Deform 2 D

DETERMINATION OF DEPTH OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION ON MACHINED SURFACE
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING Page 1

ABSTRACT
Metal cutting is the most important process amongst all the manufacturing
processes as it produces the metal components very close to the desired surface integrity
and size. Modern usage of edge prepared cutting tools motivates to study the depth of
plastic deformation under machined surface. Study of various edge prepared tool is
similar to a tool with a flank wear land. When the tool gets worn it develops a plastic
zone below the surface to a certain depth during machining. In this plastically affected
zone grain of the metal slightly elongate in the direction of machining which distinguish
it from rest of the sub surface area. The nature and depth of this plastically affected zone
are expected to be depends on fundamental machining parameters, extent of tool wear
and materials of work. To experimentally investigate depth of plastically affected zone
as well as to study the parameters influencing it can be accomplished by studying the
micro photographs of the subsurface zone. The study of micro photographs also enables
us to determine strain induced in that zone by studying the amount of elongation of
grains. This can be accomplished by conducting machining experiments on shaping
machine using Mild steel and HSS tool. Worn tools required for conducting the
experiments may be induced by appropriately developing an artificially induced flank
wear land in the HSS tools. An attempt is made to simulate the machining with different
flank wear land inclination. The deformation of microstructure clearly indicates the
depth of plastic deformation increases with the increase in flank wear land inclination.
Similar trend is found with the simulation of machining process with DEFORMA-2D.



CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION PAGE NO
1.1Back ground and Motivation 3
1.2 Plastic deformation 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Effect of flank wear 5
2.2 Effect of cutting speed 6
2.3 Influence of parameters on microstructure 6
2.4 Influence of parameters on surface integrity 7
2.5 Influence of cutting parameters on plastic deformation 7
CHAPTER 3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT WORK AND
METHODOLOGY 9
CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
4.1 Design of experiment 11
4.2 Cutting tool and Work piece material 15
4.3 Results and discussions 16
CHAPTER 5 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
5.1 Introduction to DEFORM 2D 19
5.2 Pre-processor in deform 2D 19
5.3 Meshing in DEFORM 2D 20
5.4 Simulation in DFEROM 2D 21
5.5 Finite element modelling 21
5.6Test run simulations 23
5.7Results and discussion 23
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 28
6.1 Feature scope of work 28
REFERENCES 29



CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Background and motivation
High speed turning technology is growing rapidly in the recent years especially in
area of manufacturing, aerospace, and defense and missile components. The behavior of
work metal changes with the change in cutting speed. The transition of chips from
continuous to shear localized is also dependent on machining speed. The range of the
high speed machining aluminum components is about 500- 1000 m/min. One of the
major benefits of cutting at higher speed is the reduction of cutting forces leading to
improvement in surface integrity in terms of lower cutting force magnitude, fine surface
finish, and lower depth of deformation in machined surface. Surface integrity of the
machined component (the nature of surface condition of a work piece after machining
process) is a critical parameter in deciding the component performance, reliability and
service life. Surface integrity of the machined component (the nature of surface condition
of a work piece after machining process) is a critical parameter in deciding the component
performance, reliability and service life.
There are two aspects to surface integrity i.e.
Surface topography characteristics
Surface layer characteristics.
The surface topography comprises of surface roughness, waviness, from errors, and
flaws. Work material below the machined surface is highly influenced by machining
parameters (speed, depth of cut).



1.2 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
In materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing
non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces.
Plastic deformation is observed in most materials including metals, soils, rocks,
concrete, foams, bone and skin. However, the physical mechanisms that cause plastic
deformation can vary widely. At the crystal scale, plasticity in metals is usually a
consequence of dislocations. In most crystalline materials such defects are relatively rare.
But there are also materials where defects are numerous and are part of the very crystal
structure, in such cases plastic crystallinity can result. In brittle materials such as rock,
concrete, and bone, plasticity is caused predominantly by slip at micro cracks.



CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Effect of flank wear
The effect of flank wear on the topography of machined surfaces is investigated by
studying its effect on the shape of the tool nose. For this purpose, turning experiments
were performed to produce surfaces corresponding to different levels of flank wear. The
distribution of flank wear at the tool nose during these experiments caused the nose radius
to decrease, which when replicated on the machined surface resulted in narrower and
deeper feed marks. This change in the geometry of feed marks was represented by the
increase in the arithmetic average roughness of the surface profile heights [5].
Journal of material shaping technology, page no 255-265.



2.2 Effect of cutting speed:
In this study, an attempt has been conducted to investigate the effects of cutting
parameters on tool wear and surface roughness during hard turning of Inconel material.
The experimental results have revealed that the cutting speed is the most significant effect
to the flank wear; whereas the surface roughness is strongly influenced by the feed rate
and slight related to the tool wear mechanisms. Due to the high pressure at elevated
temperature, a micro-welding and built-up-edge are formed even at relatively low cutting
speeds of 30-45m/min; it is a disadvantage for the machined surface quality. Particular,
the surface roughness tends to decreased with the increased of the cutting speed when the
built-up-edge was disappeared. However, the tool wear increased rapidly when the
cutting speed increased over 90 m/min. This phenomenon is therefore inevitable affected
to the tool life and the machined surface quality [3].

2.3 Influence of parameters on microstructure:
Microstructure and material flow of aluminium alloys have a significant influence on
the mechanical properties and surface quality. A prediction of grain size and precipitation
is of increasing importance in order to design the process by adjustment of parameters
such as speed, temperatures, and quenching. To give references for microstructure
prediction based on material flow, and with it strain and strain rate history, this paper
deals with the microstructure during the extrusion process of AA6060, AA6082, and
AA7075 alloys. Billets have been partly extruded to axisymmetric round profiles and the
microstructure of the press rests consisting of the billet rests in container and die has been
considered. Furthermore, these rests have been analyzed to show the material flow,
dynamic and static recrystallization based on macro etchings and visible microstructure
under different conditions, e.g. as in the area of high strain rate near the container wall, or
in dead zones. To allow an accurate simulation of the extrusion process, punch force and
temperature conditions during the tests have been measured. [1].



2.4 Influence of parameters on surface integrity:
The paper presents surface integrity analysis in high speed machined titanium
alloy. The experiments were conducted in dry environment. Response surface method
based CCD was used to analyse the effect of machining parameters on surface roughness,
degree of work hardening and the induced residual stresses after machining. The analysis
of results shows a micro deformation layer up to a depth of 200 m influencing the micro
hardness and residual stresses. The degree of work hardening in this layer is found to
influence by the machining conditions up to a depth of 100 m, beneath the machined
surface. Predominant thermal softening effect at higher cutting speed causes the
restructuring of the micro deformation layer. Thus the machined surface shows less
alterations and correspondingly lower surface roughness. Higher cutting speed also
favours induction of higher compressive residual stresses [2].
2.5 Influence of cutting parameters on plastic deformation:
Because plastic deformation is a nuisance in the metal cutting process, its proper account
is of high interest. A new meaning for the chip compression ratio is discussed showing
that, on the contrary to shear strain, this parameter represents the true plastic deformation
in metal cutting. The chip compression ratio can be used to calculate the total work done
by the external force applied to the tool and then might be used for optimization of the
cutting process. It is demonstrated that the cutting speed influences the energy spent on
the deformation of the chip through temperature, dimensions of the deformation zone
adjacent to the cutting edge and velocity of deformation. The separate impacts of these
factors have been analyzed and the physical background behind the known experimental
dependence of the chip compression ratio on the cutting speed is revealed. The influence
of the cutting feed, tool cutting edge angle, cutting edge inclination angle and tool rake
angle also have been analysed.
A R Rodrigues et.al studied the effect of milling conditions on the surface
integrity of steels. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were related to microstructure
of the work piece beneath machined surface the microstructure shows the deformation of
microstructure were observed in work piece subsurface as shown in figure[4].



Figure 2.1 No deformation at the edge

Figure 2.2 Grain deformation is observed at the edge



CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT WORK AND METHODOLOGY
The main objectives of the present work are as stated:
1. To get introduced to the systematic research in the area of metal machining.
2. To study the influence of machining parameters on sub-surface layer.
3. To study the change in the shape of the grains structure.
4. To study the depth of plastically affected zone due to tool flank wear land.
5. Finite element method is used to study the strain deformation in the work material
using DEFORMED 2D machining software.
METHODOLOGY
The plastic deformation beneath the flank wear land is estimated by observing the
deformation of microstructure of the material. For this HSS cutting tool with artificially
created wear land .This wear land makes an inclination with cutting direction as
suggested by N S Das and S T Dundur as shown in Figure 3.1. In the present study 2
degree and 4 degree inclination is considered. The mild steel work piece are shaped by
using the above mentioned tool, and is polished by emery paper and wet circular disc for
the metallography observation. The flow diagram of the methodology of microstructure
observation is shown in figure 3.2
As experiments consume time and cost simulation techniques are widely used
nowadays. In the present study DEFORMA 2D software is used to simulate the
orthogonal machining.


Figure 3.1 Flank wear land making an inclination with respect to cutting direction

Figure 3.1 Methodology flow diagram


CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
To conduct orthogonal machining experiments the inclined artificial flank wear land are
created on the tool and grinding cutter. These tools are used set on the shaper machine.
The mild steel work pieces are shaped with different cutting speeds. Later work pieces are
prepared for microstructure observation by polishing them with different grades of emery
papers and polishing disc. Using Meta Tech image analyser image are captured after
applying Nital etchant. The experiments are planned as per the half factorial matrix of
design of experiments. The following section describes the DOE and other details of the
experiments.

4.1 Design Of Experiments (DOE)
Design of experiment (DOE) is a structured, organized method that is used to
determine the relationship between the different input parameters (X) affecting a process


and the out put parameters of that process (Y). This method was first developed in the
1920s and 1930s by sir Ronald.A.Fisher, the renowned mathematician and geneticist.
Design of experiment involves designing a set of experiments, in which all
relevant factors are varied systematically. When the results of these experiments are
analysed, they help to identify optimal conditions, the factors that are more influential on
the results and those that are not, as well as details such as the existence of interactions
and synergies between the factors.
Statistical design of experiments refers to the process of planning the experiment so
that appropriate data that can be collected and analysed by statistical methods resulting in
valid and objective conclusions. The statistical approach to experimental design is
necessary to get meaningful conclusions from the data. Thus, there are two aspects to any
experimental problem: the design of experiment and the statistical analysis of the data.
These two subjects are closely related because the method of analysis depends directly on
the design employed .
4.1.1 The Objectives Of Design Of Experiments
In general, experiments are used to study the performance of processes and systems. A
model shown in the figure can represent the process or system. We can visualize the
process as a combination of the machines, methods, people, and other resources that
transform some input into an output that has one or more observable responses. Some of
the process variables x
1
, x
2
, .., x
p
are controllable, whereas other variables z
1
, z
2
, .., z
q

are uncontrollable.



Fig. 3.1: General model of a process or system
1. Determining which variables are most influential on the response Y (output).
2. Determining where to set the influential factors Xs so that Y response is almost
always near the desired nominal value.
3. Determining where to set the influential factors Xs so that variability in response
Y is small.
4. Determining where to set the influential factors so that the effects of the
uncontrollable variables Z
1
, Z
2
.Z
n
are minimized.
5. Developing a robust process, that is, a process affected minimally by external
sources of variability.
4.1.2 Steps Of Design Of Experiment
1. Recognition of and statement of the problem.
2. Identification of process parameters (input variables), levels and ranges.
3. Selection of response variables.
4. Choice of experimental design.
5. Conduction of experiments and recording of the response variables.
6. Development of mathematical models, using linear and/or non linear regression
modelling.
7. Checking the statistical adequacy of the model through significance test (F-test) and
ANOVA test.
8. Performance evaluation of the developed models using some random test cases.

++++++



4.2 Steps of Experimentation
The input parameters are of the experiments are given in the table 4. The design matrix as
per the half factorial and response of the experiments are shown in table 4.2
Table 4.1 Parameter Descriptions
Sl no
Parameters Description Levels
Factors Notation Unit High (+1) Low (-1)
1 Flank width A Mm .4mm .2mm
2 Flank angle B Degrees 6 0
3 Speed D m/sec 20 10

Table 4.2 Deign Matrix of experiments
Std
Order
Flank
land
Flank
angle
Speed Depth of
plastic
deformation
1 .300 0 10 0.0258
2 .315 2 20 0.0310
3 .350 3 10 0.0421
4 .400 6 20 0.0594

The detail steps of the of the experimental procedure is explained below
1. The experiments are planned as per the design of experiments. Half full factorial
matrix is used in the present study.
2. Consider the pure specimen (mild steel) of length=30mm Breadth=30mm
height=10mm.
3. Polish this specimen with emery paper before machining and apply the etchants
over the surface, wash with water and then dry it, and note the grain size and
structure with the help of digital microscope.


4. Consider the new specimen and mount it on the shaper machine and perform
machining operation on the top surface of the sample by applying suitable
machining parameters.
5. Polish the sub-surface of the sample by using emery paper, note the depth of
plastic deformation using digital microscope.
6. Apply the etchants over the surface, wash with water and then dry it, and note the
grain size and structure with the help of digital microscope.
7. Repeat the procedure for different machining parameters, and note down the depth
of plastic deformation, grain size and structure.
8. Take all the microscopic photographs.
9. Etchants are: Ethanol 100ml and nitric acid 5-10 ml, together makes the etchants
called NITAL.
10. DEFORMA 2D is utilized to simulate the orthogonal machining operation to
determine the strain variations in the workpiece

4.3 Cutting Tool and Work piece Material.
Table 3 Chemical composition of the commercial purity of mild steel used in
present work.
Chemicals C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni
Report in
%
.533 .318 .521 .035 .039 .117 .002 .073

Chemicals Al Zn Ca Pr CE Cu Fe
Report in
%
.013 .062 .001 .001 .651 .122 98.16

4.4 Results And Discussions
The workpieces after machining are prepared for microstructure observation . first
top most part of the workpiece(approx 10x10 mm) is cut from the main work
piece. Then it is polished with grades as 200,300,400,600 and 800 to obtain the
smooth surface. The wet circular polishing disc provides the required mirror finish
on the machined surface to enable clear microstructure under the microscope. The


workpiece are observed under 200 x magnifications. The figure 4.1 shows the
microstructure of the unmachined portion of mild steel work piece. Which shows
the uniform grains of the work material? Figure 4.2 shows the microstructure of
the machined work piece for the 2 degree inclination of flank wear land with the
cutting direction. The figure 4.2 shows the deformed grain zone and unreformed
grain zone clearly. The figure 4.3 shows a significant deformed zone because of
higher flank wear land inclination, 4 degrees. From the figure 4.2 and 4.3it is
evident that the plastic deformation of grains of the machined sub surface is
affected by the increase in flank wear land inclination.

Figure 4.1 The microstructure of the unmachined portion of mild steel work piece.

Figure 4.2 The microstructure of the machined work piece for the 2 degree inclination of
flank wear land


Figure 4.3 Significant deformed zone because of higher flank wear land inclination 4
degree

Figure 4.4 highest deformation found because of larger flank wear land inclination zone

CHAPTER 5
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

5. Introduction To Finite Element Method
Finite element analysis is preferred than the laborious experimental work in order
to save time and cost. Researchers have found that the results obtained from finite
element analysis stays close to the experimental results. Hence finite element analysis is
preferred in this work. Development of the Finite Element Method (FEM) in early 1970s


first pioneered simulations of orthogonal machining process. First research work used as
self-developed finite element code. From 1990s massive use of commercial software
starts, which is capable of modelling the machining process, as a NIKE2,
ABAQUS/Standard, MARC, DEFORM 2D, FORGE 2D, ALGOR, FLUENT, ABAQUS/
Explicit, LS DYNA. Deform is an engineering simulation software used by designers to
analyze metal forming, machining and heat treatment processes by trial and error method.
DEFORM-2D is based on an updated Lagrangian formulation that employs implicit
integration method designed for large deformation simulations, is used to simulate the
cutting process. The strength of the FEM software is its ability to automatically remesh
and generate a very dense grid of nodes near the tool tip so that large gradients of strain,
strain-rate and temperature can be handled. Deform is effective in wide range of research
and industrial applications due to its effectiveness.
5.1 Introduction To Deform 2d
Deform 2D is a software code used widely for finite element analysis in metal forming
operations which involves deformations and heat transfer. The FE tool is capable of
converting large scale problems in magnitude and complexity into solvable 2D problems.
The domain is divided into nodes and elements which store the values calculated at
various time intervals during the simulation process. The large non-steady state
calculations are reduced to smaller steady state equations and solved one step at a time
over the course of the simulation. Figure 4.1 shows the structure in Deform 2D.

Figure5.1 Structure of Deform2D (Deform user manual)



5.2 Pre-Processor In Deform 2D
The pre-processor uses a graphical user interface to assemble the data required to run the
simulation. The orthogonal cutting process is modelled as a plane strain problem which
assumes the geometry to have a unit depth with both front and back faces constrained.
The simulation assumes that the objects will behave identically in any given cross-section
across the width and height of the object. The instructions on conditions of the processing
environment, physical processes to be modelled, discrete time steps are called simulation
data input. Metal cutting process involves heat transfer and deformations. The heat
transfer module simulates thermal effects in the simulation, including heat transfer
between objects and the environment, and heat generation due to deformation or phase
transformation, wherever it is applicable. The deformation module simulates deformation
due to mechanical, thermal, or phase transformation effects. The materials are imported
from the material database or created manually by defining the flow stress value. The
geometry of plastic, elastic and finite element mesh of linear quadrilateral elements
represents non- isothermal rigid objects.

5.3 Meshing In Deform 2D
Finite element meshes are created within the Deform environment using the
automatic mesh generator. The object border geometry is defined before creating a FE
mesh. Mesh density refers to the relative sizes of the elements, which will be generated
within an object boundary. The mesh density is primarily based on the specified total
number of elements and point or parameter density controls. When the mesh is generated,
it will contain approximately the number of elements specified by the user. Mesh density
is specified by either assigning relative densities to graphically selected points within the
object boundary (user defined mesh density), or by assigning values to a set of automatic
mesh density parameters (system defined mesh
density). The mesh is generated by the Automatic mesh generator which determines the
need for remeshing and determines the optimum mesh density based on the geometric
shape and prior solution behaviour. It constructs the mesh based on the optimum mesh
density and transfers information including boundary conditions from the old mesh to the
new one.
5.4 Simulation In Deform 2D
To perform a simulation, a database containing the process data and simulation controls is
prepared. The database is created using the above pre-processor inputs. The control,


material, object and inter-object options of the pre-processor allow for interactive input of
the simulation parameters. The specified database is executed as simulation steps are
generated. The output is written back into the database file. The basic equation of
equilibrium, constitutive relationship and boundary conditions are converted to non-linear
algebraic equations. All the input and output data are stored in binary form and are
accessed through the post processor. The results of the simulation are displayed in
graphical and alphanumeric form. It is important to note that this module only reads the
results of the database file and no modifications can be executed here.

5.5 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
Assumptions Of The FE Model
The finite element model in metal cutting requires a number ofassumptions in defining
the problem which are as follows
1. The tool is rigid.
2. The chip is a continuous ribbon for ductile materials.
3. The cutting velocity is normal to the cutting edge.
4. The work material is isotropic.
5. The work material is at room temperature.
6. The cutting is performed with no coolants.
The chip formation occurs due to natural flow around the tool tip where the material splits
in to two parts: one flowing parallel to tool rake face (chip) and other flowing under the
tool flank face (machined surface). The automatic remeshing capability helps to create
new mesh, whenever the current mesh gets distorted. Explicit control parameters such as
element size and distribution, element geometric shape and order, creation of nodes on
boundaries vertices, and the node numbering sequence of elements are assumed by the
software itself. The generated nodes match the geometry and the distributions of nodes
are evenly spaced on curves and surfaces regardless of the parametric distortion of the
surface.
Input Requirements for the FE Model is shown in the following diagram


Figure5.2 Input requirements for the FE model

5.6 Test Run Simulation
The following steps are followed to simulate the machining operations in
DEFORM 2D.
Step Involved in simulation
1. The pre-processor of DEFORMA-2D, is used to create tool geometry and work piece
geometry. Later cutting conditions are selected. The tool is meshed with 700 meshes.
2. Trial run without flank wears land inclination.
3. Tool material is selected from library.
4. Work piece material is selected and meshed with 1500 meshes.
5. Near tool tip fine mesh should be created and away corous.
6. After completion of geometry it is submitted to simulation.
7. After process completion pre-post process window is opened.
8. Through which, clearly step wise many variables such as temperature, pressure, strain


etc can be observed.

5.7 Results and Discussion
The tool with different flank wear land inclinations (0, 2 , 3 ,6 ) are used for
simulation. Initially the flank wear land is kept parallel to cutting direction and
strain effective is determined. The Figure 5.3(a) shows the geometry of the tool is
where in flank wear land is parallel to cutting direction. Figure 5.3(b) shows the
variation of strain in work material and the maximum effective strain deformation
found to be 2.15. The effect of deformation is found to be 0.053452 mm. The
Figure 5.4 (a) and 5.4(b) shows that flank inclination is 2 with respect to cutting
direction. The maximum effective strain found to be is 2.87, which is higher
value then the found when its angle was zero. The Figure 5.5(a) shows that flank
wear land inclination value is 3 and figure 5.5 (b) shows the maximum effective
strain deformation is 3.35.In Figure 5.6 (a) the flank wear land inclination is 6
and Figure 5.6(b) shows the maximum effective strain deformation is 5.94.From
the above simulation results trial we found that the effective strain value
increases as the flank wear land inclination increases. The presence of flank wear
land on the tool effects on the friction conditions prevailing at the inter face of
tool and work piece. The change in friction condition generates more at the inter
face. The rise in the temperature of the work material allows the more deformation
to takes place below the flank wear land. Because of this the depth of plastic
deformation below the flank wear land increase with the increase in the flank wear
land inclination.



Figure 5.3(a) : Zero wear land i.e. parallel to cutting direction

Figure 5.3(b) : Depth of plastic deformation based on the strain effectiveness
= 0
0
d= 0.0534 mm



Figure 5.4(a) : Flank wear land inclined at 2
0
with the cutting direction

Figure 5.4(b) :Depth of plastic deformation based on the strain effectiveness
= 2
0
d= 0.096898 mm



Figure 5.5 (a): Flank wear land inclined at 3
0

Figure 5.5 b) :Depth of plastic deformation based on the strain effectiveness
= 3
0
d= 0.11807 mm



Figure 5.6 (a) : Flank wear land inclined at 6
0

Figure 5.6 (b) :Depth of plastic deformation based on the strain effectiveness
= 6
0
d= 0.12587 mm



CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
Orthogonal machining experiments are conducted successfully as per the half
factorial matrix of design of experiments. The various flank land inclination are used to
study effect on plastic deformation. The deformation of microstructure clearly indicates
the flank wear land inclination effects on plastic deformation of work under flank wear
land. As inclination increased the depth of plastic deformation also increases. Similarly
trend is also observed with the simulation conducted by DEFORM-2D.
6.1 Future Scope
1. The minute deformation can be visible if SEM techniques are used.
2. By conducting full factorial or response method can give accuracy results.
3. The effects of other parameters as temperature, strain rate, stress, pressure will
affects the plastic deformation too.

REFERENCES
1. Microstructure analysis of aluminum extrusion: grain size distribution in
AA6060, AA6082 and AA7075 alloys, M. Schikorra':', L. Donate, L. 'Iomesani/
and A. E. Tekkaya
2. Surface Integrity Analysis in Dry High Speed Turning of Titanium Alloy Ti-
6Al-4V Rajendra Pawar and Raju Pawade, International Conference on
Trends in Industrial and Mechanical Engineering (ICTIME'2012) March 24-25,
2012 Dubai.
3. Effect of cutting condition on tool wear and surface roughness during
machining of inconel 718. Duong Xuan-Truong1,2, Tran Minh-Duc2
4. Surface integrity in finishing turning of Inconel 718, J. Daz, A. Daz-lvarez,
X. Soldani, J.L. Cantero, H. Migulez,


5. Aluminium Etching Revised: 2013-11-07 Source:
www.microchemicals.com/downloads/application_notes.html
6. Effect of High Speed Cutting Parameters on the Surface Characteristics of
Super alloy Inconel 718, D. G.Thakur*, B. Ramamurthy**, L.
Vijayaraghavan**.
7. Tribology Transactions volume 36 issue3, 1993.(Journal of material shaping
technology, page no 255-265.)
8. The assessment of plastic deformation in metal cutting
Viktor P. Astakhov, S. Shvets
Astakhov Tool Service, Rochester Hills, MI 48309, USA
Received 21 October 2002; received in revised form 10 March 2003; accepted 30
October 2003

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DETERMINATION OF DEPTH OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION ON MACHINED SURFACE

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING Page 1

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