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FHEL1012
English For Academic Study
Lecture 10
Exploring Arguments
What is an argument? What is an argument?
What is an argument?
In eeryday li!e" people o!ten use #argument# to mean a
$uarrel %et&een people'
eg( #an argument %ro)e out at a %ar# or
#I *ust had a huge argument &ith my parents
a%out my grades#'
+ut" an argument is a claimde!ended &ith reasons'
,-e!er to +asshamp.0/
An argument is a set o! #claims#" or #statements#'
0ne o! the claims is singled out !or special attention'
We call it the #conclusion#' 1he remaining claims are
called the #premises#'
1he premises are interpreted as o!!ering reasons to
%eliee or accept the conclusion'
2remises
3onclusion S4220-1
What is an argument? 5 contd'
http://www.criticalthinkeracademy.com/what-is-an-argument.html
1o gie an argument(
is to proide a set o! premises as
reasons !or accepting the conclusion
is not necessarily to attac) or critici6e
someone
is to support other people7s ie&points
http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/arg/arg.php
What is an argument? 5 contd' For example(
I! you &ant to !ind a good *o%"
you should &or) hard'
8ou do &ant to !ind a good *o%'
So you should &or) hard'
1o gie this argument is to o!!er the
premises as reasons !or accepting the
conclusion'
Premise 1
Premise 2
Conclusion
http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/arg/arg.php
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9istinguishing %et&een
strong and &ea) argument
Strong s Wea) Argument
S1-0:;
I! all the premises are true"
the conclusion !ollo&s &ith high pro%a%ility'
WEA<
I! all the premises are true"
the conclusion !ollo&s neither &ith certainty
nor &ith high pro%a%ility'
Steps5
Steps to determine a strong and &ea) argument(
1' Assume all the premises are true" een i! one
or more is clearly !alse'
2' 4sing only the in!ormation in the premises
plus common )no&ledge as)( What is the
probability that the conclusion is true?
A%oe =0>( Strong Argument
=0> or Less( Wea) Argument
Examples 5
Example 1
All recording artists hae talent'
+ritney Spears is a recording artist'
Hence" +ritney has talent'
Examples 5
Example 2
+ritney Spears is a recording artist'
+ritney has %londe hair'
Hence" most recording artists hae %londe hair'
Examples 5
Example 2
=0> o! humans are !emale'
3hris is a human'
Hence" 3hris is a !emale'
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Examples 5
Example 2
All humans hae 9:A'
?ohn is a human'
Hence" ?ohn has 9:A'
Ealuating Arguments
When is an argument a good one?
When ealuation an argument(
1' Find the argument@s conclusion and then its
premises'
2' Are the premises true?
.' 9o the premises proide conclusie support !or the
conclusion?
What a Agood argumentB 90ES :01 mean
CCAagrees &ith my ie&sB Aagrees &ith my ie&sB
1he attitude that only arguments that agree &ith your
ie&points are good is extremely closeCminded'
CCApersuasie argumentB Apersuasie argumentB
2eople can %e persuaded %y Aelo$uent speechB and %e
con!used or misled'
CCA&ell A&ellCC&rittenDspo)enB &rittenDspo)enBCC
Although it is easier to tell &hether an argument is
good i! it is &ell &ritten" %eing &ell &ritten does not
ma)e it good' 3larity" elo$uence and organi6ation can
all occur in the presence o! logical mista)es'
Ealuating Arguments
Unless we do something about the massive
AIDS epidemic in Africa, the whole continent
will be decimated within six months.
Unfortunately, we wont do anything about
the AIDS epidemic in Africa. It necessarily
follows that the whole of Africa will be
decimated within six months.
When ealuation an argument(
1' Find the argument@s conclusion and then its
premises'
2' Are the premises true?
.' 9o the premises proide conclusie support !or the
conclusion?
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Ealuating Arguments
This week, under pressure from the American Civil
Liberties Union, the school board rescinded its
policy of allowing school-sponsored public prayers
at football games. All the school board members
agreed that with the policy change. And a memo
from the board was circulated to all students,
teachers, coaches declaring that there will be no
more public prayers at football games. Lets face
it, the days of public prayers in schools are over!
When ealuation an argument(
1' Find the argument@s conclusion and then its
premises'
2' Are the premises true?
.' 9o the premises proide conclusie support !or the
conclusion?
Supporting 8our 2oints E Supporting 8our 2oints E
Explaining -easons Explaining -easons
1. Using facts! including data that ha"e #een o#$ecti"ely pro"ed
and are generally accepted. %uch as! historical &acts! scienti&ic
data! statistics and so &orth.
2. Using examples! the e'amples should #e typical (and )*+,-.
/ selected &rom a su&&icient num#er o& e'amples to pro"e the
case0 applica#le and accepta#le e'amples.
3. Using opinions of experts to help support your point.
1,'pert: a person who is particularly knowledgea#le a#out a
topic due to his or her pro&ession! research or e'perience2.
3ou will need to use proper 4uotation and citation &ormat.
Opinion: The best anti-virus software by
Jackie Chan. Is Jackie Chan an expert in
antivirus software?
,'ample o& reasons o& support and against
a topic.
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Pro Con
a. )hese plants are more resistant to
disease.
a. 6t is not pro"en that these &oods
are sa&e! as harm&ul side e&&ects could
appear in the &uture.
#. )he &ood produced &rom such
plants is slower to spoil.
#. )hese modi&ied plants could e"ol"e
or mutate into pro#lematic "arieties
that we cannot control.
c. )he &ood industry can make higher
pro&its and &eed people more
e&&iciently i& the production o& these
&ood is encouraged.
c. Promoting production o& these
&ruits and "egeta#les encourages a#
unsustaina#le approach to &arming
and agriculture.
d. People ha"e #een #reeding #etter
plants &or thousands o& years0 this is
$ust a &aster way to do the same
thing.
d. Promoting genetically modi&ied
plants makes it more di&&icult &or
small-scale &armers &rom poor
countries to compete in the
agriculture #usiness.
Ho& to loo) !or arguments?
C 3onnecties and signals
Ho& to loo) !or arguments?
Ho& do &e identi!y arguments in real li!e?
no easy mechanical rules
usually hae to rely on the context
in order to determine &hich are the
premises and the conclusions'
+ut sometimes the *o% can %e made easier %y
the presence o! certain premise or conclusion
indicators'
Ho& to loo) !or arguments? 5 contd'
For example"
3utting the interest rate &ill hae no e!!ect on the stoc)
mar)et this time round %ecause people hae %een
expecting a rate cut all along' 1his !actor has already
%een re!lected in the mar)et'
1he &ord A%ecauseB indicates that the !irst
statement is presented as a conclusion"
supported %y the statements that come
a!ter&ards'
Ho& to loo) !or arguments? 5 contd'
For example"
So it is raining heaily and this %uilding might collapse'
+ut I don7t really care'
:ot an argument'
Although the !irst statement starts &ith #so#
it does not indicate a conclusion'
3onnecties and signals C 2remise
Since
+ecause
!orD!or one thing
!or the reason that
!ollo&s !rom
inasmuch as
as sho&n %y
gien that
seeing that
o&ing to
seeing that
asDas indicated %y
assuming that
considering that
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3onnecties and signals C 3onclusion
there!ore
hence
thusDergo
so
!ollo&s that
conse$uently
&hich entails that
&hich proes that
&hich implies that
necessarily
must %e the case that
&hich means that
demonstrates that
&e can conclude that
as a result
1' Identity' Indicates sameness'
that is, in other words
2' 0pposition' Indicates a contrast'
but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though,
although, whereas, in contrast, rather, ...
.' Addition' Indicates continuation'
and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition,
besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly,
a similar, the same, ...
3onnecties and signals
F' Indicates resultDconse$uence(
therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result,
hence, it follows that, because, since, for, as...
=' 30:3ESSI0: ( Indicates &illingness to consider the other side'
admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally,
some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that,
once it was believed, there are those who would say
=' Exempli!ication( Indicates a shi!t !rom a more general or a%stract
idea to a more speci!ic or concrete idea'
for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even,
indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific,
that is, to illustrate, truly ...
3onnecties and signals
-e!uting Argument
-e!uting an argument
Sho& that at least one o! the premises is
du%ious'
Sho& that the argument is not alid or
strong'
Sho& that the conclusion does not !ollo&
!rom the premises'
1' Sho& that a premise C or a critical
group o! premisesGis !alse'
Example(
All human %eings hae 9:A'
A ro%ot has 9:A'
So" a ro%ot has 9:A'
?ust noting that the second premise is !alse" is
enough to re!ute the argument' +ecause the
premise is !alse" the argument !ails to proide
good reason to accept the conclusion'
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2' SH0W 1HA1 A 2-EHISE C 0- A
3-I1I3AL ;-042 0F 2-EHISES C IS
94+I04S'
1he last suriing dinosaur &as a 1riceratops' 1he last suriing dinosaur &as a 1riceratops'
1riceratops had horns' 1riceratops had horns'
So" the last suriing dinosaur had horns' So" the last suriing dinosaur had horns'
1he &ea) point o! this argument is the !irst premise I
the claim that the last suriing dinosaur &as a
1riceratops' :oCone is sure &hat species o! dinosaur
&as the last suriing one' So the premise does not
proide good reason to accept the conclusion'
.' SH0W 1HA1 1HE 30:3L4SI0: 90ES :01
F0LL0W F-0H 1HE 2-EHISES'
Sho& that the argument is poorly reasoned %y sho&ing
that the conclusion does not !ollo& strictly !rom the
premises ,deductiely inalid / or the conclusion does
not !ollo& pro%a%ly !rom the premises ,inductiely
&ea)/'
e'g' All humans are dogs' ,!alse premise/
Lassie is a human' ,!alse premise/
1here!ore" Lassie is a dog' ,true conclusion/
-e!uting an argument
%tand: )he current education system has &ailed to
produce relia#le work&orce to the nation.
*eason 1: )he &ocus is more on academic
e'cellence rather than practical application.
*eason 2: 8or the sake o& &airness and e4uality!
students with di&&erent a#ilities are measured
using the same e'ams and tests.
-e!ute
9#$ection: 6t is argued that the current education system
has #oosted the image o& nation #y pro$ecting a higher
literacy rate.
*eason &or o#$ection: )his is supported #y national
consensus data which stated that there is an increase #y
37: in terms o& literacy rate compared to the year 2003.
*e&ute: ;owe"er! a higher literacy rate does not re&lect a
relia#le work&orce as an indi"idual with academic
e'cellence does not always e'cel in applying what he/she
has learned in real-li&e. <esides! academic e'cellence is
measured on per&ormance on a piece o& paper! not on
reality.
Argumentatie Essay
;eneral Statements
Thesis Statement
2aragraph 1
1opic Sentence 1
Supporting detail ,i/
Supporting detail ,ii/
3oncluding Sentence
2aragraph 2
1opic Sentence 1
Supporting detail ,i/
Supporting detail ,ii/
3oncluding Sentence
3oncession
-e!uting Argument
-ea!!irm your stand
-estate your points %rie!ly
2aragraph =
2aragraph F
2aragraph .
Introduction
+ody
3onclusion
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Ho& to &rite an argumentatie
essay
C A 4niersity in Eery 1o&n
Introduction
;eneral Statements
1hesis Statement ,stand stand II Agree D 9isagree Agree D 9isagree/
A 4niersity in Eery 1o&n
1he goernment is planning to open ne& uniersities in
eery to&n !or the deelopment o! the country' Ho&eer"
there are existing uniersities that are &restling &ith
!inancial and academic di!!iculties' So" it does not seem to
%e a good idea to add ne& uniersities to the system o!
higher education'
+ody C 2aragraph 2
1opic Sentence
Supporting detail 1
Supporting detail 2
3oncluding Sentence
A 4niersity in Eery 1o&n
Firstly" the ne& uniersities &ill experience sta!!ing
pro%lems' 1his is due to the num%er o! academicians &ho
meet the academic re$uirements in the country is limited'
:e& uniersities &ill hae to either dra& !rom the
existing pool or employ under $uali!ied people' Hence"
this &ill lead to a drop in the $uality o! education'
+ody C 2aragraph .
1opic Sentence
Supporting detail 1
Supporting detail 2
3oncluding Sentence
A 4niersity in Eery 1o&n
Secondly" small to&n uniersities &ill hae !inancial
di!!iculties' 1he !unds allocated to them %y the state &ill
not %e enough to %uild !romscratch all the !acilities such
as tutorial rooms" lecture halls" ca!eterias" sports
!acilities" la%s etc' Ho& many ne& uniersities can claim
to hae only a !e& o! these !acilities on their campuses?
1he result &ill %e a small to&n #uniersity# &hich
consists o! a sole %uilding that houses classrooms and
o!!ices" and nothing more'
+ody C 2aragraph F
3oncessionC J;ood side o! opposing ie& ,a/K
-e!uting Argument I Jre!ute %y sho&ing that ,a/
argument is not as strong
as your argumentsK
A 4niersity in Eery 1o&n A 4niersity in Eery 1o&n
+ody C 2aragraph F
3oncession
-e!uting Argument
It is argued that the esta%lishment o! a uniersity in a
deeloping to&n &ill contri%ute to the deelopment o!
local culture" community and economy' Ho&eer" i! a
uniersity is &restling &ith sta!! recruitment pro%lems"
or i! it cannot sole its !inancial di!!iculties it means that
it cannot %e o! any help to the local community or
economy either' It &ill only employ a !e& locals" proide
su%standard education to a !e& local youth" and it &ill
not !ul!il the aim!or &hich it &as initially esta%lished'
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3onclusion
-ea!!irm your stand
Summari6e your points %rie!ly
-emem%er( :o ne& ideas should %e included
A 4niersity in Eery 1o&n
Hence" it does not seem to %e a good idea to add ne&
uniersities to the system o! higher education %ecause
uniersities are institutions o! higher education and they
need to proide education to satis!y certain standards'
)ry any one o& this argumentati"e essay
4uestions (outline only)! in pairs.
1. College students should ha"e the &reedom to choose
their own courses.
2. )his country should ha"e tighter control o"er
immigration rate.
3. ? #asic core curriculum o& li#eral arts courses should
#e re4uired &or all students graduating &rom college.