Marianne A.

Tan
IV Bohr

Macromolecules
BIG molecules, and they truly are the
building blocks of cells. Macromolecules
are generally built by combining many
single units, or monomers, into larger
units, called polymers. All cells are
composed of the four general types of
macromolecules, although each type
can serve a cell in different ways.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are biological molecules that are always composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Like other macromolecules, carbohydrates play a number of roles for organisms. They
are involved in energy storage and production, structure and signaling. The fundamental
monomer of carbohydrates is called a monosaccharide. Monosaccharides can be linked
together by glycosidic linkages, which are covalent bonds formed through condensation
reactions.

o Types of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide - or simple sugar, is the simplest form of a carbohydrate.
Glucose(C
6
H
12
O
6
) , galactose , fructose
2. Disaccharide - A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic
link. A glycosidic link is two monosaccharides joined by a dehydration reaction with a
covalent bond. Maltose is a disaccharide formed by two glucose. Lactose is glucose
joined to galactose. Sucrose, table sugar, is glucose and a fructose. Plants transport
sugar as sucrose.
3. Polysaccharide - Any of a class of carbohydrates whose molecules contain chains of
monosaccharide molecules.

The Different Types of Macromolecules
Nucleic Acid
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
o Functions of Carbohydrates
a. A source of energy for organisms. Monosaccharides are a fuel for cellular metabolism.
b. Polysaccharides play various roles, from energy storage (starch, glycogen) to structure
(cellulose). Monosaccharides may be converted into space-saving polysaccharides, such
as glycogen and starch. These molecules provide stored energy for plant and animal
cells.
c. Carbohydrates are used to form structural elements, such as chitin in animals and
cellulose in plants.
d. Can serve very important functions in cells. such as the ribose and Deoxyribose of RNA
and DNA
e. Important for an organism's fertilization, development, blood clotting and immune
system function.


Proteins
It is the most complex and functionally diverse molecules of living organisms. Proteins
compose enzymes, blood cells and muscle tissue just to name a few and are therefore
associated with meat products. Proteins are created by RNA during DNA Transcription and
Translation, a process you will learn about in a later lab. The base elements of proteins are C, H,
O and N. The monomers of proteins are 20 different amino acids. The amino acids are bonded
together in unique combinations to create a polypeptide chain, the protein polymer. This chain
is then folded into a unique, functional protein.

Figure 1 Monomers of Protein

o Structure of Proteins
The levels of protein structure
are:
Primary structure: polypeptide
chain
Secondary structure:
polypeptides in coils or sheets
Tertiary structure: coils or sheets
form a tangle
Quaternary structure: more than
one tangle combine to make a
very complex protein

o Types of Proteins and its Function

1. Hormonal
Hormones are protein-based chemicals
secreted by the cells of the endocrine
glands. Usually transported through the
blood, hormones act as chemical
messengers that transmit signals from one
cell to another.
2. Enzymatic
Enzymatic proteins accelerate metabolic
processes in your cells, including liver
functions, stomach digestion, blood clotting
and converting glycogen to glucose.

3. Structural
Also known as fibrous proteins, structural
proteins are necessary components of your
body.
4. Defensive
Antibodies, or immunoglobulin, are formed
in the white blood cells and attack bacteria,
viruses and other harmful microorganisms,
rendering them inactive.
5. Storage
Storage proteins mainly store mineral ions
such as potassium in your body.

6. Transport
Transport proteins carry vital materials to
the cells.
7. Receptor
Located on the outer part of the cells,
receptor proteins control the substances
that enter and leave the cells, including
water and nutrients.
8. Contractile
Also known as motor proteins, contractile
proteins regulate the strength and speed of
heart and muscle contractions.
Lipids
The body stores lipids as reserve energy. Lipids are hydrophobic (water-hating) and thus
much harder to break down for energy than carbohydrates. Lipids, however, contain more
energy per unit weight then carbohydrates. Therefore it is more efficient for the body to use
lipids as stored energy. The body will use its carbohydrate source for initial fuel, but if the fast
fuel runs out, the body will turn to breaking down lipids for a rich energy source. Lipids are fat
molecules and there are many different kinds. The base elements of these molecules are C, H
and O.
o Categories of Lipids and its Function
1. Triglycerides ( or neutral fat)s: This group is better known as the fats. As their name suggests,
the triglycerides are composed of one molecule of glycerol and joined via ester bonds with
three molecules of fatty acids. Fatty acids come in two major types, saturated and unsaturated.
Saturated means that they are "completely saturated" with H and have no double bonds an
unsaturated mean just that, not saturated with H and it contains double bonds.
The primary cellular function of fatty acids is as long term energy storage.
2. Steroids: This second class of lipids has almost nothing in common with triglycerides other
than the fact that they are hydrophobic. Each different steroid contains different chemical
groups attached to these rings. Two major functions of steroids: as a significant part of the
structure of cell membranes and as hormones.
3. Phospholipids: This class of lipids is really derivatives of triglycerides. They are composed of a
glycerol molecule with two fatty acids (a diglyceride). Much of the molecule (the diglyceride) is
hydrophobic just as in the triglycerides. However, remember that phosphate is highly thus part
of the molecule is hydrophilic! Any molecule that is hydrophilic at one end and hydrophobic at
another is said to be amphipathic.
Since part of them is hydrophobic, this part will tend to aggregate together as do oils. The
hydrophilic (the phosphate group) area, however, "likes" water and will try to dissolve in it. You
could imagine that the phospholipids will form small solid spheres in water with the
hydrophobic "tails" together in the center of the sphere and the hydrophilic phosphate "head"
groups out facing the water. You will find that phospholipids serve as the basis for the structure
of all the membranes of the cell.
Nucleic Acids
- Molecules of heredity
- Monomers: Nucleotides e.g. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) , cyclic AMP (adenosine
monophosphate)
- Polymers: DNA and RNA





1. Macromolecules are generally built by combining many single units, or monomers, into
larger units, called polymers. Example of these polymers are,
a. Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, nucleotides
b. Glucose, lipids, DNA, RNA
c. Polysaccharide, DNA, polypeptide, phospholipids
d. Polysaccharide, polypeptide, nucleotides, phospholipids
2. _________ is the main sugar found in your body and provides most of your energy.
a. Glucose
b. Starch
c. Cellulose
d. Lactose
3. Protein has _____ amino acids that is considered to be its monomers.
a. 20
b. 50
c. 22
d. 55
4. Lipids are hydrophobic, which literally means,
a. lacking affinity for water; tending to repel and not absorb water; tending not to dissolve
in or mix with or be wetted by water
b. Abnormally afraid of water
c. Water-hating
d. All of the above
5. A single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil bonded to the ribose is called ____
a. DNA
b. RNA
c. URA
d. BNA