1941
as it believed this to be a strategic imperative. The decision by the government was
primarily motivated to boost British military hardware supplies in Asia to counter the
increasing threat posed by Imperial Japan during Second World War. The Kingdom of
Mysore supplied two directors, Air Marshal John Higgins was resident director. The
first aircraft built was a Harlow PC-5
[3]
On 2 April 1942, the government announced
that the company had been nationalized when it had bought out the stakes of Seth
Walchand Hirachand and other promoters so that it could act freely. The Mysore
Kingdom refused to sell its stake in the company but yielded the management
control over to the Indian Government.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was formed on 1 October 1964 when Hindustan
Aircraft Limited joined the consortium formed in June by the IAF Aircraft
Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur (at the time manufacturing HS.748 under license) and
the group recently set up to manufacture Mig-21 under license (with its new factories
planned in Koraput, Nasik and Hyderabad).
[4]
Though HAL was not used actively for
developing newer models of fighter jets, the company has played a crucial role in
modernization of the Indian Air Force. In 1957 company started manufacturing Bristol
Siddeley Orpheus jet engines under license at new factory located in Bangalore.
During the 1980s, HAL's operations saw a rapid increase which resulted in the
development of new indigenous aircraft such as HAL Tejas and HAL Dhruv. HAL also
developed an advanced version of the MiG-21, known as MiG-21 Bison, which
increased its life-span by more than 20 years. HAL has also obtained several multi-
million dollar contracts from leading international aerospace firms such as Airbus,
Boeing and Honeywell to manufacture aircraft spare parts and engines.
By 2012, HAL was reportedly been bogged down in the details of production and has
been slipping on its schedules.


Production
Licensed Production

Under licensed production India and H.A.L. withdrawn many designs from different countries
like:-
Sukhoi (SU 30-MKI) , MiG variant aircrafts from Russia,
SUKHOI (SU 30-MKI)
Twin - seater, Multi-role, Long range Fighter / Bomber / Air Superiority Aircraft.
MIG 27 M

Single - seater Tactical Fighter / Bomber with variable sweep wings.
MIG 21
Single - seater Front line Tactical Interceptor / Fighter Aircraft.
Jaguar and Hawk Advance Jet Trainer from western origins
Jaguar
single-seat, swept-wing, Rolls-Royce Adour Turbofan twin-engine.
Hawk Advance Jet Trainer
Two-man tandem cockpit, a low-mounted cantilever wing, single turbofan engine
Other licensed aircraft and engines production
Harlow PC-5 first aircraft assembled by HAL
Percival Prentice 66 built by HAL
Folland Gnat
HAL Ajeet improved version of the Folland Gnat
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-27 M variant
SEPECAT Jaguar IS, IB and IM variants
Dornier Do 228 Also providing equipment for production of the upgraded
Mirage 2000 (france)
Aerospatiale SA 315B Lama HAL Cheetah, Lancer, Cheetal Variants
Aerospatiale SA 316B Alouette III HAL Chetak, Chetan Variants
HAL HS 748 Avro Modified for military usage, includes Series 2M variant
with large freight door
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 811 Engine for SEPECAT Jaguar
Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour Mk 871 Engine for BAE Hawk Mk 132
Garrett TPE331-5 Engine for Dornier Do 228
Turbomeca TM 333 Engine for HAL Dhruv
Indigenous Production
HF 24 MARUT
Indias First fighter aircraft
IJT HAL(HJT-36 SITARA)
HAL BASANT(agri-utility aircraft)
Light Combat Aircraft(HAL TEJAS)
Light Combat Helicopter
HAL dhruv
Other types of Production indigenously
Engines
GTRE GTX-35VS Kaveri- Co-developed with GTRE (DRDO)(under development)
PTAE-7- For indigenously designed Lakshya PTA
GTSU-110 - For starting main engine GE404 or Kaveri of LCA Tejas
HAL/Turbomeca Shakti - Co-developed with Turbomeca for HAL Dhruv Helicopter
Gliders
HAL G-1 - HAL's first original design, dating from 1941. Only one was built.
Ardhra training glider
Rohini
Transport Aircrafts
Saras under joint development with the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL)
HAL Multirole Transport Aircraft under joint-development with Ilyushin Design
Bureau
Indian Regional Jet (IRJ) of 70-100 seater capacity to be jointly developed with
NAL.


Costumers And Sister Concerns
Sister Concerns

Indian Space Research Organization
Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company
National Aerospace Laboratories
Defense Research and Development Organization
Aeronautical Development Agency
Directorate General Aeronautical Quality Assurance
Directorate General of Civil Aviation
Customers
DOMESTIC
DEFENCE & SPACE:

Indian Air Force
Indian Army
Indian Navy
Indian Coast Guard
Ordnance Factory Board
Border Security Force

CIVIL

Oil & Natural Gas Cooperation of India
Geological Survey of India
Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.


EXPORTS:
Airbus Industrie, France
Boeing, USA
Coast Guard, Mauritius
Ecuadorian Air Force, Ecuador
ELTA, Israel
GE Aviation, USA
Hamilton Sundstrand, USA
Honeywell International, USA
Israel Aircraft Industries, Israel
Mauritius Police Force, Mauritius
Moog Inc. USA
Namibian Air Force, Namibia
Nepal Army, Nepal
RAC MIG, Russia
Rolls Royce Plc, UK
Royal Air Force, Oman
Royal Malaysian Air Force, Malaysia
Royal Thai Air Force, Thailand
Ruag, Germany
Rosoboron export, Russia





Divisions


Research & Design Centers

Aircraft Research and Design Center, Bangalore
Rotatory Wing Research and Design Center, Bangalore
Aircraft Upgrade Research and Design Center, Nasik
Transport Aircraft Research and Design Center, Kanpur
Mission and Combat System Research and Design Center, Bangalore
Engine and Test bed Research and Design Center, Bangalore
Strategic Electronics Research and Design Center, Hyderabad
Aerospace Systems & Equipments Research & Design Center, Lucknow
Gas Turbine Research and Design Center
Central Materials & Processes Laboratory & NDT ,Bangalore


Introduction to HAL ADL
Accessories Division of HAL was established in 1970 with the primary objective of
manufacturing systems and accessories for various aircraft and engines and attains
self-sufficiency in this area. Its facilities are spread over 116,000 sq. /m of built area
set in sylvan surroundings. At present it is turning out over 1300 different types of
accessories. The Division started with manufacturing various Systems and Accessories
viz, Hydraulics, Engine Fuel System, Air-conditioning and Pressurization, Flight
Control, Wheel and Brake, Gyro & Barometric Instruments, Electrical and Power
Generation & Control System, Undercarriages, Oxygen System and Electronic System
all under one roof to meet the requirements of the aircraft, helicopters and engines
being produced by HAL like MiG series of aircrafts, Dornier, Jaguar, Advanced Light
Helicopters(ALH), PTA, Cheetah & Su-30 and repair / Overhaul of Avro, AN-32, HPT-
32, Mirage-2000 & Sea-Harrier aircrafts, Cheetah and Chetak helicopters.
The Division undertakes manufacturing and servicing of accessories under Transfer of
Technology (Tot) from more than 40 licensor from different countries. In addition, a
lot of emphasis has been given on developing indigenous capability for Design and
Development of various systems and accessories. This capability has culminated in
indigenous design and development of over 350 types of accessories for the Light
Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Air force and Navy version), Advanced Light Helicopter (all
versions i.e. Army, Air force, Navy & Civil), SARAS and IJT (Intermediate Jet Trainer).
The Division has also developed and has made successful strides into the area of
Microprocessor based control systems for the LCA Engine as well as other systems.
The Division has been in the forefront of accessories development and supply not
only to Indian Force but to Army, Navy, Coast Guard and various Defense
Laboratories as well as for Space applications.
The Division is networked with all sister Divisions and R& D Centers by LAN/WAN.
Lean manufacturing and ERP have been implemented to create an efficient
manufacturing system. The Division today has a prime name in the Aviation market
and various international companies are interested to join hands with it for future
projects. The Division has also made steady progress in the area of Export.
Products by HAL - ADL
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM AND POWER CONTROL
Hydraulic Pumps, Accumulators, Actuators, Electro-selectors, Bootstrap
Reservoirs and various types of valves
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Cold Air Unit, Water Extractors, Non Return Valves and Venturies
ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM
Fuel after Burner regulator and distributor, Main Fuel Distributor, Regulator
and After Burner Pump, Plunger Pumps, Fuel Metering Device

INSTRUMENTS
Electrical Indicators, Fuel quantity and flow metering instruments, Flight
instruments, Sensors and Switches.

ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM
AC/DC Generator, Control and Protection Units, AC and DC Master Box,
Inverters, Transformer Rectifier Unit, Actuators.

UNDERCARRIAGE, WHEELS AND BRAKES
Main and Nose Undercarriage, Main and Nose Wheel, Brake System LRUs.

TEST RIGS
Dedicated Test Rigs, custom-built Fuel/Hydraulic Test Rigs and Electrical Test
Rigs.
Factories in HAL ADL
Mechanical System factory
Hydraulics and Pumps
Servo-Actuators
Flight Control system
Environment System
Assembly Test

Fuel System Factory
Gas Turbine
Fuel Flow Metering and Gauging
Assembly Test

Instrument & Electrical System Factory
Cockpit Instruments
Oxygen System
Sensors
Starter/Generator
Static Inverter
Gyroscopic Instruments
Barometric Instruments
Fuel Content Gauging Probes.













PROJECT REPORT ON
INTRUMENTS USED IN COCKPIT
OF AIRCRAFTS



Cockpit Instruments


Cockpit of aircraft
BAROMETRIC INSTRUMENTS
Altimeter

Altitude can be determined based on the measurement of atmospheric pressure. The
greater the altitude the lower the pressure. When a barometer is supplied with a
nonlinear calibration so as to indicate altitude, the instrument is called a pressure
altimeter or barometric altimeter. A pressure altimeter is the altimeter found in most
aircraft, and skydivers use wrist-mounted versions for similar purposes. Hikers and
mountain climbers use wrist-mounted or hand-held altimeters, in addition to other
navigational tools such as a map, magnetic compass, or GPS receiver.

The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the
difference between the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter
and the atmospheric pressure obtained through the static system. It is adjustable for
local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude
readings. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand and the static pressure drops,
causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite effect occurs when
descending. With the advancement in aviation and increased altitude ceiling the
altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. Hence
when the needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360 degree operation of
the pointers was delineated by the appearance of a small window with oblique lines
warning the pilot that he is nearer to the ground. This modification was introduced in
the early sixties after the recurrence of air accidents caused by the confusion in the
pilot's mind. At higher altitudes the window will dis-appear.
Vertical Speed Indicator or Variometer


Variometer measure the rate of change of altitude by detecting the change in air
pressure (static pressure) as altitude changes. A simple Variometer can be constructed
by adding a large reservoir (a thermos bottle) to augment the storage capacity of a
common aircraft rate-of-climb instrument. In its simplest electronic form, the
instrument consists of an air bottle connected to the external atmosphere through a
sensitive air flow meter. As the aircraft changes altitude, the atmospheric pressure
outside the aircraft changes and air flows into or out of the air bottle to equalize the
pressure inside the bottle and outside the aircraft. The rate and direction of flowing
air is measured by the cooling of one of two self-heating thermistors and the
difference between the thermistor resistances will cause a voltage difference; this is
amplified and displayed to the pilot. The faster the aircraft is ascending (or
descending), the faster the air flows. Air flowing out of the bottle indicates that the
altitude of the aircraft is increasing. Air flowing into the bottle indicates that the
aircraft is descending.
Newer Variometer designs directly measure the static pressure of the atmosphere
using a pressure sensor and detect changes in altitude directly from the change in air
pressure instead of by measuring air flow. These designs tend to be smaller as they
do not need the air bottle. They are more reliable as there is no bottle to be affected
by changes in temperature and less chances for leaks to occur in the connecting
tubes.
The designs described above, which measure the rate of change of altitude by
automatically detecting the change in static pressure as the aircraft changes altitude
are referred to as "uncompensated" Variometer. The term "vertical speed indicator"
or "VSI" is most often used for the instrument when it is installed in a powered
aircraft. The term "Variometer" is most often used when the instrument is installed in
a glider or sailplane.
An "Inertia lead" VSI or ILVSI compensates for relative "g" forces experienced in a
turn (powered aircraft) and provides appropriate mechanical compensation to
remove otherwise erroneous indications of climb or descent.
Air Speed Indicator


The airspeed indicator or airspeed gauge is an instrument used in an aircraft to
display the craft's airspeed, typically in knots, to the pilot. In its simplest form, an ASI
measures the difference in pressure between that which is generally around the craft
and the increased pressure caused by propulsion. The needle tracks pressure
differential but the dial is marked off as airspeed.
Along with the altimeter and vertical speed indicator, the airspeed indicator is a
member of the pitot-static system of aviation instruments, so named because they
operate by measuring pressure in the pitot and static circuits.
Airspeed indicators work by measuring the difference between static pressure,
captured through one or more static ports; and stagnation pressure due to "ram air",
captured through a pitot tube. This difference in pressure due to ram air is called
impact pressure
The static ports are located on the exterior of the aircraft, at a location chosen to
detect the prevailing atmospheric pressure as accurately as possible, that is, with
minimum disturbance from the presence of the aircraft. Some aircraft have static
ports on both sides of the fuselage or empennage, in order to more accurately
measure static pressure during slips and skids. Aerodynamic slips and skids cause
either or both static ports and pitot tube(s) to present themselves to the relative wind
in other than basic forward motion. Thus, the alternative placements on some aircraft.
Icing is a problem for pitot tubes when the air temperature is below freezing and
visible moisture is present in the atmosphere, as when flying through cloud or
precipitation. Electrically heated pitot tubes are used to prevent ice forming over the
tube.
The airspeed indicator and altimeter will be rendered inoperative by blockage in the
static system. To avoid this problem, most aircraft intended for use in instrument
meteorological conditions are equipped with an alternate source of static pressure. In
unpressurised aircraft, the alternate static source is usually achieved by opening the
static pressure system to the air in the cabin. This is less accurate, but is still workable.
In pressurized aircraft, the alternate static source is a second set of static ports on the
skin of the aircraft, but at a different location to the primary source.


GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

Turn and Slip Indicator


The turn-and-slip indicator provides the only information of either wing's level or
bank attitude if the other gyroscopic instruments should fail. This indicator is
sometimes called the "needle and ball". This instrument, along with the airspeed
indicator, magnetic compass and altimeter, can assist the pilot in flying through
instrument weather conditions, even when it is the only gyro instrument operating.
The turn needle of the turn-and-bank indicator gives an indirect indication of the
bank attitude of the aircraft. When the turn needle is exactly centered, the aircraft is
in straight flight. When the needle is displaced from center, the aircraft is turning in
the direction of the displacement. Thus, if the ball is centered, a left displacement of
the turn needle means the left wing is low and the aircraft is in a left turn. Return to
straight flight is accomplished by coordinating aileron and rudder pressures.
The ball of the turn-and-bank indicator is actually a separate instrument, conveniently
located under the turn needle so the two instruments can be used together. This
instrument is best used as an indication of attitude. When the ball is centered within
its glass tube the maneuver is being executed in a coordinated manner. However, if
the ball is out of its center location, the aircraft is either slipping or skidding . The side
to which the ball has rolled indicates the direction of the slip or skid.
In a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the lack of centrifugal
force causes the ball to be displaced to the inside of the turn. (To correct, decrease
the angle of bank, or use rudder to increase the rate of turn, or both). In a skid the
rate of turn is too fast for the angle of bank, and excessive centrifugal force causes
the ball to be displaced to the outside of the turn. (To correct, increase the bank
angle, or use rudder to decrease the rate of turn, or both).
In coordinated flight, the needle may be used to measure the rate of turn; in a
"standard rate turn", the needle is aligned with the left or right marker (dog-house)
and the aircraft will turn at the rate of 3 per second or 180 in one minute. Hence, in
these conditions, the needle indicates both direction and rate of turn.
The answer to controlling and trimming an aircraft in straight and level flight by
means of the turn-and-bank indicator requires a return to basic control principles -
i.e., control yaw with the rudder and keep the wings level with aileron. Therefore,
when flying straight and level through the use of the turn-and-bank indicator,
prevent yawing with appropriate rudder pressure, and keep the wings level with
appropriate aileron pressure. The needle will not deflect while heading is constantly
maintained, since no turn exists.
In other words, control the ball with rudder since the ball moves parallel to a plane
passing through the rudder pedals, and control the needle with aileron since the
ailerons affect bank angle, a primary requirement for a normal turn.
It is important that both the needle and ball are used together. The problem
associated with using these instruments separately is that although the ball will
positively indicate that the aircraft is slipping or skidding, just which one of these the
aircraft is doing can only be determined by reference to the needle. Furthermore, the
needle will not positively indicate a bank attitude. An aircraft could be in a bank
attitude and yet the needle could remain centered or indicate a turn in the opposite
direction, if controls are not coordinated.
Heading Indicator

The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG; sometimes also called the
gyrocompass, though usually not in aviation applications) displays the aircraft's heading with
respect to magnetic north. Principle of operation is a spinning gyroscope, and is therefore
subject to drift errors (called precession) which must be periodically corrected by calibrating
the instrument to the magnetic compass. In many advanced aircraft (including almost all jet
aircraft), the heading indicator is replaced by a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) which
provides the same heading information, but also assists with navigation.
The heading indicator works using a gyroscope, tied to the aircraft horizontal, to establish an
inertial platform. As such, any configuration of the aircraft horizontal that does not match the
local Earth horizontal results in gimbal error, essentially leading to a variation in the
predictable "apparent" wander, known in this instance as drift. The heading indicator is
arranged so that only the horizontal axis is used to drive the display, which consists of a
circular compass card calibrated in degrees. The gyroscope is spun either electrically, or using
filtered air from a vacuum pump (sometimes a pressure pump in high altitude aircraft) driven
from the aircraft's engine. Because the Earth rotates (, 15 per hour), and because of small
accumulated errors caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro, the heading
indicator will drift over time, and must be reset from the compass periodically. The apparent
drift is predicted by sin Latitude and will thus be greatest over the poles. Another sort of
apparent drift exist in the form of transport wander, where aircraft movement will essentially
add or subtract to the effect of the Earth's rotation upon a gyroscope. To counter for the
effect of Earth rate drift a latitude nut can be set (on the ground only) which induces a
(hopefully equal and opposite) real wander in the gyroscope. Normal procedure is to realign
the direction indicator once each ten to fifteen minutes during routine in-flight checks.
Failure to do this is a common source of navigation errors among new pilots.
Altitude Indicator

The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's relation
to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level and if the
aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument for
instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to
use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.
Attitude indicators use a gyroscope (powered via vacuum pump or electrical motor)
to establish an inertial platform. The gyroscope is geared to a display that has two
dimensions of freedom, simultaneously displaying pitch and bank. The display may
be colored to indicate the horizon as the division between the two colored segments
(typically blue for sky and brown for ground), and is intended to be intuitive to use.
The actual bank angle is calibrated around the circumference of the instrument. The
pitch angle is indicated by a series of calibration lines, each representing 5 or 10 of
pitch depending on design.
The instrument may develop small "precession" errors, in pitch indication during
extended periods of acceleration or deceleration and, in bank indication during
extended periods in a turn, caused by the mechanism that normally keeps the gyro
rotor properly erected. These errors develop very slowly (usually at not more than 2
or 3 degrees per minute) and are not significant in normal flying. Some attitude
indicators can only tolerate a specific range of bank angles. If the aircraft rolls too
steeply or achieves an extreme pitch attitude while performing aerobatics, for
example the attitude indicator can "tumble" (or "topple") and become temporarily
unusable. For this reason, some attitude indicators are fitted with a "caging
mechanism" (a device to restore the gyroscope to an erect position). Some attitude
indicators can be manually erected once the airplane is in level flight using the caging
mechanism. Most modern instruments are designed to tolerate 360 degrees of
rotation in pitch and roll without tumbling, although periods of violent aerobatics
may tumble any gyro horizon. Once tumbled, an instrument without a caging
mechanism may not be able to re-erect itself until power is removed and the aircraft
is in a level pitch and roll attitude for a long enough period that the gyro rotor comes
to a stop.
Attitude and Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) are able to provide three-axis
information that can be shared with multiple devices in the aircraft, such as "glass
cockpit" primary flight displays (PFDs). Rather than using a spinning rotor for the
horizon reference, modern AHRS use 3-dimension magnetometers and
accelerometers to detect the airplane's pitch and roll attitude, with no moving parts.
AHRS have been proven to be highly reliable and are in wide use in commercial and
business aircraft. Recent advances in MEMS manufacturing have brought the price of
FAA-certified AHRS down to less than $15,000,making them practical for general
aviation aircraft. With most AHRS systems, if an aircraft's AIs have failed there will be
a standby AI located in the center of the instrument panel, where other standby basic
instruments such as the airspeed indicator and altimeter are also available. These
mostly mechanical standby instruments may be available even if the electronic flight
instruments fail, though the standby attitude indicator may be electrically driven and
will, after a short time, fail if its electrical power fails.

Fuel Measurement
Fuel measurement is done by probes dipped in fuel and these probes are high level
and low level pressure of oil tank.



Fuel Content Gauge Probe
Conclusion

By this report and study of this, which concludes that Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited, is one of the most significant aircraft manufacturer
and developer of India and making India self-reliant in the fields of
aerospace and aircrafts, which tending towards the boom of Indian self-
designed aircrafts and helicopters.
And by no means had Hindustan Aeronautics limited, Accessories
Division, Lucknow, playing vital and magnificent role to make H.A.L. more
prosperous as well as India.
This report also concludes that instruments which are using in cockpit is
very essential to an aircraft, because it helps pilot to fly aircraft more
precisely.
Bibliography

http://hal-india.com/aircraftdivisionbangalore.asp
http://hal-india.com/products.asp
http://hal-india.com/accessoriesdivision.asp
http://hal-india.com/aircraftdivisionnasik.asp
http://www.slideshare.net
http://www.wikipedia.org