DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF

AUTOMATED TRUCK CABIN SUSPENSION SYSTEM

ABSTRACT

The suspension system is used to isolate the chassis from the shock loads due to
irregularities of the road surface. This must be handled without impairing the stability,
steering or general handling of the vehicle. Suspension system for the cab is placed
between the chassis using bolts. The loads coming from the floor and the chassis are taken
by the suspension.

The model is simplified in Ansys by using the preprocessor. Constraint equations and
couples are used to connect various regions of the suspension system. The loads are applied
on the top flange of the suspension system.

Static analysis is made to study the deflection of the suspension system. Modal
analysis is made to check the natural frequencies. Harmonic analysis is also done to plot
various graphs between frequency and amplitude. Results and discussions are made from the
results obtained from the Ansys and conclusions are given and scope for future work is also given.












CHAPTER-1




INTRODUCTION TO SUSPENSION SYSTEM

















INTRODUCTION
The complete suspension system is to isolate the vehicle body from road shocks and vibrations
which would otherwise be transferred to the passengers and load. It must also keep the tires in
contact with the road, regardless of road surface. A basic suspension system consists of springs,
axles, shock absorbers, arms, rods, and ball joints. The spring is the flexible component of the
suspension. Basic types are leaf springs, coil springs, and torsion bars.
Modern passenger vehicles usually use light coil springs. Light commercial vehicles have heavier
springs than passenger vehicles, and can have coil springs at the front and leaf springs at the rear.
Heavy commercial vehicles usually use leaf springs, or air suspension.
Solid, or beam, axles connect the wheels on each side of the vehicle. This means the movement of a
wheel on one side of the vehicle is transferred to the wheel on the other side. With independent
suspension, the wheels can move independently of each other, which reduces body movement. This
prevents the other wheel being affected by movement of the wheel on the opposite side, and this
reduces body movement.

PRINCIPLE OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM







The suspension system isolates the body from road shocks and vibrations which would otherwise be
transferred to the passengers and load. It also must keep the tires in contact with the road. When a
tire hits an obstruction, there is a reaction force. The size of this reaction force depends on the
unsprung mass at each wheel assembly. The sprung mass is that part of the vehicle supported by the
springs - such as the body, the frame, the engine, and associated parts.
Unsprung mass includes the components that follow the road contours, such as wheels, tires, brake
assemblies, and any part of the steering and suspension not supported by the springs. Vehicle ride
and handling can be improved by keeping unsprung mass as low as possible. When large and heavy
wheel assemblies encounter a bump or pothole, they experience a larger reaction force, sometimes
large enough to make the tire lose contact with the road surface. Wheel and brake units that are
small, and light, follow road contours without a large effect on the rest of the vehicle. At the same
time, a suspension system must be strong enough to withstand loads imposed by vehicle mass
during cornering, accelerating, braking, and uneven road surfaces.
When a wheel strikes a bump, there is a reaction force, and energy is transferred to the spring which
makes it oscillate. Oscillations left uncontrolled can cause loss of traction between the wheel and the
road surface. Shock absorbers dampen spring oscillations by forcing oil through small holes. The oil
heats up, as it absorbs the energy of the motion. This heat is then transferred through the body of the
shock absorber to the air.
When a vehicle hits an obstruction, the size of the reaction force depends on how much unsprung
mass is at each wheel assembly. Sprung mass refers to those parts of the vehicle supported on the
springs. This includes the body, the frame, the engine, and associated parts.
Unsprung mass includes the wheels, tires, brake assemblies, and suspension parts not supported by
the springs. Vehicle ride and handling is improved by keeping unsprung mass as low as possible.
Wheel and brake units that are small and light follow the road contours without a large effect on the
rest of the vehicle.








CLASSIFICATIONS OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM


CLASSIFICATION OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM


INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION









One of the main benefits claimed for independent suspension is that unsprung mass can be kept low.
Also, if a wheel on one side hits a road irregularity, it wont upset the wheel on the other side on the
same axle. And it allows wheel camber to be adjusted individually, when provided for by the
manufacturer. One of the simplest, and most common, independent suspension systems is the
McPherson strut type. It can be used on the front and rear of the vehicle.
It consists of a spring and shock absorber unit called a strut. The lower end of the strut is located by
a ball joint, fitted to the end of the suspension control arm. Its upper end is located in a molded
rubber mounting. If the unit is on the front, the upper mounting includes a bearing to allow the
complete strut to rotate with the steering. A tension rod, or stay bar, extends from the body sub-
frame, to the outer end of the control arm. This maintains the location of the control arm during
braking, and accelerating.
In this front-wheel-drive suspension, the control arm is a wishbone shape with 2 widely-spaced
mounting points. This prevents backward and forward movement, so a tension rod is not needed.
Wishbones can also be used in a parallel link system. They can be used in pairs with the coil spring
between the lower wishbone, and the suspension cross-member. Alternatively, the upper link may
be a wishbone, with the coil spring mounted above, combined with a single-pivot lower link, located
by a tension rod. On some vehicles, a torsion bar provides the springing medium. The torsion bar is
attached at the inner fulcrum point of the wishbone, or control arm. As the suspension is deflected, it
twists around its centre.

It can be fitted to the upper, or the lower link, depending on the type of vehicle. The upper link is
shorter than the lower one - irrespective of the springing method used. When the suspension is
deflected, the unequal lengths allow the track of the vehicle to be maintained near constant, but with
some changes to camber angle. Generally, when the car leans during cornering, the inner wheel
leans outwards at the top, and the outer wheel leans inwards. This helps to maintain maximum tire
contact with the road surface.


REAR INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION









The kind of independent suspension used on the rear of a vehicle depends in part on whether it is
front-wheel-drive, or rear-wheel-drive. If it is front-wheel-drive, it may use a McPherson strut
system at the rear, similar to the front suspension system. There is normally no steering on the rear
wheels, so there is no need for the bearing in the upper mounting. On rear-wheel-drive vehicles, the
suspension arrangement has to allow for the external drive shafts to transfer the drive to the wheels.
The final drive assembly is normally fixed to a cross-member, and since it must absorb the torque
reaction, it must be secure. Drive shafts, either with conventional or constant velocity joints,
transmit the drive to the wheels. When conventional universal joints are used, each drive shaft may
have a splined-section to accommodate changes in shaft length, due to changes in wheel camber,
with suspension action. However, the drive shaft itself can be used as the upper link of the
suspension, providing the pivot point. The splined-section is unnecessary, and the shaft can be made
as a one-piece. As with the front suspension, the lower link has widely-spaced pivots to provide
stability, and the unequal-length links maintain the track nearly constant, although, with deflection,
some camber change does occur.
In some designs, the wheel units are located at the outer ends of semi-trailing arms. The arms are
attached to their cross-member pivot-points by rubber bushes, and constant-velocity joints are used
at each end of the external drive shafts.






TYPES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS

TYPES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS

COIL SPRINGS

TORSION BARS

RUBBER SPRINGS

LEAF SPRINGS

COIL SPRINGS





Coil springs are used on the front suspension of most modern light vehicles, and in many cases, they
have replaced leaf springs in the rear suspension. A coil spring is made from a single length of
special wire, which is heated and wound on a former, to produce the required shape. The load-
carrying ability of the spring depends on the diameter of the wire, the overall diameter of the spring,
its shape, and the spacing of the coils. And this also decides which vehicle it is suitable for. A light
commercial vehicle has springs that are robust and fairly stiff.
On a small passenger car, they are lighter, and more flexible. The coils may be evenly spaced, or of
uniform pitch, or unevenly spaced. The wire can be the same thickness throughout, or it may taper
towards the end of the spring. The spring itself may be cylindrical, barrel-shaped, or conical.
Generally, a cylindrical spring, with uniform diameter wire, and uniform pitch, has a constant
deflection rate. Its length reduces in direct proportion to the load applied.
When the pitch is varied, the deflection rate varies too. The spring is then said to have a progressive
rate of deflection. Similarly for varying wire diameter and the shape. A spring with a progressive
rate deflects readily under a light load, but increases its resistance as the load increases. This gives a
softer ride. As conical and barrel-shaped springs compress, they collapse into themselves. This gives
a longer suspension travel for the length of the spring, than for a cylindrical spring. This gives a
softer ride for light-load situations, and a harder ride for heavy load situations.
As a cylindrical coil compresses, it can become coil-bound, which limits its travel. Coil springs can
look alike but give very different load ratings, which are often color coded for identification. They
normally use rubber pads to prevent transmission of noise and vibration

TORSION BARS










A torsion bar is a long, alloy-steel bar, fixed rigidly to the chassis or sub-frame, at one end, and to
the suspension control arm at the other. The bar is fitted to the control arm in the unloaded
condition, and as the control arm is raised, the bar twists around its center, which places it under a
torsion load. When the vehicle is placed on the road, with the control arm connected to the
suspension assembly, the bar supports the vehicle load, and twists around its center, to provide the
springing action. Spring rate depends on the length of the bar, and its diameter. The shorter and
thicker the bar, the stiffer its spring rate.
Torsion bars can be used across the chassis frame on the same principle, in a trailing arm
suspension, or as part of the connecting link between two axle assemblies, on a semi-rigid axle
beam. After a lot of use, a torsion bar can sag. On many vehicles, it can be adjusted to allow for this.
It is used in light vehicles as a stabilizer, or anti-roll bar, connected between each side of the
suspension on the front, and sometimes the rear.
When the vehicle is turning, centrifugal force acts on the body, and tends to make it lean outwards.
The anti-roll bar, or stabilizer, tries to use its connections to each side of the suspension, to resist this
roll tendency.


RUBBER SPRINGS











Rubber is used in most suspension systems as bump and rebound stops. If the suspension reaches its
limit of travel, these stops prevent direct metal-to-metal contact, which reduces jarring of the body
of the vehicle. The stops can also be shaped to provide an auxiliary springing function, increasing
their resistance progressively with suspension contact. Some vehicles use rubber as the main
springing medium. This rubber cone is this vehicles main suspension member.
Increasing the load on the suspension causes the cone to act like a spring being deformed. When the
load is removed, the rubbers elastic properties tend to return it to its original state. Rubber has a
number of advantages. It doesnt need to be lubricated, it can be made into any shape, as required,
and its silent during use


LEAF SPRING


LEAF SPRINGS
The leaf spring is one of the oldest forms of springing. It is usually used on rear-wheel-drive
vehicles because its simplicity. They can be mounted longitudinally. Leaf springs consist of one or
more flat springs, made of tempered steel. A number of leaves of different length are used to form a
multi-leaf spring. They are held together by a center bolt that passes through a hole in the center of
each leaf. It is also used to locate the axle on the spring. The axle is then clamped to the spring by
U-bolts that wrap around the axle housing, and through a spring plate underneath the spring.
Rebound clips are formed at intervals around the leaves. They prevent excessive flexing of the main
leaf during rebound, and also keep the leaves in alignment. The longest leaf called the main leaf, is
rolled at both ends to form eyes. These eyes are used to mount the spring to the frame of the vehicle.
Some springs have the ends of the second leaf rolled around the eyes of the main leaf, as
reinforcement. This leaf is called the wrap leaf.
The front of the spring is attached to a rigid spring hanger on the vehicle frame. The rear is
connected to the frame by a swinging shackle, which provides a link between the spring eye and a
bracket on the sub-frame. This swinging link is needed, because, as the spring flexes, and flattens
out under load, the distance between the spring eyes increases.
Some springs have inserts between the leaves, of plastic, nylon, or rubber. They act as insulators, to
reduce noise transfer, and friction as the leaves move under load. Some older vehicles completely
enclose the leaf springs in grease. The spring eyes are fitted with bushes, usually with a rubber,
flexible section, but nylon and urethane bushes are also used, and sometimes bronze for heavy duty
applications. Rubber insulating pads between the spring mounting pad and the spring also act as
insulators and similarly, between the spring plate and the spring.
The spring forms a flexible suspension unit that locates the axle housing longitudinally and laterally.
It can sustain the torque reaction on acceleration and the braking torque during deceleration, and the
driving thrust is transferred through the front half of the spring to the fixed shackle point.


TYPES OF LEAF SPRING
Several designs of leaf springs are employed on automobiles. They are
Semi-elliptic and quarter-elliptic (or cantilever) type leaf springs.
Longitudinally and transversely located type leaf springs.
Tapered and progressive (or helper) type leaf springs. Among these, the semi-elliptic
leaf springs are most common


SEMI-ELLIPTICAL LEAF SPRING

A semi-elliptic leaf spring along with its connections is shown in below figure. As the name itself
implies, the leaf spring is made-up of a number of steel leaves. Each leaf is of different length but of
equal width and thickness. The uppermost longest leaf having bushes at its two ends, is called
master leaf. One of its ends is directly connected to a side member of the frame through a
gusset plate. While the other end is attached on the frame via a shackle. This end of the master leaf
is known as spring eye end






semi-elliptical leaf






QUARTER - ELLIPTIC LEAF SPRING

This is also known as cantilever type leaf spring since its one end is fixed on the side member of the
frame, and the other end is freely connected to the front axle. In such springs the camber is provided
in upward side so that the leaves tend to straighten when the front axle beam is subjected to shock
load.







Quarter-elliptic leaf spring





TRANSVERSELY MOUNTED SEMI-ELLIPTIC INVERTED LEAF SPRING
In this arrangement, a semi-elliptic leaf spring is mounted transversely i.e. along the width of the
vehicle. The springs are placed inverted such that the longest leaf is located on the bottom. The
specialty of this arrangement is the use of two shackles. This arrangement could not become
popular due to increased rolling tendency produced in the vehicle. This tendency
is more when the vehicle runs faster at the sharp turns.



TAPER LEAF SPRING
The leaf springs discussed till now are equipped with leaves of constant cross-section
throughout their lengths. Such leaves may be called conventional leaves and the springs as
conventional leaf springs. Different from them is the development of a new kind of leaf spring
which consists of a single leaf having varying cross-section. Such spring is termed as tapered leaf
spring or taperlite spring. These are of parabolic profile. They are prestressed before
use, therefore they can with stand higher than normal stresses







Taper leaf spring










HELPER SPRING (PROGRESSIVE SPRING)

Many heavy commercial vehicles are provided with an auxiliary leaf spring in addition to the main
leaf spring. It is done so as to combine the soft suspension with adequate resistance to heavy loads.
It is mounted above the main leaf spring. The helper spring is cambered while the main spring is of
flat type.





Helper spring
The helper spring performs no functions until the main spring is loaded beyond the flat stage(i.e. it
acquires negative camber). When the vehicle is lightly loaded, the load is shared by mainspring
only. But in case of heavy load, the helper spring comes into operation and shares the load on the
vehicle. In that case, the upward deflection of the main spring is transfers load to the
helper spring. The combination of helper spring and main spring is known as progressive spring.


THREE QUARTER ( FULL ELLIPTIC TYPE) LEAF SPRING

The three quarter elliptical spring is clamped to the axle in the usual manner. One end is bolted to
the frame, the other being rigidly held by spring clips to the frame. A spring shackle holds the two
members of the spring together, allowing enough movement to compensate for the elongation of the
main leaves when the spring is compressed. The full elliptical spring is attached rigidly to both : the
axle and the frame in usual manner. Spring shackles are not necessary, since both top and bottom
members will elongate by the same amount when compressed








Three quarter, full elliptic type leaf spring

MATERIALS FOR LEAF SPRING

Materials for leaf spring are not as good as that for the helical spring. Plain carbon steel, Chromium vanadium steel,
Chromium- Nickel- Molybdenum steel, Silicon- manganese steel, are the typical materials that are used in the design
of leaf springs

LEAF SPRINGS MANUFACTURING PROCESS
With years of experience in the industry, Leafsprings.co.uk has gained the much required
proficiency to guide you in your selection of the appropriate leaf springs for your vehicle. No
matter, whether you want leaf springs for heavy or light goods vehicles, Trucks, Locomotives, Lorry
and Bus leaf springs, Vintage car leaf springs or Farm trailer Leaf springs, you will find it all at
Leafsprings.co.uk, at quite affordable prices.


MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF LEAF SPRINGS









Step-1: By identifying your specific requirements, our sales department firstly picks up the
appropriate specification sheet, which is then issued to the production team to proceed with the
manufacturing process. We give a unique reference number to each specification sheet so that we
can track the process all through the working life cycle of sundry item or spring.








Step 2: Spring steel to BS970 is then cut off along the length and made to go through required
operations incorporating eye-forming, nibbing, beating, taper-rolling and wrapping. Then, the leaves
are heated up at temperature 1000 to 1, 0500 C, oil quenched in order to provide the temperature
8900C, or above. Once the draining is done, they are re heated at about 500 to 5600C so as to obtain
the Brinell solidity reading of 356 to 440 HBS 10/3000, before the closing alterations are made to
give adequate arc and shape.






Step 3: When assembling the entire unit, the required components including center bolts, clips and
bushes are added. The final unit manufactured is again evaluated against the specifications given in
specs sheet. To complete the spring, it is coated with a protective covering, and then goes through
final inspection according to quality control standards







tep 4: The Locomotive Springs also implement the similar manufacturing course, but are made
according to BR 148 and BR 166.


CHAPTER-2



SPRINGS TERMS

Axis: It is a straight line that traverses the central point of any object.

Active Coil: It is a coil in the coil-spring that deflects or moves under load

Beam Spring: A simple type of spring that is made of a flat, smaller metal piece and is
mainly put into use in several automotive applications including suspension system. It is
sometimes also known as leaf springs or flat springs.

Buckling: It is a kind of damage to coil-compression spring in which the unit is distorted
permanently after attaining rock-hard compression on account of working under heavier
loads than it is able to hold out. Buckling actually appears just like side -ways deflection.

Clash Allowance: This term refers to the amount of room available between the units
solidity height under maximum loads and solid-compression height. Coil-compression
springs are usually designed with ten percent difference between solid compression and
maximum load-height to evade coil clash.

Chassis: It actually refers to the framing of equipment, such as clothes or car washer.

Deflection: It is the degree of adjustments in shape on the application of the force.
Springs turn aside and alter their shape so as to take up forces.

Dampen: Dampen means lessening the application of force. Spring units in auto
suspension systems damp forces when vehicle runs into road bumps.

End Coils: These are end coils in coil spring units that are utilized to fasten springs to
machine. They can also be squared to increase the strength.

Flat Spring: It is a simple spring unit made of flat, small piece of metal, and is utilized
in automotive applications. Flat spring is also called leaf springs and beam springs.

Foot pounds: It is basically a torque measuring unit, used in the English system.

Free Length: It is a variable required when placing order for springs, and represents the
length of spring under no-load.

Inch Pounds: It is also a unit that is employed to gauge torque.

Kinetic Energy: The energy which is in motion is usually called kinetic energy. In
relation to springs, it is the energy which the spring discharges when coming back to
original shape, upon deflection.

Load/Load rate: The force which is applied to any structure or material is called load.
Springs take up and release energy from load. The rate at which force is applied to a
module is called load rate.

Mechanical device: This is the device that works by producing motion and force.
Springs are considered mechanical devices as they exert and react to a motion and force.

Mechanical system: It refers to the grouping of many components working together so
as to do useful work. Leaf springs are often employed in mechanical systems for
storing energy or humidifying forces.

Multi Leaf Springs: These springs are made by grouping several metal pieces. They can
humidify friction, but are able to accept force in one-direction only.

Overload stop: It is basically a circumstance in which end-coils of compression spring
stop supporting machine because the unit is overloaded and cannot operate. Overload
stop is an imperative safety measure because it can evade machine damage and injury.

Pre-loading: The method utilized by manufacturers to improve the operating abilities of
coil springs is called preloading. It incorporates creating a relatively longer spring and
applying a certain amount of force before being delivered to customers.

Set: It is a kind of permanent distortion and occurs when springs are subjected to
unacceptable high-load conditions. A compression spring must not experience more than
2% set.

Shear strength: It refers to the ability of a material to stop forces that try to make it
deformed permanently. Too much sheer twist can even cause the spring to break down.

Shearing: The damages that occur when springs break due to the application of heavy
loads causing upright strain or excess transverse are called shearing.

Shock Load: This load characterizes a huge amount of load and extreme speed.

Shot Peening: It is a method utilized by spring manufacturers to augment the capabilities
of metal employed in the components. In this procedure, the metal surfaces are blasted,
which ultimately boosts the materials capability to withstand many kinds of damages.

Spring: It is a device employed to moisten and apply load, store energy, and control
vibration and motion.

Spring Rate: It can be defined as the amount of load required to condense a spring.

Spring washer: The component which is mainly used with screws to reduce stress and
offer immense flexibility, is called spring washer.

Static load: It is the kind of load that preserves the same amount of load and direction
throughout operation.

Stress: It is load that tries to distort an object or structure. Deflection is the key source of
stress for a spring.

Tensile load: It is the force that tries to pull apart an object. The extension springs are
typically designed to hold up tensile load.

Torque: It is a force that causes rotation, and a torsion spring is made to dampen or
apply torque.

Torsion bar: This spring type consists of a bar that distorts slightly on the application of
force, and is most used in a suspension system of vehicles.

Torsion Load: It is another spring type that moves torque in the machine by arching into
one or two-directions, based upon the kind of torque required.

Torsion Strength: It is a kind of shear strain that tries to bend an object against itself.
Springs can become distorted if it goes beyond the limit of torsion strength.

Unloaded: This term is used when the spring is not experiencing any load.

Volute Spring: This kind of spring is manufactured by wrapping up metal strips inside
each other so to make a pointed shape with almost all metal pieces touching. It is
relatively expensive, but is much more stable than coil springs because coils touch.



INSTALLING LEAF SPRINGS

Leaf springs are positioned behind the wheel -- you can't see them clearly when they're attached
unless you crawl under the trailer -- so the wheel needs to be taken off completely before installation
begins. Once the wheel is off, you should notice a pair of hangers on either side of the axle. The
hangars are usually small, extended pieces of metal with holes that hang down from the frame of the
trailer. Between the holes of these hangers is where you line up the eyes of a leaf spring, securing
them with the proper hardware. If the leaf spring is a double-eye, one hanger will have a shackle
link. Once the leaf springs are bolted into the hangers, the next step is to install a pair of U-bolts,
two horse shoe shaped metal rods.
The leaf springs can be over lung (placed over the axle) or under lung (placed under the axle). Either
way, the U-bolts fit around the axle and secure to a metal plate that rests against the leaf springs.
The purpose of the U-bolts is to keep the leaf springs flush against the axle so they take the weight
of the cargo and don't move around too much during driving. It's always important to check leaf
springs and their accessories for wear -- a worn or cracked leaf spring can cause untold damage to a
trailer and its contents. When taking leaf springs off, it's a good idea to check the shackle links for
wear.
A round ring of wear that matches the shape of the nut is OK, but once the shape becomes an oval,
it's time to replace the shackle link. Proper care of leaf springs will ensure a safe ride while towing
by keeping the trailer's wheels on the ground and its cargo in place




SOURCING OF RAW MATERIAL
An important Factor for Leaf Spring Manufacture Raw material :
The basic requirement for spring steel is that it should have sufficient hardening ability relative to
leaf thickness to ensure a fully martensitic structure throughout the entire cross section of the leaf
spring. Leaf springs are made of various fine grade alloy steel. The most commonly used grades of
spring steel are 55 Si 7, 60 Si Cr 7, 50 Cr V4. We at UAW manufacture springs using EN 45A, 55
Si 7, 60 Si 7, 65 Si 7, 55 Si Cr 7, 60 Si Cr 7 & 65 Si Cr 7 grades of steel, however we offer other
grades based on customer requirement. The spring steel flats should be reasonably straight and
straightness to the extent of 2 mm per meter length is allowed.
The flats should be free of defects like Piping, Seams, Edge Cracks, End Kinks, Rust pitting and
other Rolling Defects. Flats shall usually be with round edges. The edges shall be rolled convex with
the radius of curvature of the edge approximately equal to the thickness of the flat or as agreed
between the purchaser and supplier. Different cross sections of steel are used for the manufacture of
leaf springs depending on the design.
At UAW we use about 40 cross section of steel for manufacture of for domestic & export market.
The tolerances for cross section of spring steel as specified in IS: 3431 1982 is given in Table 2. The
chemical composition of spring steel mentioned above is as under.






TABLE 1 (CHEMICAL COMPOSITION)

GRADE C Si Mn S P Cr V
EN 45A 0.55-0.65 1.70-2.10 0.70-1.00 0.040 Max 0.040 Max - -
55 Si7 0.55-0.6 1.50-1.80 0.70.1.00 0.045 Max 0.045 Max - -
60 Si7 0.55-0.65 1.50-2.00 0.80-1.00 0.040 Max 0.040 Max - -
65 Si7 0.60-0.68 1.50-1.80 0.70-1.00 0.050 Max 0.050 Max - -
55 Si Cr7 0.50-0.60 0.70-1.00 0.50-1.80 0.025 Max 0.025 Max 0.20-0.40 -
60 Si Cr7 0.57-0.65 1.50-1.80 0.70-1.00 0.030 Max 0.030 Max 0.20-0.40 -
65 Si Cr7 0.60-0.68 1.50-1.80 0.0-1.00 0.050 Max 0.050 Max 0.20-0.40 -
50 Cr V4 0.47-0.55 0.15-0.40 0.70-1.00 0.035 Max 0.035 Max 0.90-1.20 0.10-020





TABLE 2 (TOLERANCES FOR FLAT SECTIONS)
NOMINAL
WIDTH
TOLERANCE
IN WIDTH
THICKNESS

Up to 10mm Over 10mm
40 up to 50
mm
+/-0.30 +/-0.15 -
over 50 to
75 mm
+/-0.50 +/-0.15 +/-0.20
over 75 to
100 mm
+/-0.70 +/-0.20 +/-0.25
over 100 to +/-1.20 +/-0.25 +/-0.40
125 mm
over 125 to
150 mm
+/-1.20 +/-0.30 +/-0.50

SELECTION OF RAW MATERIAL

SILICON
If silicon in the raw material is above 2%, the spring steel will show a tendency for surface
decarburization, even during the most scientific heat treatment.
CARBON
It is necessary to maintain the carbon level of the spring steel within 0.55% to 0.65% to facilitate
proper heat treatment. At present many spring manufacturers tend to produce raw material with low
carbon to avoid the possibility of brittle failure, which occur due to improper heat treatment. Here it
is needless to say that the springs made from steel with low carbon will have low fatigue life as the
hardness of the material is below specifications.
PHOSPHORUS AND SULPHUR
Steel with phosphorus content of more than 0.24% and sulphur content of more than 0.016% is unfit
to be used in the production of Leaf springs as they form phosphates and sulphites which segregate
in billet form and considerably reduce the fatigue life of the Springs. UAW receives on an average
of about 800-1000 M Tons of springs steel flats per month. On receipt of the raw material the QC
department ensures that the Chemical Composition is as per the norms specified in the Test
Certificates issued by the supplier. This is done by drawing samples from each load of material and
the same is tested in accordance with the sampling plans. This mechanism ensures that the material
is not used unless inspected. The material is inspected for

g) Chemical composition (See Table 1), Grain structure, Inclusion rating,

a) Physical dimensions (See Table 2)
b) Surface defects
c) Straightness
d) Raw hardness (Specified Range 3.45-3.80mm Dia of indentation)
e) Hardened hardness (Specified Range 2.65mm indentation Dia)
f) Tempered hardness (Specified Range 2.95-3.20mm Dia indentation)












DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEAF SPRING DESIGN














DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEAF SPRING DESIGN

There are four basic designs of leaf spring that are used in stock car racing. They are:


The Mono-Leaf Spring

Multi-Leaf Springs

Parabolic Leaf Springs

Composite Leaf Springs


The Mono-Leaf Spring:

The mono-leaf spring is usually characterized by being a low rate, thinner spring that serves to
locate the rear end fore to aft and laterally. It basically replaces the trailing arms and the Pan hard
bar used in three- and four-link systems. It offers little spring rate to hold the car up nor much
stiffness to bending to help control axle wrap-up. The design of the car must include additional
springs to support the car plus a third link or lift bar system for controlling accelerating forces that
will try to rotate the rear end.





Multi-Leaf Springs:

Multi-leaf springs are just as described, made up of multiple leaves of varying length. These tend to
be increasing rate springs in bump and decreasing rate in rebound and are useful for supporting the
car as well as controlling axle wrap-up.








Parabolic Leaf Springs:

Parabolic leaf springs can be a single-leaf or multi-leaf design whereas the leaves are thicker near
the axle and have a tapered thickness design out to the eyes. These too support the weight of the car
without the need for extra springs and do a fair job of controlling axle rotation under acceleration
and braking. They can provide a much smoother ride due to the fact that the leaves dont develop the
friction associated with standard multi-leaf designs.


Composite Leaf Springs:

Composite leaf springs are a fairly new product in racing that have been further refined recently.
Theyre made of fiberglass instead of steel. The mounting portions are composed of steel that is
bolted to the fiberglass leaf. These leaves come in various rates and, with the lower rates, may need
additional coil springs to support the weight of the car.
































ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF LEAF SPRING















ADVANTAGES OF LEAF SPRING:

Leaf spring suspensions are very forgiving on tacky and rough dirt surfaces. The leaf
cars seem to be a lot more consistent under those conditions.

The leaf serves several functions that other suspension systems might need additional
hardware to serve. The leaf does the following:

Supports some or all of the chassis weight
2. Controls chassis roll more efficiently by utilizing a higher rear moment center
and a wide spring base
3. Controls rear end wrap-up when not mounted with birdcage-type mounts
4. Controls axle dampening
5. Controls lateral forces much the same way a Pan hard bar does, but with very
Little lateral movement
6. Controls braking forces when not mounted with birdcage-style mounts
7. Better at maintaining wheelbase lengths (reduced rear steers) under acceleration and
braking.

The reason why the leaf spring design is so good for higher g-force conditions is because
the design has a very wide spring base. The wider the springs are mounted apart, the less
roll tendencies there are. Also, the moment center height can be fairly high with a leaf
spring design. This shortens the moment arm in the rear and that also produces less roll.

As the g-forces increase with a tighter track, the rear roll increases at a higher rate than
the front. Its important to control this increase in roll rate in order to provide better
balance in the setup and more overall grip.

There is much less rear steer when going over heavy bumps or holes in the track with the
leaf design and so the rough conditions that upset a three- or four-bar car are welcomed
by the leaf-spring car.

The overall cost of a race car is less when using leaf springs mostly because you dont
need many of the mounts, linkages, and other hardware that must be used with three- or
four-link rear suspensions. And, maintenance is less not having to worry about rusting
Heim joints or broken mounting bolts that are in constant, high stress, high shear
conditions.

Also, a leaf spring can be used in conjunction with a coil or coil over spring to enhance
the spring rate adjustability function for chassis setup balance. Teams will often put a
high rate leaf spring on the left rear and a low rate mono-leaf spring on the right rear
along with a coil over spring and shock. That way they can change the spring fairly
easily on the RR to adjust for changing track conditions. The LR spring also controls
most of the axle wrap-up and is about half as stiff in that regard as would be two stiff
leaf springs.




DISADVANTAGES OF LEAF SPRING:

There are pluses and minuses for every suspension system. The leaf spring system
has a few disadvantages when compared to a three- or four-link system. Although the
typical bar-link-type of system doesnt handle tight, tacky, and rough dirt conditions as well,
the money race is usually run once the track has become slick. So, at the end of the night
under dry conditions, more times than not, the suspension that favors a slick track will win
out.

The steel leaf springs may tend to lose shape and that means the car may loses ride height. If
the sag is uneven between the two springs, it can alter the amount of bite, wedge or cross
weight in the car which changes the handling. Some teams are said to go through three or
more sets of springs per season. Spring sag also changes the rear steer characteristics of the
car because the height of the front eye changes as the spring loses height and that changes
the axle-to-mount angle.

There is very little, if any, adjustment for rear steer characteristics with a leaf spring system.
Some builders will put several mounting holes at the front bracket and some only put one
hole keeping with the theory that less adjustment means less rope to hang yourself with,
setup wise.

To change rear steer, you would have to make height changes to the front mount and the
same amount of change to the spring spacing between the axle tube and the spring to
maintain the original ride height.
It might also be possible to have multiple height adjusting holes in the front mount as well as
in the shackle. If the distance from the axle tube to the front mount and to the rear mount are
different, then the hole spacing in the front and shackle must be different in order to maintain
the original ride height with rear steer changes.

With the bar cars, the teams have a choice of adding lift bars, pull bars, push rods, front or
rear spring mounting options, a wide range of rear steer adjustability, and variable moment
center height adjustment. Available for the leaf spring cars is a mono-leaf floater that can be
clamped or left open. This allows for a lift arm or pull bar to be added to the leaf system to
control acceleration forces.

The rear moment center height is not easily adjustable on leaf-spring systems and the RR
bite effect of angling the Pan hard bar toward the RR tire contact patch cant be done with
the leaf spring system like its done with a four-bar system.

Leaf springs are not easy to install properly. The pinion angle is not easily adjustable and the
mounting pad on the rear axle tube must either be repositioned to adjust for pinion angle or
wedge-shaped blocks must be used between the spring and the housing pad. There is no
adjustment for the amount of axle wrap-up dampening either. What the spring gives you is
all that you get.





















LEAF SPRINGS ACCESSORIES



























LEAF SPRINGS ACCESSORIES :











LEAF SPRING BRACKETS & MOUNTS












LEAF SPRING BUSHINGS













LEAF SPRING PADS










LEAF SPRING U-BOLTS











LOWERING BLOCKS








DIMENSIONS OF LEAF SPRING ( CHEVORLET )










CHEVROLET 64 .1999-2006 CHEVY / GMC 1500 REAR LEAF SPRING
Year Application # Leaves Width Measures
(A/B)
Pack Thick
(D)
Spring
Capacity
99 - 06 Silverado / Sierra
1/2 Ton
2/1 2 - 1/2 32x32 1 - 3/4 1425
99 - 06 Silverado / Sierra
1/2 Ton
4/1 2 - 1/2 32x32 1 - 3/4 2025
99 - 06 Silverado / Sierra
1/2 Ton
7/1 2 - 1/2 32x32 3 - 13/16 3300








Instructional Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

Working of leaf spring
Types of leaf springs
Design theme of leaf springs
Laminated spring and its modifications


7.3.1 Leaf Springs

In order to have an idea of working principle of a leaf spring, let us think of the
diving board in a swimming pool. The diving board is a cantilever with a load, the
diver, at its free end. The diver initiates a to and fro swing of the board at the free
end and utilizes the spring action of the board for jumping. The diving board
basically is a leaf spring.

The leaf springs are widely used in suspension system of railway carriages and
automobiles. But the form in which it is normally seen is laminated leaf spring.

A simple cantilever type leaf spring is shown in the Fig. 7.3.1.

In the cantilever beam type leaf spring, for the
same leaf thickness, h, leaf of uniform width, b
(case 1) and, leaf of width, which is uniformly
reducing from b (case 2) is considered. From the
basic equations of bending stress and deflection,
the maximum stress,
max
and tip deflection,

max
can be derived.


F

h

L

(1)
b


For case 1(uniform width)
6FL
max
bh
2

4FL
max
Ebh
3


b




(7.3.1)

(2)
uniform
strength
Fig.7.3.1

Where, E is the Elastic modulus of the spring material.








Version 2 ME , IIT Kharagpur


b


For case 2(non uniform width)

6FL
max
bh
2

6FL
max
Ebh
3 (7.3.2)

In the second case it is observed that instead of uniform width leaf, if a leaf of
varying width (triangular one as shown in the figure) is used, the bending stress
at any cross section is same and equal to
max
. This is called as leaf of a uniform
strength. Moreover, the tip deflection being more, comparatively, it has greater
resilience than its uniform width counterpart. Resilience, as we know, is the
capacity to absorb potential energy during deformation. However, one should
keep
in mind that in order to withstand the
shear force the tip has to have some
uniform
width. This is shown as a red zone in the strength
figure. In one way non uniform width leaf
is a better design than a uniform width
leaf.
Leaf spring of simply supported beam type is shown in the Fig. 7.3.3, for which
the stress and deflection equation are also given as in the case of cantilever.

For case 1(uniform width)


3FL
max
bh
2

2FL
max
Ebh
3






support
(7.3.3)
reaction


F
h

L

(1) b


For case 2(non uniform width Lozenge-shape)

3FL
max
bh
2


b
(2)

Fig. 7.3.3
uniform
strength

3FL
max
Ebh
3 (7.3.4)



One of the applications of leaf spring of simply supported beam type is seen in
automobiles, where, the central location of the spring is fixed to the wheel axle.
Therefore, the wheel exerts the force F (opposite to the direction shown in the
figure), on the spring and support reactions at the two ends of the spring come



Version 2 ME , IIT Kharagpur
3


3


Fig. 7.3.2

3


from the carriage. The diamond shaped leaf, shown as case 2, is named as
Lozenge shape and it is again a beam of uniform strength.



7.3.2 Design theme of a leaf spring

Let us consider the simply supported leaf of Lozenge shape for which the
maximum stress and maximum deflection are known. From the stress and
deflection equations the thickness of the spring plate, h, can be obtained as,

max
L
des
L
E
max
E
des


(7.3.5)
2 2
h


The
max
is replaced by design stress
des
. Similarly,
max
is replaced by
des
. E
is the material property and depends on the type of spring material chosen. L is
the characteristic length of the spring. Therefore, once the design parameters,
given on the left side of the above equation, are fixed the value of plate
thickness, h can be calculated.

Substitution of h in the stress equation above will yield the value of plate width b.

3FL
(7.3.6)

des
h
2


In the similar manner h and b can be calculated for leaf springs of different
support conditions and beam types.


7.3.3 Laminated Springs

One of the difficulties of the uniform strength beam, say Lozenge shape, is that
the value of width b sometimes is too large to accommodate in a machine
assembly. One practice is that instead of keeping this large width one can make
several slices and put the pieces together as a laminate. This is the concept of
laminated spring. The Fig.7.3.4 shows the concept of formation of a laminated
spring.












4
3
2
1
2
3
4

Fig. 7.3.4 Laminated Spring


The Lozenge shaped plate is cut into several longitudinal strips, as indicated in
the figure. The central strip, marked 1 is the master leaf which is placed at the
top. Then two pieces, marked 2 are put together, side by side to form another
b

leaf and placed below the top leaf. In the similar manner other pairs of strips,
marked 3 and 4 respectively are placed in the decreasing order of strip length to
form a laminated spring. Here width of each strip, b
N
is given as,

(7.3.7)
b
N

N
, Where N is the number of strips


In practice, strips of width, b
N
and lengths, say equal to strip1, strip2 etc., as
shown in the example, are cut and put in the laminated form. The stress and
deflection equations for a laminated spring is,

pFL
max
Nb
N
h
2


and
qFL
max
ENb
N
h
3


(7.3.8)

Where, constants p and q are given as,
p q
Simply supported beam : 3 3
Cantilever beam : 6 6

It is to be noted that the ends of the leaves are not sharp and pointed, as shown
in figure. In fact they are made blunt or even made straight to increase the load
bearing capacity. This change from ideal situation does not have much effect on
the stress equation. However, small effect is there on the deflection equation.

In the following section we will discuss about few more constructional details of a
laminated leaf spring.






b
3

7.3.4 Laminated semi-elliptic spring




eye

master leaf




rebound clip
span 2L
camber

central clamp



graduated leaves



Laminated semi-elliptic spring

Fig 7.3.5

The Fig 7.3.5 shows a laminated semi- elliptic spring. The top leaf is known as
the master leaf. The eye is provided for attaching the spring with another
machine member. The amount of bend that is given to the spring from the central
line, passing through the eyes, is known as camber. The camber is provided so
that even at the maximum load the deflected spring should not touch the
machine member to which it is attached. The camber shown in the figure is
known as positive camber. The central clamp is required to hold the leaves of the
spring. However, the bolt holes required to engage the bolts to clamp the leaves
weaken the spring to some extent. Rebound clips help to share the load from the
master leaf to the graduated leaf.


7.3.5 Materials for leaf spring

Materials for leaf spring are not as good as that for the helical spring.

Plain carbon steel, Chromium vanadium steel, Chromium- Nickel- Molybdenum
steel, Silicon- manganese steel, are the typical materials that are used in the
design of leaf springs.

7.3.6 Standard sizes of leaf spring

Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
: 25-80 mm in steps of 5mm
: 2-8 mm in steps of 1mm, 10-16 mm in steps of 2mm







In order to carry heavy load few more additional full length leaves are placed
below the master leaf for heavy loads. Such alteration from the standard
laminated leaf spring, what we have learnt above, does not change the stress
value, but deflection equation requires some correction.

c
qFL
max
ENb
N
h
3


(7.3.9)

Where, correction in deflection,
c
is given as,


1.0 4m 2m
2
{1.5 ln(m)}
c
(1.0 m)
3

where,

m
N


N
f
Number of full length leaves
N Total number of leaves in the spring


7.3.7 Stresses due to support hinges

The master leaf of a laminated spring is hinged to the supports. The support
forces induce, stresses due to longitudinal forces and stresses arising due to
possible twist. Hence, the master leaf is more stressed compared to other the
graduated leaves. Methods to reduce additional stresses could be,

1. Master leaf is made of stronger material than the other leaves.
2. Master leaf is made thinner than the other leaves. This will reduce the
bending stress as evident from stress equation.
3. Another common practice is to increase the radius of curvature of the master
leaf than the next leaf.

The last method is explained through Fig 7.3.6.


Initial bent created through
fixing bolt during assembly





Larger radius
of curvature
U ipping of leaf spring


Fig 7.3.6
3



f
N
N


The master leaf has a larger radius of curvature
compared to the additional leaf that is placed below
so obviously a gap will be created between the two
leaves as indicated in the figure. Now, an initial
bent is created during assembly by tightening the
central bolt. Therefore, some amount of compressive
stress will be produced at the inside curvature of
the master leaf. Similarly, at the outside curvature
of the master leaf tensile stress will be produced.
Both these stresses are initial stresses in the master
leaf. However, by such operation of tightening the
central bolt, the additional leaf that is placed beneath
the master leaf has a tendency to flatten out and as a
result the stress pattern of the additional leaf will be
reverse of that of the master leaf, tensile stress is
produced at the inner curvature and compressive
stress is produced at the outer curvature. Hence,
when the spring is loaded, for both the master leaf
and the additional leaf, tensile stress will be
produced at the inner curvature and compressive
stress will be produced at the outer curvature.
Therefore, due to opposite nature of initial stress and
loading stress, the master leaf will experience
lesser stress on both the surfaces. However, due to
same nature of initial stress and loading stress, the
additional leaf is stressed more compared to the
master leaf. But, it is to be noted that the higher
stress on the additional leaf is actually shared
between all other leaves than the master leaf. This
practice of stress relief in the master leaf is known
as Nipping of leaf spring. As a matter of fact, all the
leaves of a laminated leaf spring do have certain
amount of nipping, so that there will be gaps between
the leaves, as a result the stresses will be uniformly
distributed and accumulated dusts can also be
cleaned.

Sample problem

Design a leaf spring to carry a load of 3400N and
placed over a span of 800 mm. The spring can
deflect by 50mm. Consider, allowable bending
stress for the spring material as 350 MPa and E=2
(10)
5
MPa.

Let us consider the design to be based on uniform
strength beam. Then from section 7.3.2 we find that,

Leaf thickness,h

des
des

210
5
50
5.6mm
6mm


Leaf width, b

3F
L
2

3
3
40
0
40
0
3
24
mm
des

It is observed that the width is too large to
accommodate as a machine member. Hence, if we
consider, say 6 springs, then width of each spring
becomes 54mm.

2 2
L
E
350400
2
h 35050
Suspension Mechanisms

The suspension is what links the wheels to the vehicle body and allows rela-
tive motion. This chapter covers the suspension mechanisms, and discusses
the possible relative motions between the wheel and the vehicle body. The
wheels, through the suspension linkage, must propel, steer, and stop the
vehicle, and support the associated forces.


8.1 Solid Axle Suspension

The simplest way to attach a pair of wheels to a vehicle is to mount them
at opposite ends of a solid axle, such as the one that is shown in Figure
8.1.














FIGURE 8.1. A solid axle with leaf spring suspension.

The solid axle must be attached to the body such that an up and down
motion in the z-direction, as well as a roll rotation about the x-axis, is
possible. So, no forward and lateral translation, and also no rotation about
the axle and the z-axis, is allowed. There are many combinations of links
and springs that can provide the kinematic and dynamic requirements. The
simplest design is to clamp the axle to the middle of two leaf springs with
their ends tied or shackled to the vehicle frame as shown schematically in
Figure 8.1. A side view of a multi-leaf spring and solid axle is shown in
Figure 8.2. A suspension with a solid connection between the left and right
wheels is called dependent suspension.
456 8. Suspension Mechanisms











FIGURE 8.2. A side view of a multi-leaf spring and solid axle suspension.

The performance of a solid axle with leaf springs suspension can be
improved by adding a linkage to guide the axle kinematically and provide
dynamic support to carry the non z-direction forces.
The solid axle with leaf spring combination came to vehicle industry from
horse-drawn vehicles.

Example 299 Hotchkiss drive.
When a live solid axle is connected to the body with nothing but two leaf
springs, it is called the Hotchkiss drive, which is the name of the car that
used it rst. The main problems of a Hotchkiss drive, which is shown in
Figure 8.2, are locating the axle under lateral and longitudinal forces, and
having a low mass ratio = m
s
/m
u
, where m
s
is the sprung mass and m
u
is the unsprung mass.
Sprung mass refers to all masses that are supported by the spring, such
as vehicle body. Unsprung mass refers to all masses that are attached to
and not supported by the spring, such as wheel, axle, or brakes.

Example 300 Leaf spring suspension and exibility problem.
The solid axle suspension systems with longitudinal leaf springs have
many drawbacks. The main problem lies in the fact that springs themselves
act as locating members. Springs are supposed to ex under load, but their
exibility is needed in only one direction. However, it is the nature of leaf
springs to twist and bend laterally and hence, ex also in planes other than
the tireplane. Leaf springs are not suited for taking up the driving and brak-
ing traction forces. These forces tend to push the springs into an S-shaped
prole, as shown in Figure 8.3. The driving and braking exibility of leaf
springs, generates a negative caster and increases instability.
Long springs provide better ride. However, long sprigs exaggerate their
bending and twisting under dierent load conditions.

Example 301 Leaf spring suspension and exibility solution.
To reduce the eect of a horizontal force and S-shaped prole appearance
in a solid axle with leaf springs, the axle may be attached to the chassis by a
longitudinal bar as Figure 8.4(a) shows. Such a bar is called an anti-tramp
8. Suspension Mechanisms 457









(a) Acceleration









(b) Braking


FIGURE 8.3. A driving and braking trust, force leaf springs into an S shaped
prole.

bar, and the suspension is the simplest cure for longitudinal problems of a
Hotchkiss drive.
A solid axle with an anti-tramp bar may be kinematically approximated
by a four-bar linkage, as shown in Figure 8.4(b). Although an anti-tramp
bar may control the shape of the leaf spring, it introduces a twisting angle
problem when the axle is moving up and down, as shown in Figure 8.5.
Twisting the axle and the wheel about the axle is called caster.
The solid axle is frequently used to help keeping the wheels perpendicular
to the road.

Example 302 Leaf spring location problem.
The front wheels need room to steer left and right. Therefore, leaf springs
cannot be attached close to the wheel hubs, and must be placed closer to
the middle of the axle. That gives a narrow spring-base, which means that
a small side force can sway or tilt the body relative to the axle through a
considerable roll angle due to weight transfer. This is uncomfortable for the
vehicle passengers, and may also produce unwanted steering.
The solid axle positively prevents the camber change by body roll. The
wheels remain upright and hence, do not roll on a side. However, a solid
axle shifts laterally from its static plane and its center does not remain on
the vehicles longitudinal axis under a lateral force.
458 8. Suspension Mechanisms














(a)

M
A
N
B

(b)


FIGURE 8.4. (a) Adding an anti-tramp bar to guide a solid axle. (b) Equivalent
kinematic model.







A
M
M

N
B
N
A


B


(a) (b)


FIGURE 8.5. An anti-tramp bar introduces a twistng angle problem. (a) The
wheel moves up and (b) The wheel moves down.
8. Suspension Mechanisms 459














FIGURE 8.6. A solid axle suspension with a triangulated linkage.

A solid axle produces bump-camber when single-wheel bump occurs. If
the right wheel goes over a bump, the axle is raised at its right end, and
that tilts the left wheel hub, putting the left wheel at a camber angle for the
duration of deection.

Example 303 Triangular linkage.
A triangulated linkage, as shown in Figure 8.6, may be attached to a solid
axle to provide lateral and twist resistance during acceleration and braking.


Example 304 Panhard arm.
High spring rate is a problem of leaf springs. Reducing their stiness
by narrowing them and using fewer leaves, reduces the lateral stiness and
increases the directional stability of the suspension signicantly. A Panhard
arm is a bar that attaches a solid axle suspension to the chassis laterally.
Figure 8.7 illustrates a solid axle and a Panhard arm to guide the axle.
Figure 8.8 shows a triangular linkage and a Panhard arm combination for
guiding a solid axle.
A double triangle mechanism, as shown in Figure 8.9, is an alternative
design to guide the axle and support it laterally.

Example 305 Straight line linkages.
There are many mechanisms that can provide a straight line motion.
The simplest mechanisms are four-bar linkages with a coupler point moving
straight. Some of the most applied and famous linkages are shown in Figure
8.10. By having proper lengths, the Watt, Robert, Chebyshev, and Evance
linkages can make the coupler point C move on a straight line vertically.
Such a mechanism and straight motion may be used to guide a solid axle.
Two Watt suspension mechanisms with a Panhard arm are shown in
Figures 8.11 and 8.12.
460 8. Suspension Mechanisms














FIGURE 8.7. A solid axle and a Panhard arm to guide the axle.














FIGURE 8.8. A triangle mechanism and a Panhard arm to guide a solid axle.














FIGURE 8.9. Double triangle suspension mechanism.
8. Suspension Mechanisms 461






C




(a) Watt linkage

C



(b) Robert linkage




C

C


(b) Chebyshev linkage (d) Evans linkage


FIGURE 8.10. Some linkages with straight line motion.




















FIGURE 8.11. A Watt suspension mechanisms with a Panhard arm.
462 8. Suspension Mechanisms














FIGURE 8.12. A Watt suspension mechanisms with a Panhard arm.














FIGURE 8.13. A Robert suspension mechanism with a Panhard arm.

Figures 8.13, 8.14, and 8.15 illustrate three combinations of Robert sus-
pension linkages equipped with a Panhard arm.

Example 306 Solid axle suspension and unsprung mass problem.
A solid axle is counted as an unsprung member, and hence, the unsprung
mass is increased where using solid axle suspension. A heavy unsprung mass
ruins both, the ride and handling of a vehicle. Lightening the solid axle
makes it weaker and increases the most dangerous problem in vehicles: axle
breakage. The solid axle must be strong enough to make sure it will not
break under any loading conditions at any age. As a rough estimate, 90%
of the leaf spring mass may also be counted as unsprung mass, which makes
the problem worse.
The unsprung mass problem is worse in front, and it is the main reason
that they are no longer used in street cars. However, front solid axles are
still common on trucks and buses. These are heavy vehicles and solid axle
8. Suspension Mechanisms 463


















FIGURE 8.14. A Robert suspension mechanism with a Panhard arm.






















FIGURE 8.15. A Robert suspension mechanism with a Panhard arm.
464 8. Suspension Mechanisms














FIGURE 8.16. A solid axle suspension with coil springs.



suspension does not reduce the mass ratio = m
s
/m
u
very much.
When a vehicle is rear-wheel-drive and a solid axle suspension is used
in the back, the suspension is called live axle. A live axle is a casing that
contains a dierential, and two drive shafts. The drive shafts are connected
to the wheel hubs. A live axle can be three to four times heavier than a
dead I-beam axle. It is called live axle because of rotating gears and shafts
inside the axle.


Example 307 Solid axle and coil spring.
To decrease the unsprung mass and increase vertical exibility of solid
axle suspensions, it is possible to equip them with coil springs. A sample
of a solid axle suspension with coil spring is shown in Figure 8.16. The
suspension mechanism is made of four longitudinal bars between the axle
and chassis. The springs may have some lateral or longitudinal angle to
introduce some lateral or longitudinal compliance.


Example 308 De Dion axle.
When a solid axle is a dead axle with no driving wheels, the connecting
beam between the left and right wheels may have dierent shapes to do
dierent jobs, usually to give the wheels independent exibility. We may
also modify the shape of a live axle to attach the dierential to the chassis
and reduce the unsprung mass.
De Dion design is a modication of a beam axle that may be used as
a dead axle or to attach the dierential to the chassis and transfer the
driving power to the drive wheels by employing universal joints and split
shafts. Figure 8.17 illustrates a De Dion suspension.
8. Suspension Mechanisms 465














FIGURE 8.17. Illustration of a De Dion suspension.

8.2 Independent Suspension

Independent suspensions is introduced to let a wheel to move up and down
without aecting the opposite wheel. There are many forms and designs
of independent suspensions. However, double A-arm and McPherson strut
suspensions are the simplest and the most common designs. Figure 8.18
illustrates a sample of a double A-arm and Figure 8.19 shows a McPherson
suspension.
Kinematically, a double A-arm suspension mechanism is a four-bar link-
age with the chassis as the ground link, and coupler as the wheel carrying
link. A McPherson suspension is an inverted slider mechanism that has
the chassis as the ground link and the coupler as the wheel carrying link.
A double A-arm and a McPherson suspension mechanism on the left and
right wheels are schematically shown in Figures 8.20 and 8.21 respectively.
Double A-arm, is also called double wishbone, or short/long arm suspen-
sion. McPherson also may be written as MacPherson.

Example 309 Double A-arm suspension and spring position.
Consider a double A-arm suspension mechanism. The coil spring may
be between the lower arm and the chassis, as shown in Figure 8.18. It is
also possible to install the spring between the upper arm and the chassis, or
between the upper and lower arms. In either case, the lower or the upper
arm, which supports the spring, is made stronger and the other arm acts
as a connecting arm.

Example 310 Multi-link suspension mechanism.
When the two side bars of an A-arm are attached to each other with a
joint, as shown in Figure 8.22, then the double A-arm is called a multi-link
mechanism. A multi-link mechanism is a six-bar mechanism that may have
a better coupler motion than a double A-arm mechanism. However, multi-
466 8. Suspension Mechanisms






Upper A-arm





Steer arm

Kingpin
Lower A-arm

FIGURE 8.18. A double A-arm suspension.








Coil spring

Shock absorber

Strut



Steer arm

Kingpin
Lower A-arm


FIGURE 8.19. A McPherson suspension.
8. Suspension Mechanisms 467


















FIGURE 8.20. A double A-arm suspension mechanism on the left and right wheels























FIGURE 8.21. A McPherson suspension mechanism on the left and right wheels.
468 8. Suspension Mechanisms














FIGURE 8.22. A multi-link suspension mechanism.














FIGURE 8.23. A swing arm suspension.

link suspensions are more expensive, less reliable, and more complicated
compare to a double A-arm four-bar linkage. There are vehicles with more
than six-link suspension with possibly better kinematic performance.

Example 311 Swing arm suspension.
An independent suspension may be as simple as a triangle shown in Fig-
ure 8.23. The base of the triangle is jointed to the chassis and the wheel
to the tip point. The base of the triangle is aligned with the longitudinal
axis of the vehicle. Such a suspension mechanism is called a swing axle
or swing arm.
The variation in camber angle for a swing arm suspension is maximum,
compared to the other suspension mechanisms.

Example 312 Trailing arm suspension.
Figure 8.24 illustrates a trailing arm suspension that is a longitudinal



8. Suspension Mechanisms 469














FIGURE 8.24. A trailing arm suspension.














FIGURE 8.25. A semi-trailing arm suspension.

arm with a lateral axis of rotation. The camber angle of the wheel, supported by a trailing arm, will not
change during the up and down motion.
Trailing arm suspension has been successfully using in a variety of front-wheel-drive vehicles, to
suspend their rear wheels.

Example 313 Semi-trailing arm
Semi-trailing arm suspension, as shown in Figure 8.25, is a compro-mise between the swing
arm and trailing arm suspensions. The joint axis may have any angle, however an angle not too
far from 45 deg is more applied. Such suspensions have acceptable camber angle change, while they
can handle both, the lateral and longitudinal forces. Semi-trailing design has successfully applied to a
series of rear-wheel-drive cars for several decades.

Example 314 Antiroll bar and roll stiness.
Coil springs are used in vehicles because they are less sti with better