Quantum mechanics

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Quantum mechanics (QM also known as quantum physics, or quantum theory) is a branch of physics
dealing with physical phenomena at microscopic scales, where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
Qantm mechanics departs from classical mechanics primarily at the quantum realm of atomic and sbatomic
length scales. Qantm mechanics pro!ides a mathematical description of mch of the dal particle-like and
wave-like beha!ior and interactions of energy and matter.
"n ad!anced topics of #antm mechanics, some of these beha!iors are macroscopic and only emerge at
e$treme (i.e., !ery low or !ery high) energies or temperatres. %he name quantum mechanics deri!es from the
obser!ation that some physical #antities can change only in discrete amonts (&atin quanta), and not in a
continos (cf. analog) way. For e$ample, the anglar momentm of an electron bond to an atom or molecle
is #anti'ed.
()*
"n the conte$t of #antm mechanics, the wa!eparticle dality of energy and matter and the
ncertainty principle pro!ide a nified !iew of the beha!ior of photons, electrons, and other atomic+scale
ob,ects.
%he mathematical formlations of #antm mechanics are abstract. - mathematical fnction called the
wa!efnction pro!ides information abot the probability amplitde of position, momentm, and other physical
properties of a particle. Mathematical maniplations of the wa!efnction sally in!ol!e the bra+ket notation,
which re#ires an nderstanding of comple$ nmbers and linear fnctionals. %he wa!efnction treats the ob,ect
as a #antm harmonic oscillator, and the mathematics is akin to that describing acostic resonance. Many of
the reslts of #antm mechanics are not easily !isali'ed in terms of classical mechanics.for instance, the
grond state in a #antm mechanical model is a non+'ero energy state that is the lowest permitted energy state
of a system, as opposed to a more /traditional/ system that is thoght of as simply being at rest, with 'ero kinetic
energy. "nstead of a traditional static, nchanging 'ero state, #antm mechanics allows for far more dynamic,
chaotic possibilities, according to 0ohn Wheeler.
%he earliest !ersions of #antm mechanics were formlated in the first decade of the 12th centry. -t arond
the same time, the atomic theory and the corpsclar theory of light (as pdated by 3instein) first came to be
widely accepted as scientific fact4 these latter theories can be !iewed as #antm theories of matter and
electromagnetic radiation, respecti!ely. 3arly #antm theory was significantly reformlated in the mid+)512s by
Werner 6eisenberg, Ma$ 7orn and Pascal 0ordan, who created matri$ mechanics4 &ois de 7roglie and 3rwin
8chrodinger (Wa!e Mechanics)4 and Wolfgang Pali and 8atyendra 9ath 7ose (statistics of sbatomic
particles). -nd the :openhagen interpretation of 9iels 7ohr became widely accepted. 7y )5;2, #antm
mechanics had been frther nified and formali'ed by the work of <a!id 6ilbert , Pal <irac and 0ohn !on
9emann,
(1*
with a greater emphasis placed on measrement in #antm mechanics, the statistical natre of or
knowledge of reality, and philosophical speclation abot the role of the obser!er. Qantm mechanics has
since branched ot into almost e!ery aspect of 12th centry physics and other disciplines, sch as #antm
chemistry, #antm electronics, #antm optics, and #antm information science. Mch )5th centry physics
has been re+e!alated as the /classical limit/ of #antm mechanics, and its more ad!anced de!elopments in
terms of #antm field theory, string theory, and speclati!e #antm gra!ity theories.
Contents
) 6istory
1 Mathematical formlations
; Mathematically e#i!alent formlations of #antm mechanics
= "nteractions with other scientific theories
=.) Qantm mechanics and classical physics
=.1 >elati!ity and #antm mechanics
=.; -ttempts at a nified field theory
? Philosophical implications
@ -pplications
A 3$amples
A.) Free particle
A.1 8tep potential
A.; >ectanglar potential barrier
A.= Particle in a bo$
A.? Finite potential well
A.@ 6armonic oscillator
B 8ee also
5 9otes
)2 >eferences
)) Frther reading
)1 3$ternal links
History
Main article: History of quantum mechanics
%he First 8tdy of the Qantm 9atre backs in )Ath and )Bth centries when many scientists proposed a
wa!e theory of light based on e$perimental obser!ations, inclding >obert 6ooke, :hristian 6ygens and
&eonhard 3ler.
(;*
"n )B2;, an 3nglish polymath called %homas Cong performed the famos doble+slit
e$periment that he later described in a paper entitled /Dn the natre of light and colors/. %his e$periment
played a ma,or role in the general acceptance of the wa!e theory of light.
"n )B;B with the disco!ery of cathode rays by Michael Faraday these stdies were followed by the )B?5
statement of the black body radiation problem by Esta! Firchhoff, the )BAA sggestion by &dwig 7olt'mann
that the energy states of a physical system can be discrete, and the )522 #antm hypothesis of Ma$ Planck.
(=*
PlanckGs hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete /#anta/ (or /energy elements/) precisely
matched the obser!ed patterns of blackbody radiation.
"n )B5@ Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribtion law of blackbody radiation, later named after himH
WienGs law+ which was only valid at high frequencies, and underestimated the radiancy at low
frequencies +. &ater Ma$ Planck corrected the theory and proposed what is now called PlanckGs law, which
led to the de!elopment of #antm theory.
%he first stdies of #antm phenomena in natre were by the work of se!eral scientists as -rthr :ompton,
:.I. >aman, Pieter Jeeman (each one of them has a quantum effect named after their works), -lbert
3instein and >obert -. Millikan (both studied the Photoelectric effect). -t the same time 9iels 7ohr
de!eloped his theory of the atomic strctre later confirmed with e$periments by 6enry Moseley. %his phase is
known as 3arly #antm theory.
-ccording to Planck, each energy element is proportional to its fre#ency !H
Planck is considered the
father of the Qantm
%heory
%he )51A 8ol!ay :onference in 7rssels.
where h is PlanckGs constant. Planck (catiosly) insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of
absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the physical
reality of the radiation itself.
(?*
6owe!er, in )52? -lbert 3instein interpreted
PlanckGs #antm hypothesis realistically and sed it to e$plain the
photoelectric effect, in which shining light on certain materials can e,ect
electrons from the material.
%he fondations of #antm
mechanics were established
dring the first half of the
12th centry by Ma$ Planck
, 9iels 7ohr, Werner
6eisenberg, &ois de
7roglie, -rthr :ompton,
-lbert 3instein, 3rwin
8chrKdinger, Ma$ 7orn,
0ohn !on 9emann, Pal
<irac, 3nrico Fermi,
Wolfgang Pali, <a!id 6ilbert, Wilhelm Wien , 8atyendra 9ath
7ose, -rnold 8ommerfeld and others. "n the mid+)512s,
de!elopments in #antm mechanics led to its becoming the standard formlation for atomic physics. "n the
smmer of )51?, 7ohr and 6eisenberg pblished reslts that closed the /Dld Qantm %heory/. Dt of
deference to their particle+like beha!ior in certain processes and measrements, light #anta came to be called
photons ()51@). From 3insteinGs simple postlation was born a flrry of debating, theori'ing, and testing. %hs
the entire field of #antm physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth 8ol!ay :onference in
)51A.
%he other e$emplar that led to #antm mechanics was the stdy of electromagnetic wa!es, sch as !isible light.
When it was fond in )522 by Ma$ Planck that the energy of wa!es cold be described as consisting of small
packets or /#anta/, -lbert 3instein frther de!eloped this idea to show that an electromagnetic wa!e sch as
light cold be described as a particle (later called the photon) with a discrete #antm of energy that was
dependent on its fre#ency.
(@*
%his led to a theory of nity between sbatomic particles and electromagnetic
wa!es, called wa!eparticle dality, in which particles and wa!es were neither one nor the other, bt had
certain properties of both.
While #antm mechanics traditionally described the world of the !ery small, it is also needed to e$plain certain
recently in!estigated macroscopic systems sch as spercondctors and sperflids.
%he word quantum deri!es from the &atin, meaning /how great/ or /how mch/.
(A*
"n #antm mechanics, it
refers to a discrete nit that #antm theory assigns to certain physical #antities, sch as the energy of an atom
at rest (see Figre )). %he disco!ery that particles are discrete packets of energy with wa!e+like properties led
to the branch of physics dealing with atomic and sb+atomic systems which is today called #antm mechanics.
"t is the nderlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, inclding condensed matter
physics, solid+state physics, atomic physics, moleclar physics, comptational physics, comptational chemistry,
#antm chemistry, particle physics, nclear chemistry, and nclear physics.
(B*
8ome fndamental aspects of the
theory are still acti!ely stdied.
(5*
Qantm mechanics is essential to nderstanding the beha!ior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller.
For e$ample, if classical mechanics trly go!erned the workings of an atom, electrons wold rapidly tra!el
toward, and collide with, the ncles, making stable atoms impossible. 6owe!er, in the natral world electrons
normally remain in an ncertain, non+deterministic, /smeared/, probabilistic wa!eparticle wa!efnction orbital
path arond (or throgh) the ncles, defying classical electromagnetism.
()2*
Qantm mechanics was initially de!eloped to pro!ide a better e$planation of the atom, especially the
differences in the spectra of light emitted by different isotopes of the same element. %he #antm theory of the
atom was de!eloped as an e$planation for the electron remaining in its orbit, which cold not be e$plained by
9ewtonGs laws of motion and Ma$wellGs laws of (classical) electromagnetism.
7roadly speaking, #antm mechanics incorporates for classes of phenomena for which classical physics
cannot accontH
%he #anti'ation of certain physical properties
Wa!eparticle dality
%he Lncertainty principle
Qantm entanglement.
Mathematical formulations
Main article: Mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics
"ee also: #uantum logic
"n the mathematically rigoros formlation of #antm mechanics de!eloped by Pal <irac
())*
<a!id 6ilbert,
()1*
and 0ohn !on 9emann,
();*
the possible states of a #antm mechanical system are represented by nit !ectors
(called /state !ectors/). Formally, these reside in a comple$ separable 6ilbert space + !ariosly called the /state
space/ or the /associated 6ilbert space/ of the system + that is well defined p to a comple$ nmber of norm )
(the phase factor). "n other words, the possible states are points in the pro,ecti!e space of a 6ilbert space,
sally called the comple$ pro,ecti!e space. %he e$act natre of this 6ilbert space is dependent on the system +
for e$ample, the state space for position and momentm states is the space of s#are+integrable fnctions, while
the state space for the spin of a single proton is ,st the prodct of two comple$ planes. 3ach obser!able is
represented by a ma$imally 6ermitian (preciselyH by a self+ad,oint) linear operator acting on the state space.
3ach eigenstate of an obser!able corresponds to an eigen!ector of the operator, and the associated eigen!ale
corresponds to the !ale of the obser!able in that eigenstate. "f the operatorGs spectrm is discrete, the
obser!able can only attain those discrete eigen!ales.
"n the formalism of #antm mechanics, the state of a system at a gi!en time is described by a comple$ wa!e
fnction, also referred to as state !ector in a comple$ !ector space.
()=*
%his abstract mathematical ob,ect allows
for the calclation of probabilities of otcomes of concrete e$periments. For e$ample, it allows one to compte
the probability of finding an electron in a particlar region arond the ncles at a particlar time. :ontrary to
classical mechanics, one can ne!er make simltaneos predictions of con,gate !ariables, sch as position and
momentm, with accracy. For instance, electrons may be considered (to a certain probability) to be located
somewhere within a gi!en region of space, bt with their e$act positions nknown. :ontors of constant
probability, often referred to as /clods/, may be drawn arond the ncles of an atom to conceptali'e where
the electron might be located with the most probability. 6eisenbergGs ncertainty principle #antifies the inability
to precisely locate the particle gi!en its con,gate momentm.
()?*
-ccording to one interpretation, as the reslt of a measrement the wa!e fnction containing the probability
information for a system collapses from a gi!en initial state to a particlar eigenstate. %he possible reslts of a
measrement are the eigen!ales of the operator representing the obser!able . which e$plains the choice of
Hermitian operators, for which all the eigen!ales are real. %he probability distribtion of an obser!able in a
gi!en state can be fond by compting the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator. 6eisenbergGs
ncertainty principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain obser!ables do
not commte.
%he probabilistic natre of #antm mechanics ths stems from the act of measrement. %his is one of the most
difficlt aspects of #antm systems to nderstand. "t was the central topic in the famos 7ohr+3instein debates,
in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fndamental principles by way of thoght e$periments. "n
the decades after the formlation of #antm mechanics, the #estion of what constittes a /measrement/ has
been e$tensi!ely stdied. 9ewer interpretations of #antm mechanics ha!e been formlated that do away with
the concept of /wa!efnction collapse/ (see, for e$ample, the relati!e state interpretation). %he basic idea is that
when a #antm system interacts with a measring apparats, their respecti!e wa!efnctions become entangled,
so that the original #antm system ceases to e$ist as an independent entity. For details, see the article on
measrement in #antm mechanics.
()@*
Eenerally, #antm mechanics does not assign definite !ales. "nstead, it makes a prediction sing a probability
distribtion4 that is, it describes the probability of obtaining the possible otcomes from measring an
obser!able. Dften these reslts are skewed by many cases, sch as dense probability clods. Probability
clods are appro$imate, bt better than the 7ohr model, whereby electron location is gi!en by a probability
fnction, the wa!e fnction eigen!ale, sch that the probability is the s#ared modls of the comple$
amplitde, or #antm state nclear attraction.
()A*()B*
9atrally, these probabilities will depend on the #antm
state at the /instant/ of the measrement. 6ence, ncertainty is in!ol!ed in the !ale. %here are, howe!er, certain
states that are associated with a definite !ale of a particlar obser!able. %hese are known as eigenstates of the
obser!able (/eigen/ can be translated from Eerman as meaning /inherent/ or /characteristic/).
()5*
"n the e!eryday world, it is natral and intiti!e to think of e!erything (e!ery obser!able) as being in an
eigenstate. 3!erything appears to ha!e a definite position, a definite momentm, a definite energy, and a definite
time of occrrence. 6owe!er, #antm mechanics does not pinpoint the e$act !ales of a particleGs position and
momentm (since they are con,gate pairs) or its energy and time (since they too are con,gate pairs)4 rather, it
only pro!ides a range of probabilities of where that particle might be gi!en its momentm and momentm
probability. %herefore, it is helpfl to se different words to describe states ha!ing uncertain !ales and states
ha!ing definite !ales (eigenstates). Lsally, a system will not be in an eigenstate of the obser!able (particle) we
are interested in. 6owe!er, if one measres the obser!able, the wa!efnction will instantaneosly be an
eigenstate (or /generali'ed/ eigenstate) of that obser!able. %his process is known as wa!efnction collapse, a
contro!ersial and mch+debated process
(12*
that in!ol!es e$panding the system nder stdy to inclde the
measrement de!ice. "f one knows the corresponding wa!e fnction at the instant before the measrement, one
will be able to compte the probability of the wa!efnction collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates. For
e$ample, the free particle in the pre!ios e$ample will sally ha!e a wa!efnction that is a wa!e packet
centered arond some mean position $
2
(neither an eigenstate of position nor of momentm). When one
measres the position of the particle, it is impossible to predict with certainty the reslt.
()@*
"t is probable, bt not
certain, that it will be near $
2
, where the amplitde of the wa!e fnction is large. -fter the measrement is
performed, ha!ing obtained some reslt $, the wa!e fnction collapses into a position eigenstate centered at
$.
(1)*
%he time e!oltion of a #antm state is described by the 8chrKdinger e#ation, in which the 6amiltonian (the
operator corresponding to the total energy of the system) generates the time e!oltion. %he time e!oltion of
wa!e fnctions is deterministic in the sense that + gi!en a wa!efnction at an initial time + it makes a definite
prediction of what the wa!efnction will be at any later time.
(11*
<ring a measrement, on the other hand, the change of the initial wa!efnction into another, later wa!efnction
is not deterministic, it is npredictable (i.e. random). - time+e!oltion simlation can be seen here.
(1;*(1=*
Wa!e fnctions change as time progresses. %he 8chrKdinger e#ation describes how wa!efnctions change in
time, playing a role similar to 9ewtonGs second law in classical mechanics. %he 8chrKdinger e#ation, applied to
Fig. )H Probability densities corresponding to
the wa!efnctions of an electron in a hydrogen
atom possessing definite energy le!els
(increasing from the top of the image to the
bottomH n M ), 1, ;, ...) and anglar momenta
(increasing across from left to rightH s, p, d,
...). 7righter areas correspond to higher
probability density in a position measrement.
Wa!efnctions like these are directly
comparable to :hladniGs figres of acostic
modes of !ibration in classical physics, and are
indeed modes of oscillation as well, possessing
a sharp energy and, ths, a definite fre#ency.
%he anglar momentm and energy are
#anti'ed, and take only discrete !ales like
those shown (as is the case for resonant
fre#encies in acostics)
the aforementioned e$ample of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wa!e packet will mo!e throgh
space at a constant !elocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). 6owe!er, the wa!e packet will
also spread ot as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more ncertain with time. %his also
has the effect of trning a position eigenstate (which can be thoght of as an infinitely sharp wa!e packet) into a
broadened wa!e packet that no longer represents a (definite, certain) position eigenstate.
(1?*
8ome wa!e fnctions prodce probability distribtions that
are constant, or independent of time + sch as when in a
stationary state of constant energy, time !anishes in the
absolte s#are of the wa!e fnction. Many systems that are
treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by
sch /static/ wa!e fnctions. For e$ample, a single electron
in an ne$cited atom is pictred classically as a particle
mo!ing in a circlar tra,ectory arond the atomic ncles,
whereas in #antm mechanics it is described by a static,
spherically symmetric wa!efnction srronding the ncles
(Fig. )) (note, howe!er, that only the lowest anglar
momentm states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric).
(1@*
%he 8chrKdinger e#ation acts on the entire probability
amplitde, not merely its absolte !ale. Whereas the
absolte !ale of the probability amplitde encodes
information abot probabilities, its phase encodes
information abot the interference between #antm states.
%his gi!es rise to the /wa!e+like/ beha!ior of #antm states.
-s it trns ot, analytic soltions of the 8chrKdinger e#ation
are only a!ailable for a !ery small nmber of relati!ely simple
model 6amiltonians, of which the #antm harmonic
oscillator, the particle in a bo$, the hydrogen moleclar ion,
and the hydrogen atom are the most important
representati!es. 3!en the helim atom + which contains ,st
one more electron than does the hydrogen atom + has defied
all attempts at a flly analytic treatment.
%here e$ist se!eral techni#es for generating appro$imate
soltions, howe!er. "n the important method known as
pertrbation theory, one ses the analytic reslt for a simple
#antm mechanical model to generate a reslt for a more
complicated model that is related to the simpler model by
(for one e$ample) the addition of a weak potential energy.
-nother method is the /semi+classical e#ation of motion/ approach, which applies to systems for which
#antm mechanics prodces only weak (small) de!iations from classical beha!ior. %hese de!iations can then
be compted based on the classical motion. %his approach is particlarly important in the field of #antm
chaos.
Mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics
%here are nmeros mathematically e#i!alent formlations of #antm mechanics. Dne of the oldest and most
commonly sed formlations is the /transformation theory/ proposed by the late :ambridge theoretical physicist
Pal <irac, which nifies and generali'es the two earliest formlations of #antm mechanics + matri$ mechanics
(in!ented by Werner 6eisenberg)
(1A*
and wa!e mechanics (in!ented by 3rwin 8chrKdinger).
(1B*
List of unsolved problems in
physics
%n the correspondence limit of
quantum mechanics: %s there
a preferred interpretation of
quantum mechanics& How
does the quantum description
of reality, which includes
elements such as the
'superposition of states' and
'wavefunction collapse',
give rise to the reality we
perceive&
3specially since Werner 6eisenberg was awarded the 9obel Pri'e in Physics in )5;1 for the creation of
#antm mechanics, the role of Ma$ 7orn in the de!elopment of QM has become somewhat confsed and
o!erlooked. - 122? biography of 7orn details his role as the creator of the matri$ formlation of #antm
mechanics. %his fact was recogni'ed in a paper that 6eisenberg himself pblished in )5=2 honoring Ma$
Planck.
(15*
and "n the matri$ formlation, the instantaneos state of a #antm system encodes the probabilities
of its measrable properties, or /obser!ables/. 3$amples of obser!ables inclde energy, position, momentm,
and anglar momentm. Dbser!ables can be either continos (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g.,
the energy of an electron bond to a hydrogen atom).
(;2*
-n alternati!e formlation of #antm mechanics is
FeynmanGs path integral formlation, in which a #antm+mechanical amplitde is considered as a sm o!er all
possible histories between the initial and final states. %his is the #antm+mechanical conterpart of the action
principle in classical mechanics.
Interactions with other scientific theories
%he rles of #antm mechanics are fndamental. %hey assert that the state space of a system is a 6ilbert space,
and that obser!ables of that system are 6ermitian operators acting on that space.althogh they do not tell s
which 6ilbert space or which operators. %hese can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a #antitati!e
description of a #antm system. -n important gide for making these choices is the correspondence principle,
which states that the predictions of #antm mechanics redce to those of classical mechanics when a system
mo!es to higher energies or.e#i!alently.larger #antm nmbers, i.e. whereas a single particle e$hibits a
degree of randomness, in systems incorporating millions of particles a!eraging takes o!er and, at the high energy
limit, the statistical probability of random beha!ior approaches 'ero. "n other words, classical mechanics is
simply a #antm mechanics of large systems. %his /high energy/ limit is known as the classical or
correspondence limit. Dne can e!en start from an established classical model of a particlar system, then
attempt to gess the nderlying #antm model that wold gi!e rise to the classical model in the correspondence
limit.
When #antm mechanics was originally formlated, it was applied to
models whose correspondence limit was non+relati!istic classical
mechanics. For instance, the well+known model of the #antm harmonic
oscillator ses an e$plicitly non+relati!istic e$pression for the kinetic
energy of the oscillator, and is ths a #antm !ersion of the classical
harmonic oscillator.
3arly attempts to merge #antm mechanics with special relati!ity
in!ol!ed the replacement of the 8chrKdinger e#ation with a co!ariant
e#ation sch as the Flein+Eordon e#ation or the <irac e#ation. While
these theories were sccessfl in e$plaining many e$perimental reslts,
they had certain nsatisfactory #alities stemming from their neglect of the
relati!istic creation and annihilation of particles. - flly relati!istic
#antm theory re#ired the de!elopment of #antm field theory, which
applies #anti'ation to a field (rather than a fi$ed set of particles). %he
first complete #antm field theory, #antm electrodynamics, pro!ides a
flly #antm description of the electromagnetic interaction. %he fll apparats of #antm field theory is often
nnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. - simpler approach, one that has been employed since the
inception of #antm mechanics, is to treat charged particles as #antm mechanical ob,ects being acted on by
a classical electromagnetic field. For e$ample, the elementary #antm model of the hydrogen atom describes
the electric field of the hydrogen atom sing a classical :olomb potential. %his /semi+classical/
approach fails if #antm flctations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, sch as in the emission
of photons by charged particles.
Qantm field theories for the strong nclear force and the weak nclear force ha!e also been de!eloped. %he
#antm field theory of the strong nclear force is called #antm chromodynamics, and describes the
interactions of sbnclear particles sch as #arks and glons. %he weak nclear force and the electromagnetic
force were nified, in their #anti'ed forms, into a single #antm field theory (known as electroweak theory),
by the physicists -bds 8alam, 8heldon Elashow and 8te!en Weinberg. %hese three men shared the 9obel
Pri'e in Physics in )5A5 for this work.
(;)*
"t has pro!en difficlt to constrct #antm models of gra!ity, the remaining fndamental force. 8emi+classical
appro$imations are workable, and ha!e led to predictions sch as 6awking radiation. 6owe!er, the formlation
of a complete theory of #antm gra!ity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relati!ity (the
most accrate theory of gra!ity crrently known) and some of the fndamental assmptions of #antm theory.
%he resoltion of these incompatibilities is an area of acti!e research, and theories sch as string theory are
among the possible candidates for a ftre theory of #antm gra!ity.
:lassical mechanics has also been e$tended into the comple$ domain, with comple$ classical mechanics
e$hibiting beha!iors similar to #antm mechanics.
(;1*
Quantum mechanics and classical physics
Predictions of #antm mechanics ha!e been !erified e$perimentally to an e$tremely high degree of accracy.
-ccording to the correspondence principle between classical and #antm mechanics, all ob,ects obey the laws
of #antm mechanics, and classical mechanics is ,st an appro$imation for large systems of ob,ects (or a
statistical #antm mechanics of a large collection of particles). %he laws of classical mechanics ths follow from
the laws of #antm mechanics as a statistical a!erage at the limit of large systems or large #antm nmbers.
(;;*
6owe!er, chaotic systems do not ha!e good #antm nmbers, and #antm chaos stdies the relationship
between classical and #antm descriptions in these systems.
Qantm coherence is an essential difference between classical and #antm theories, and is illstrated by the
3instein+Podolsky+>osen parado$. Qantm interference in!ol!es adding together probability amplitudes,
whereas classical /wa!es/ infer that there is an adding together of intensities. For microscopic bodies, the
e$tension of the system is mch smaller than the coherence length, which gi!es rise to long+range entanglement
and other nonlocal phenomena that are characteristic of #antm systems.
(;=*
Qantm coherence is not
typically e!ident at macroscopic scales + althogh an e$ception to this rle can occr at e$tremely low
temperatres (i.e. approaching absolte 'ero), when #antm beha!ior can manifest itself on more macroscopic
scales (see macroscopic #antm phenomena, 7ose+3instein condensate, and Qantm machine). %his is in
accordance with the following obser!ationsH
Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct conse#ence of the #antm beha!ior of
its parts. For e$ample, the stability of blk matter (which consists of atoms and molecles which wold
#ickly collapse nder electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical,
optical and magnetic properties of matter are all reslts of the interaction of electric charges nder the
rles of #antm mechanics.
(;?*
While the seemingly /e$otic/ beha!ior of matter posited by #antm mechanics and relati!ity theory
become more apparent when dealing with particles of e$tremely small si'e or !elocities approaching the
speed of light, the laws of classical 9ewtonian physics remain accrate in predicting the beha!ior of the
!ast ma,ority of /large/ ob,ects (on the order of the si'e of large molecles or bigger) at !elocities mch
smaller than the !elocity of light.
(;@*
Relativity and quantum mechanics
Main articles: #uantum gravity and (heory of everything
3!en with the defining postlates of both 3insteinGs theory of general relati!ity and #antm theory being
indisptably spported by rigoros and repeated empirical e!idence and while they do not directly contradict
each other theoretically (at least with regard to their primary claims), they ha!e pro!en e$tremely difficlt to
incorporate into one consistent, cohesi!e model.
(;A*
3instein himself is well known for re,ecting some of the claims of #antm mechanics. While clearly contribting
to the field, he did not accept many of the more /philosophical conse#ences and interpretations/ of #antm
mechanics, sch as the lack of deterministic casality. 6e is famosly #oted as saying, in response to this
aspect, /My Eod does not play with dice/. 6e also had difficlty with the assertion that a single sbatomic
particle can occpy nmeros areas of space at one time. 6owe!er, he was also the first to notice some of the
apparently e$otic conse#ences of entanglement, and sed them to formlate the 3instein+Podolsky+>osen
parado$ in the hope of showing that #antm mechanics had nacceptable implications. %his was )5;?, bt in
)5@= it was shown by 0ohn 7ell (see 7ell ine#ality) that + althogh 3instein was correct in identifying seemingly
parado$ical implications of #antm mechanical nonlocality + these implications cold be e$perimentally tested.
-lain -spectGs initial e$periments in )5B1, and many sbse#ent e$periments since, ha!e definiti!ely !erified
#antm entanglement.
-ccording to the paper of 0. 7ell and the :openhagen interpretation + the common interpretation of #antm
mechanics by physicists since )51A + and contrary to 3insteinGs ideas, #antm mechanics was not, at the same
timeH
a /realistic/ theory
and
a local theory.
%he 3instein+Podolsky+>osen parado$ shows in any case that there e$ist e$periments by which one can
measre the state of one particle and instantaneosly change the state of its entangled partner + althogh the two
particles can be an arbitrary distance apart. 6owe!er, this effect does not !iolate casality, since no transfer of
information happens. Qantm entanglement forms the basis of #antm cryptography, which is sed in high+
secrity commercial applications in banking and go!ernment.
Era!ity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that nification between general relati!ity and #antm
mechanics is not an rgent isse in those particlar applications. 6owe!er, the lack of a correct theory of
#antm gra!ity is an important isse in cosmology and the search by physicists for an elegant /%heory of
3!erything/ (%D3). :onse#ently, resol!ing the inconsistencies between both theories has been a ma,or goal of
12th and 1)st centry physics. Many prominent physicists, inclding 8tephen 6awking, ha!e labored for many
years in the attempt to disco!er a theory nderlying everything. %his %D3 wold combine not only the different
models of sbatomic physics, bt also deri!e the for fndamental forces of natre + the strong force,
electromagnetism, the weak force, and gra!ity + from a single force or phenomenon. While 8tephen 6awking
was initially a belie!er in the %heory of 3!erything, after considering EKdelGs "ncompleteness %heorem, he has
conclded that one is not obtainable, and has stated so pblicly in his lectre /EKdel and the 3nd of Physics/
(1221).
(;B*
Attempts at a unified field theory
Main article: )rand unified theory
%he #est to nify the fndamental forces throgh #antm mechanics is still ongoing. Qantm electrodynamics
(or /#antm electromagnetism/), which is crrently (in the pertrbati!e regime at least) the most accrately
tested physical theory,
(;5*(blog)
has been sccessflly merged with the weak nclear force into the electroweak
force and work is crrently being done to merge the electroweak and strong force into the electrostrong force.
:rrent predictions state that at arond )2
)=
EeI the three aforementioned forces are fsed into a single nified
field,
(=2*
7eyond this /grand nification,/ it is speclated that it may be possible to merge gra!ity with the other
three gage symmetries, e$pected to occr at roghly )2
)5
EeI. 6owe!er . and while special relati!ity is
parsimoniosly incorporated into #antm electrodynamics . the e$panded general relati!ity, crrently the best
theory describing the gra!itation force, has not been flly incorporated into #antm theory. Dne of the leading
athorities contining the search for a coherent %D3 is 3dward Witten, a theoretical physicist who formlated
the grondbreaking M+theory, which is an attempt at describing the spersymmetrical based string theory. M+
theory posits that or apparent =+dimensional spacetime is, in reality, actally an ))+dimensional spacetime
containing )2 spatial dimensions and ) time dimension, althogh A of the spatial dimensions are + at lower
energies + completely /compactified/ (or infinitely cr!ed) and not readily amenable to measrement or probing.
Dther poplar theory is Loop quantum gravity (&QE) a theory that describes the #antm properties of
gra!ity. "t is also a theory of #antm space and #antm time, becase, as disco!ered with general relati!ity,
the geometry of spacetime is a manifestation of gra!ity. &QE is an attempt to merge and adapt standard
#antm mechanics and standard general relati!ity. %he main otpt of the theory is a physical pictre of space
where space is granlar. %he granlarity is a direct conse#ence of the #anti'ation. "t has the same natre of the
granlarity of the photons in the #antm theory of electromagnetism or the discrete le!els of the energy of the
atoms. 7t here it is space itself which is discrete. More precisely, space can be !iewed as an e$tremely fine
fabric or network /wo!en/ of finite loops. %hese networks of loops are called spin networks. %he e!oltion of a
spin network o!er time, is called a spin foam. %he predicted si'e of this strctre is the Planck length, which is
appro$imately meters. -ccording to the theory, there is no meaning to distance at scales smaller than the Planck
scale. %herefore &QE predicts that not ,st matter, bt also space itself, has an atomic strctre. &oop #antm
Era!ity was first proposed by :arlo >o!elli.
hilosophical implications
Main article: %nterpretations of quantum mechanics
8ince its inception, the many conter+intiti!e aspects and reslts of #antm mechanics ha!e pro!oked strong
philosophical debates and many interpretations. 3!en fndamental isses, sch as Ma$ 7ornGs basic rles
concerning probability amplitdes and probability distribtions took decades to be appreciated by society and
many leading scientists. "ndeed, the renowned physicist >ichard Feynman once said, /" think " can safely say
that nobody nderstands #antm mechanics./
(=)*
%he :openhagen interpretation + de largely to the <anish theoretical physicist 9iels 7ohr + remains the
#antm mechanical formalism that is crrently most widely accepted amongst physicists, some A? years after its
ennciation. -ccording to this interpretation, the probabilistic natre of #antm mechanics is not a temporary
featre which will e!entally be replaced by a deterministic theory, bt instead mst be considered a final
rennciation of the classical idea of /casality/. "t is also belie!ed therein that any well+defined application of the
#antm mechanical formalism mst always make reference to the e$perimental arrangement, de to the
complementarity natre of e!idence obtained nder different e$perimental sitations.
-lbert 3instein, himself one of the fonders of #antm theory, disliked this loss of determinism in measrement.
3instein held that there shold be a local hidden !ariable theory nderlying #antm mechanics and,
conse#ently, that the present theory was incomplete. 6e prodced a series of ob,ections to the theory, the
most famos of which has become known as the 3instein+Podolsky+>osen parado$. 0ohn 7ell showed that this
/3P>/ parado$ led to e$perimentally testable differences between #antm mechanics and local realistic
theories. 3$periments ha!e been performed confirming the accracy of #antm mechanics, thereby
theories. 3$periments ha!e been performed confirming the accracy of #antm mechanics, thereby
demonstrating that the physical world cannot be described by any local realistic theory.
(=1*
%he *ohr-instein
debates pro!ide a !ibrant criti#e of the :openhagen "nterpretation from an epistemological point of !iew.
%he 3!erett many+worlds interpretation, formlated in )5?@, holds that all the possibilities described by
#antm theory simultaneously occr in a mlti!erse composed of mostly independent parallel ni!erses.
(=;*
%his is not accomplished by introdcing some /new a$iom/ to #antm mechanics, bt on the contrary, by
removing the a$iom of the collapse of the wa!e packet. +ll of the possible consistent states of the measred
system and the measring apparats (inclding the obser!er) are present in a real physical + not ,st formally
mathematical, as in other interpretations + #antm sperposition. 8ch a sperposition of consistent state
combinations of different systems is called an entangled state. While the mlti!erse is deterministic, we percei!e
non+deterministic beha!ior go!erned by probabilities, becase we can obser!e only the ni!erse (i.e., the
consistent state contribtion to the aforementioned sperposition) that we, as obser!ers, inhabit. 3!erettGs
interpretation is perfectly consistent with 0ohn 7ellGs e$periments and makes them intiti!ely nderstandable.
6owe!er, according to the theory of #antm decoherence, these /parallel ni!erses/ will ne!er be accessible to
s. %he inaccessibility can be nderstood as followsH once a measrement is done, the measred system
becomes entangled with both the physicist who measred it and a hge nmber of other particles, some of
which are photons flying away at the speed of light towards the other end of the ni!erse. "n order to pro!e that
the wa!e fnction did not collapse, one wold ha!e to bring all these particles back and measre them again,
together with the system that was originally measred. 9ot only is this completely impractical, bt e!en if one
could theoretically do this, it wold destroy any evidence that the original measurement too! place (to
inclde the physicistGs memory).
(citation needed*
"n light of these 7ell tests, :ramer ()5B@) formlated his
%ransactional interpretation.
(==*
>elational #antm mechanics appeared in the late )552Gs as the modern
deri!ati!e of the :openhagen "nterpretation.
Applications
Qantm mechanics had enormos
(=?*
sccess in e$plaining many of the featres of or world. %he indi!idal
beha!iors of the sbatomic particles that make p all forms of matter (electrons, protons, netrons, photons, and
others) can often only be satisfactorily described sing #antm mechanics. Qantm mechanics has strongly
inflenced string theories, candidates for a %heory of 3!erything (see redctionism), and the mlti!erse
hypotheses.
Qantm mechanics is also critically important for nderstanding how indi!idal atoms combine co!alently to
form molecles. %he application of #antm mechanics to chemistry is known as #antm chemistry. >elati!istic
#antm mechanics can, in principle, mathematically describe most of chemistry. Qantm mechanics can also
pro!ide #antitati!e insight into ionic and co!alent bonding processes by e$plicitly showing which molecles are
energetically fa!orable to which others, and the magnitdes of the energies in!ol!ed.
(=@*
Frthermore, most of
the calclations performed in modern comptational chemistry rely on #antm mechanics.
- great deal of modern technological in!entions operate at a scale where #antm effects are significant.
3$amples inclde the laser, the transistor (and ths the microchip), the electron microscope, and magnetic
resonance imaging (M>"). %he stdy of semicondctors led to the in!ention of the diode and the transistor,
which are indispensable parts of modern electronics systems and de!ices.
>esearchers are crrently seeking robst methods of directly maniplating #antm states. 3fforts are being
made to more flly de!elop #antm cryptography, which will theoretically allow garanteed secre transmission
of information. - more distant goal is the de!elopment of #antm compters, which are e$pected to perform
certain comptational tasks e$ponentially faster than classical compters. -nother acti!e research topic is
#antm teleportation, which deals with techni#es to transmit #antm information o!er arbitrary distances.
Qantm tnneling is !ital to the operation of many de!ices + e!en in the simple light switch, as otherwise the
- working mechanism of a resonant tnneling diode de!ice,
based on the phenomenon of #antm tnneling throgh
potential barriers
Qantm tnneling is !ital to the operation of many de!ices + e!en in the simple light switch, as otherwise the
electrons in the electric crrent cold not
penetrate the potential barrier made p of a
layer of o$ide. Flash memory chips fond in
L87 dri!es se #antm tnneling to erase their
memory cells.
While #antm mechanics primarily applies to
the atomic regimes of matter and energy, some
systems e$hibit #antm mechanical effects on a
large scale + sperflidity, the frictionless flow of
a li#id at temperatres near absolte 'ero, is
one well+known e$ample. Qantm theory also
pro!ides accrate descriptions for many
pre!iosly ne$plained phenomena, sch as
black body radiation and the stability of the
orbitals of electrons in atoms. "t has also gi!en
insight into the workings of many different
biological systems, inclding smell receptors and
protein strctres.
(=A*
>ecent work on
photosynthesis has pro!ided e!idence that
#antm correlations play an essential role in this basic fndamental process of the plant kingdom.
(=B*
3!en so,
classical physics can often pro!ide good appro$imations to reslts otherwise obtained by #antm physics,
typically in circmstances with large nmbers of particles or large #antm nmbers.
"#amples
$ree particle
For e$ample, consider a free particle. "n #antm mechanics, there is wa!e+particle dality, so the properties of
the particle can be described as the properties of a wa!e. %herefore, its #antm state can be represented as a
wa!e of arbitrary shape and e$tending o!er space as a wa!e fnction. %he position and momentm of the
particle are obser!ables. %he Lncertainty Principle states that both the position and the momentm cannot
simltaneosly be measred with complete precision. 6owe!er, one can measre the position (alone) of a
mo!ing free particle, creating an eigenstate of position with a wa!efnction that is !ery large (a <irac delta) at a
particlar position $, and 'ero e!erywhere else. "f one performs a position measrement on sch a
wa!efnction, the resltant $ will be obtained with )22N probability (i.e., with fll certainty, or complete
precision). %his is called an eigenstate of position.or, stated in mathematical terms, a generali,ed position
eigenstate -eigendistribution.. "f the particle is in an eigenstate of position, then its momentm is completely
nknown. Dn the other hand, if the particle is in an eigenstate of momentm, then its position is completely
nknown.
(=5*
"n an eigenstate of momentm ha!ing a plane wa!e form, it can be shown that the wa!elength is
e#al to h/p, where h is PlanckGs constant and p is the momentm of the eigenstate.
(?2*
8cattering at a finite potential step of height 0
2
, shown in green. %he
amplitdes and direction of left+ and right+mo!ing wa!es are
indicated. Cellow is the incident wa!e, ble are reflected and
transmitted wa!es, red does not occr. O 0
2
for this figre.
;< confined electron wa!e fnctions for each eigenstate in a Qantm <ot. 6ere, rectanglar and
trianglar+shaped #antm dots are shown. 3nergy states in rectanglar dots are more Ps+typeQ and Pp+
typeQ. 6owe!er, in a trianglar dot, the wa!e fnctions are mi$ed de to confinement symmetry.
%tep potential
Main article: "olution of "chr1dinger equation for a step potential
%he potential in this case is gi!en byH
%he soltions are sperpositions of left+
and right+mo!ing wa!esH
,
where the wa!e !ectors are related to the energy !ia
)+dimensional potential energy bo$
(or infinite potential well)
, and
and the coefficients - and 7 are determined from the bondary conditions and by imposing a continos
deri!ati!e on the soltion.
3ach term of the soltion can be interpreted as an incident, reflected, or transmitted component of the wa!e,
allowing the calclation of transmission and reflection coefficients. "n contrast to classical mechanics, incident
particles with energies higher than the si'e of the potential step are still partially reflected.
Rectangular potential barrier
Main article: 2ectangular potential barrier
%his is a model for the #antm tnneling effect, which has important applications to modern de!ices sch as
flash memory and the scanning tnneling microscope.
article in a bo#
Main article: Particle in a bo$
%he particle in a one+dimensional potential energy bo$ is the most
simple e$ample where restraints lead to the #anti'ation of energy
le!els. %he bo$ is defined as ha!ing 'ero potential energy e!erywhere
inside a certain region, and infinite potential energy e!erywhere
outside3 that region. 4or the one-dimensional case in the
direction, the time-independent "chr1dinger equation can be
written as:
(?)*
Writing the differential operator
the pre!ios e#ation can be seen to be e!ocati!e of the classic kinetic energy analoge
with as the energy for the state , which in this case coincides with the kinetic energy of the particle.
%he general soltions of the 8chrKdinger e#ation for the particle in a bo$ areH
or, from 3lerGs formla,
%he presence of the walls of the bo$ determines the !ales of 5, 6, and k. -t each wall ($ M 2 and $ M 7),
8 M 2. %hs when $ M 2,
and so 6 M 2. When $ M 7,
5 cannot be 'ero, since this wold conflict with the 7orn interpretation. %herefore, sinRk7 M 2, and so it mst be
that k7 is an integer mltiple of S. -nd additionally,
%he #anti'ation of energy le!els follows from this constraint on k, since
$inite potential well
Main article: 4inite potential well
%his is the generali'ation of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells of finite depth.
Harmonic oscillator
Main article: #uantum harmonic oscillator
-s in the classical case, the potential for the #antm
harmonic oscillator is gi!en byH
%his problem can be sol!ed either by sol!ing the
8chrKdinger e#ation directly, which is not tri!ial, or by
sing the more elegant /ladder method/, first proposed
by Pal <irac. %he eigenstates are gi!en byH
8ome tra,ectories of a harmonic oscillator (i.e. a ball
attached to a spring) in classical mechanics (-+7)
and #antm mechanics (:+6). "n #antm
mechanics, the position of the ball is represented by
a wa!e (called the wa!efnction), with the real part
shown in ble and the imaginary part shown in red.
8ome of the tra,ectories (sch as :,<,3,and F) are
standing wa!es (or /stationary states/). 3ach
standing+wa!e fre#ency is proportional to a
possible energy le!el of the oscillator. %his /energy
#anti'ation/ does not occr in classical physics,
where the oscillator can ha!e any energy.
where H
n
are the 6ermite polynomialsH
and the corresponding energy le!els are
.
%his is another e$ample which illstrates the #anti'ation of energy for bond states.
%ee also
3P> parado$
Macroscopic #antm phenomena
&otes
). ' %he anglar momentm of an nbond electron, in contrast, is not #anti'ed.
1. ' !an 6o!e, &eon ()5?B). /Ion 9emannGs contribtions to #antm mechanics/
(httpHTTwww.ams.orgT,ornalsTbllT)5?B+@=+2;T82221+552=+)5?B+)212@+1T82221+552=+)5?B+)212@+1.pdf)
(P<F). *ulletin of the +merican Mathematical "ociety ()H Part1H5?55.
httpHTTwww.ams.orgT,ornalsTbllT)5?B+@=+2;T82221+552=+)5?B+)212@+1T82221+552=+)5?B+)212@+1.pdf.
;. ' Ma$ 7orn U 3mil Wolf, Principles of Dptics, )555, :ambridge Lni!ersity Press
=. ' Mehra, 0.4 >echenberg, 6. ()5B1). (he historical development of quantum theory. 9ew CorkH 8pringer+
Ierlag. "879 2;BA52@=1B.
?. ' Fhn, %. 8. ()5AB). *lack-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 9:;<-9;9=. D$fordH :larendon Press.
"879 2)5?21;B;B.
@. ' 3instein, -. ()52?). /Vber einen die 3r'egng nd Ierwandlng des &ichtes betreffenden heristischen
Eesichtspnkt (Dn a heristic point of !iew concerning the prodction and transformation of light*/. +nnalen
der Physik *+ (@)H );1)=B. 7ibcode )52?-nP...;11..);13
(httpHTTadsabs.har!ard.edTabsT)52?-nP...;11..);13) . doiH)2.)221Tandp.)52?;112@2A
(httpHTTd$.doi.orgT)2.)221N1Fandp.)52?;112@2A) . >eprinted in (he collected papers of +lbert instein, 0ohn
8tachel, editor, Princeton Lni!ersity Press, )5B5, Iol. 1, pp. )=5+)@@, in Eerman4 see also instein3s early
8tachel, editor, Princeton Lni!ersity Press, )5B5, Iol. 1, pp. )=5+)@@, in Eerman4 see also instein3s early
work on the quantum hypothesis, ibid. pp. );=+)=B.
A. ' /Qantm + <efinition and More from the Free Merriam+Webster <ictionary/ (httpHTTwww.merriam+
webster.comTdictionaryT#antm) . Merriam+webster.com. httpHTTwww.merriam+
webster.comTdictionaryT#antm. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
B. ' httpHTTmooni.fcc,.orgTWethallT#antmT#ant.htm
5. ' :ompare the list of conferences presented here (httpHTTysfine.comT)
)2. ' Docities.com (httpHTTweb.archi!e.orgT1225)21@25?=)2ThttpHTTgeocities.comTmikXmalmT#antmech.html) at
the Wayback Machine (archi!ed Dctober 1@, 1225)
)). ' P.-.M. <irac, (he Principles of #uantum Mechanics, :larendon Press, D$ford, )5;2.
)1. ' <. 6ilbert 7ectures on #uantum (heory, )5)?+)51A
);. ' 0. !on 9emann, Mathematische )rundlagen der #uantenmechanik, 8pringer, 7erlin, )5;1 (3nglish
translationH Mathematical 4oundations of #uantum Mechanics, Princeton Lni!ersity Press, )5??).
)=. ' Ereiner, Walter4 MYller, 7erndt ()55=). #uantum Mechanics "ymmetries, "econd edition
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMg:f!W$@!'L:UpgMP-?1) . 8pringer+Ierlag. p. ?1. "879 ;+?=2+?B2B2+
B. httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMg:f!W$@!'L:UpgMP-?1., :hapter ), p. ?1
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMg:f!W$@!'L:UpgMP-?1)
)?. ' /6eisenberg + Qantm Mechanics, )51?+)51AH %he Lncertainty >elations/
(httpHTTwww.aip.orgThistoryTheisenbergTp2Ba.htm) . -ip.org. httpHTTwww.aip.orgThistoryTheisenbergTp2Ba.htm.
>etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
)@. [
a

b
Ereenstein, Eeorge4 Ja,onc, -rthr (122@). (he #uantum 5hallenge: Modern 2esearch on the
4oundations of #uantum Mechanics, "econd edition (httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZ
idM?t2tm2F7):s:UpgMP-1)?) . 0ones and 7artlett Pblishers, "nc. p. 1)?. "879 2+A@;A+1=A2+\.
httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidM?t2tm2F7):s:UpgMP-1)?., :hapter B, p. 1)?
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidM?t2tm2F7):s:UpgMP-1)?)
)A. ' /(-bstract* Iisali'ation of Lncertain Particle Mo!ement/ (httpHTTwww.actapress.comTPaper"nfo.asp$Z
Paper"<M1?5BBUreasonM?22) . -ctapress.com. httpHTTwww.actapress.comTPaper"nfo.asp$Z
Paper"<M1?5BBUreasonM?22. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
)B. ' 6irshleifer, 0ack (122)). (he 6ark "ide of the 4orce: conomic 4oundations of 5onflict (heory
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMW101"\giJIg:UpgMP-1@?) . :ampbridge Lni!ersity Press. p. 1@?.
"879 2+?1)+B2=)1+=. httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMW101"\giJIg:UpgMP-1@?., :hapter , p.
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMW101"\giJIg:UpgMP-1@?)
)5. ' <ict.cc (httpHTTwww.dict.ccTgerman+englishTeigen.html)
<e.pons.e (httpHTTde.pons.eTdetsch+englischTeigen)
12. ' /%opicsH Wa!e+Fnction :ollapse/ (httpHTTwww.phy.olemiss.edTWlcaT%opicsT#mTcollapse.html) .
Phy.olemiss.ed. 12)1+2A+1A. httpHTTwww.phy.olemiss.edTWlcaT%opicsT#mTcollapse.html. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+
)B.
1). ' /:ollapse of the wa!e+fnction/ (httpHTTfarside.ph.te$as.edTteachingT#mechTlectresTnode1B.html) .
Farside.ph.te$as.ed. httpHTTfarside.ph.te$as.edTteachingT#mechTlectresTnode1B.html. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+
)B.
11. ' /<eterminism and 9ai!e >ealism H philosophy/
(httpHTTwww.reddit.comTrTphilosophyTcommentsTBp1#!TdeterminismXandXnai!eXrealismT) . >eddit.com. 1225+
2@+2). httpHTTwww.reddit.comTrTphilosophyTcommentsTBp1#!TdeterminismXandXnai!eXrealismT. >etrie!ed
12)1+2B+)B.
1;. ' Michael %rott. /%ime+3!oltion of a Wa!epacket in a 8#are Well . Wolfram <emonstrations Pro,ect/
(httpHTTdemonstrations.wolfram.comT%ime3!oltionDf-Wa!epacket"n-8#areWellT) .
<emonstrations.wolfram.com.
httpHTTdemonstrations.wolfram.comT%ime3!oltionDf-Wa!epacket"n-8#areWellT. >etrie!ed 12)2+)2+)?.
1=. ' Michael %rott. /%ime 3!oltion of a Wa!epacket "n a 8#are Well/
(httpHTTdemonstrations.wolfram.comT%ime3!oltionDf-Wa!epacket"n-8#areWellT) .
<emonstrations.wolfram.com.
httpHTTdemonstrations.wolfram.comT%ime3!oltionDf-Wa!epacket"n-8#areWellT. >etrie!ed 12)2+)2+)?.
1?. ' Mathews, Pira!on Mathews4 Ienkatesan, F. ()5A@). + (e$tbook of #uantum Mechanics
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMX#'s)<<;%cs:UpgMP-;@) . %ata McEraw+6ill. p. ;@. "879 2+2A+
25@?)2+1. httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMX#'s)<<;%cs:UpgMP-;@., :hapter 1, p. ;@
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMX#'s)<<;%cs:UpgMP-;@)
1@. ' /Wa!e Fnctions and the 8chrKdinger 3#ation/
1@. /Wa!e Fnctions and the 8chrKdinger 3#ation/
(httpHTTphysics.k'n.ac.'aTWpetrccioneTPhys)12TWa!eN12FnctionsN12andN12theN128chrNF@dingerN123
#ation.pdf) (P<F).
httpHTTphysics.k'n.ac.'aTWpetrccioneTPhys)12TWa!eN12FnctionsN12andN12theN128chrNF@dingerN123
#ation.pdf. >etrie!ed 12)2+)2+)?.
1A. ' /Qantm PhysicsH Werner 6eisenberg Lncertainty Principle of Qantm Mechanics. Werner 6eisenberg
7iography/ (httpHTTwww.spaceandmotion.comTphysics+#antm+mechanics+werner+heisenberg.htm) .
8paceandmotion.com. )5A@+21+2). httpHTTwww.spaceandmotion.comTphysics+#antm+mechanics+werner+
heisenberg.htm. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
1B. ' httpHTTth+www.if.,.ed.plTactaT!ol)5TpdfT!)5p2@B;.pdf
15. ' 9ancy %horndike Ereenspan, /%he 3nd of the :ertain WorldH %he &ife and 8cience of Ma$ 7orn/ (7asic
7ooks, 122?), pp. )1=+B and 1B?+@.
;2. ' httpHTTocw.s.edTphysicsTclassical+mechanicsTpdfXlectresT2@.pdf
;). ' /%he 9obel Pri'e in Physics )5A5/ (httpHTTnobelpri'e.orgTnobelXpri'esTphysicsTlareatesT)5A5Tinde$.html) .
9obel Fondation. httpHTTnobelpri'e.orgTnobelXpri'esTphysicsTlareatesT)5A5Tinde$.html. >etrie!ed 12)2+21+)@.
;1. ' :arl M. 7ender, <aniel W. 6ook, Farta Fooner (1225+)1+;)). /:omple$ 3lliptic Pendlm/. ar\i!H)22).2);)
(httpHTTar$i!.orgTabsT)22).2);)) (hep+th (httpHTTar$i!.orgTarchi!eThep+th) *.
;;. ' /Qantm mechanics corse iwhatis#antmmechanics/ (httpHTTwww.scribd.comTdocT?55B5=5TQantm+
mechanics+corse+iwhatis#antmmechanics) . 8cribd.com. 122B+25+)=.
httpHTTwww.scribd.comTdocT?55B5=5TQantm+mechanics+corse+iwhatis#antmmechanics. >etrie!ed 12)1+
2B+)B.
;=. ' /7etween classical and #antm/ (httpHTTphilsci+archi!e.pitt.edT1;1BT)Thandbook.pdf) (P<F).
httpHTTphilsci+archi!e.pitt.edT1;1BT)Thandbook.pdf. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)5.
;?. ' /-tomic Properties/ (httpHTTacademic.brooklyn.cny.edTphysicsTsobelT9cphysTatomprop.html) .
-cademic.brooklyn.cny.ed. httpHTTacademic.brooklyn.cny.edTphysicsTsobelT9cphysTatomprop.html.
>etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
;@. ' httpHTTassets.cambridge.orgT5AB2?1)BT15?1@Te$cerptT5AB2?1)B15?1@Xe$cerpt.pdf
;A. ' /%here is as yet no logically consistent and complete relati!istic #antm field theory./, p. =. . I. 7.
7erestetskii, 3. M. &ifshit', & P Pitae!skii ()5A)). 0. 7. 8ykes, 0. 8. 7ell (translators). 2elativistic #uantum
(heory ), part I. 5ourse of (heoretical Physics -7andau and 7ifshit,. "879 2+2B+2)@21?+?
;B. ' httpHTTwww.damtp.cam.ac.kTstrings21TdiracThawkingT
;5. ' /&ife on the latticeH %he most accrate theory we ha!e/ (httpHTTlattice#cd.blogspot.comT122?T2@Tmost+
accrate+theory+we+ha!e.html) . &attice#cd.blogspot.com. 122?+2@+2;.
httpHTTlattice#cd.blogspot.comT122?T2@Tmost+accrate+theory+we+ha!e.html. >etrie!ed 12)2+)2+)?.
=2. ' Parker, 7. ()55;). >vercoming some of the problems. pp. 1?51A5.
=). ' %he :haracter of Physical &aw ()5@?) :h. @4 also #oted in %he 9ew Qantm Lni!erse (122;), by %ony
6ey and Patrick Walters
=1. ' /-ction at a <istance in Qantm Mechanics (8tanford 3ncyclopedia of Philosophy)/
(httpHTTplato.stanford.edTentriesT#m+action+distanceT) . Plato.stanford.ed. 122A+2)+1@.
httpHTTplato.stanford.edTentriesT#m+action+distanceT. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
=;. ' /3!erettGs >elati!e+8tate Formlation of Qantm Mechanics (8tanford 3ncyclopedia of Philosophy)/
(httpHTTplato.stanford.edTentriesT#m+e!erettT) . Plato.stanford.ed. httpHTTplato.stanford.edTentriesT#m+e!erettT.
>etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
==. ' %he %ransactional "nterpretation of Qantm Mechanics
(httpHTTwww.npl.washington.edTnplTintXrepTti#mT%"Xtoc.html) by 0ohn :ramer. 2eviews of Modern Physics
?B, @=A+@BB, 0ly ()5B@)
=?. ' 8ee, for e$ample, the Feynman &ectres on Physics for some of the technological applications which se
#antm mechanics, e.g., transistors (!ol III, pp. )=+)) ff), integrated circits, which are follow+on
technology in solid+state physics (!ol II, pp. B+@), and lasers (!ol III, pp. 5+);).
=@. ' %ntroduction to #uantum Mechanics with +pplications to 5hemistry - 7inus Pauling, . *right ?ilson
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidM!d\L@8<=XLC:) . 7ooks.google.com. )5B?+2;+2).
"879 5AB2=B@@=BA)1. httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidM!d\L@8<=XLC:. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
=A. ' -nderson, Mark (1225+2)+);). /"s Qantm Mechanics :ontrolling Cor %hoghtsZ ] 8batomic Particles/
(httpHTTdisco!ermaga'ine.comT1225TfebT);+is+#antm+mechanics+controlling+yor+thoghtsTarticleX!iewZ
bXstartHintM)U+:) . <"8:DI3> Maga'ine. httpHTTdisco!ermaga'ine.comT1225TfebT);+is+#antm+mechanics+
controlling+yor+thoghtsTarticleX!iewZbXstartHintM)U+:. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
=B. ' /Qantm mechanics boosts photosynthesis/ (httpHTTphysicsworld.comTcwsTarticleTnewsT=)@;1) .
physicsworld.com. httpHTTphysicsworld.comTcwsTarticleTnewsT=)@;1. >etrie!ed 12)2+)2+1;.
physicsworld.com. httpHTTphysicsworld.comTcwsTarticleTnewsT=)@;1. >etrie!ed 12)2+)2+1;.
=5. ' <a!ies, P. :. W.4 7etts, <a!id 8. ()5B=). #uantum Mechanics, "econd edition
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidM\>y6:rE9sto:UpgMP-A5) . :hapman and 6all. p. A5. "879 2+A=BA+
===@+2. httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidM\>y6:rE9sto:UpgMP-A5., :hapter @, p. A5
(httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidM\>y6:rE9sto:UpgMP-A5)
?2. ' 7aof, Peter (122A+)1+;)). (he 4uture of 5omple$ity: 5onceiving a *etter ?ay to @nderstand >rder and
5haos (httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMtFm+3kwkeXL:) . 7ooks.google.com. "879 5AB5B)1A2B55).
httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZidMtFm+3kwkeXL:. >etrie!ed 12)1+2B+)B.
?). ' <eri!ation of particle in a bo$, chemistry.tidalswan.com (httpHTTchemistry.tidalswan.comTinde$.phpZ
titleMQantmXMechanics)
References
%he following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to commnicate #antm theory to lay people, sing a
minimm of technical apparats.
Malin, 8himon (12)1). Aature 7oves to Hide: #uantum Physics and the Aature of 2eality, a ?estern
Perspective -2evised dition.. World 8cientific. "879 5AB+5B)+=;1=+?A+)
:hester, Mar!in ()5BA) Primer of #uantum Mechanics. 0ohn Wiley. "879 2+=B@+=1BAB+B
>ichard Feynman, )5B?. #6: (he "trange (heory of 7ight and Matter, Princeton Lni!ersity Press. "879 2+
@5)+2B;BB+@. For elementary lectres on #antm electrodynamics and #antm field theory, yet containing
many insights for the e$pert.
Ehirardi, Eian:arlo, 122=. "neaking a 7ook at )od3s 5ards, Eerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Lni!. Press.
%he most technical of the works cited here. Passages sing algebra, trigonometry, and bra+ket notation can be
passed o!er on a first reading.
9. <a!id Mermin, )552, /8pooky actions at a distanceH mysteries of the Q%/ in his *ooBums all the way
through. :ambridge Lni!ersity PressH ))2+A@.
Iictor 8tenger, 1222. (imeless 2eality: "ymmetry, "implicity, and Multiple @niverses. 7ffalo 9CH Promethes
7ooks. :hpts. ?+B. "ncldes cosmological and philosophical considerations.
More technicalH
7ryce <eWitt, >. 9eill Eraham, eds., )5A;. (he Many-?orlds %nterpretation of #uantum Mechanics, Princeton
8eries in Physics, Princeton Lni!ersity Press. "879 2+@5)+2B);)+\
<irac, P. -. M. ()5;2). (he Principles of #uantum Mechanics. "879 2+)5+B?12))+?. %he beginning chapters
make p a !ery clear and comprehensible introdction.
6gh 3!erett, )5?A, />elati!e 8tate Formlation of Qantm Mechanics,/ 2eviews of Modern Physics 15H =?=+
@1.
Feynman, >ichard P.4 &eighton, >obert 7.4 8ands, Matthew ()5@?). (he 4eynman 7ectures on Physics. *-..
-ddison+Wesley. "879 2+A;B1+222B+?.
Eriffiths, <a!id 0. (122=). %ntroduction to #uantum Mechanics -=nd ed... Prentice 6all. "879 2+);+)))B51+A.
D:&: =21?)A=B (TTwww.worldcat.orgToclcT=21?)A=B) . - standard ndergradate te$t.
Ma$ 0ammer, )5@@. (he 5onceptual 6evelopment of #uantum Mechanics. McEraw 6ill.
6agen Fleinert, 122=. Path %ntegrals in #uantum Mechanics, "tatistics, Polymer Physics, and 4inancial
Markets, ;rd ed. 8ingaporeH World 8cientific. <raft of =th edition. (httpHTTwww.physik.f+
berlin.deTWkleinertTb?)
Enther &dwig, )5@B. ?ave Mechanics. &ondonH Pergamon Press. "879 2+2B+12;12=+)
Eeorge Mackey (122=). (he mathematical f oundations of quantum mechanics. <o!er Pblications. "879 2+
=B@+=;?)A+1.
-lbert Messiah, )5@@. #uantum Mechanics (Iol. "), 3nglish translation from French by E. M. %emmer. 9orth
6olland, 0ohn Wiley U 8ons. :f. chpt. "I, section """.
Dmn^s, >oland ()555). @nderstanding #uantum Mechanics. Princeton Lni!ersity Press. "879 2+@5)+22=;?+B.
D:&: ;5B=5=B1 (TTwww.worldcat.orgToclcT;5B=5=B1) .
8cerri, 3ric >., 122@. (he Periodic (able: %ts "tory and %ts "ignif icance. D$ford Lni!ersity Press. :onsiders
the e$tent to which chemistry and the periodic system ha!e been redced to #antm mechanics. "879 2+)5+
?;2?A;+@
%ransnational :ollege of &e$ ()55@). ?hat is #uantum Mechanics& + Physics +dventure. &angage >esearch
Fondation, 7oston. "879 2+5@=;?2=+)+@. D:&: ;=@@)?)1 (TTwww.worldcat.orgToclcT;=@@)?)1) .
Fondation, 7oston. "879 2+5@=;?2=+)+@. D:&: ;=@@)?)1 (TTwww.worldcat.orgToclcT;=@@)?)1) .
!on 9emann, 0ohn ()5??). Mathematical 4oundations of #uantum Mechanics. Princeton Lni!ersity Press.
"879 2+@5)+21B5;+).
6ermann Weyl, )5?2. (he (heory of )roups and #uantum Mechanics, <o!er Pblications.
<. Ereenberger, F. 6entschel, F. Weinert, eds., 1225. 5ompendium of quantum physics, 5oncepts,
e$periments, history and philosophy, 8pringer+Ierlag, 7erlin, 6eidelberg.
$urther reading
7ernstein, 0eremy (1225). #uantum 7eaps (httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZ
idM,2Me;brCD&2:UprintsecMfrontco!er) . :ambridge, MassachsettsH 7elknap Press of 6ar!ard
Lni!ersity Press. "879 5AB+2+@A=+2;?=)+@. httpHTTbooks.google.comTbooksZ
idM,2Me;brCD&2:UprintsecMfrontco!er.
7ohm, <a!id ()5B5). #uantum (heory. <o!er Pblications. "879 2+=B@+@?5@5+2.
3isberg, >obert4 >esnick, >obert ()5B?). #uantum Physics of +toms, Molecules, "olids, Auclei, and
Particles -=nd ed... Wiley. "879 2+=A)+BA;A;+\.
&iboff, >ichard &. (1221). %ntroductory #uantum Mechanics. -ddison+Wesley. "879 2+B2?;+BA)=+
?.
Mer'bacher, 3gen ()55B). #uantum Mechanics. Wiley, 0ohn U 8ons, "nc. "879 2+=A)+BBA21+).
8akrai, 0. 0. ()55=). Modern #uantum Mechanics. -ddison Wesley. "879 2+12)+?;515+1.
8hankar, >. ()55=). Principles of #uantum Mechanics. 8pringer. "879 2+;2@+==A52+B.
:o$, 7rian4 Forshaw, 0eff (12))). (he #uantum @niverse: verything (hat 5an Happen 6oes
Happen. -llen &ane. "879 )+B=@)=+=;1+5.
"#ternal lin!s
Qantm :ook 7ook (httpHTToyc.yale.edTsitesTdefaltTfilesTnotesX#antmXcookbook.pdf) by >.
8hankar, Dpen Cale P6C8 12) material (=pp)
- fondation approach to #antm %heory that does not rely on wa!e+particle dality.
(httpHTTwww.mesacc.edTWke!inlgTi1?@TQMXbasics.pdf)
%he Modern >e!oltion in Physics (httpHTTwww.lightandmatter.comTlmT) + an online te$tbook.
0. DG:onnor and 3. F. >obertsonH - history of #antm mechanics. (httpHTTwww+history.mcs.st+
andrews.ac.kThistoryT6ist%opicsT%heXQantmXageXbegins.html)
"ntrodction to Qantm %heory at Qantiki.
(httpHTTwww.#antiki.orgTwikiTinde$.phpT"ntrodctionXtoXQantmX%heory)
Qantm Physics Made >elati!ely 8imple (httpHTTbethe.cornell.edT) H three !ideo lectres by 6ans 7ethe
6 is for h+bar. (httpHTTwww.nonlocal.comThbarT)
Qantm Mechanics 7ooks :ollection (httpHTTwww.freebookcentre.netTPhysicsTQantm+Mechanics+
7ooks.html) H :ollection of free books
:orse material
<oron :ohenH &ectre notes in Qantm Mechanics (comprehensi!e, with ad!anced topics).
(httpHTTar$i!.orgTabsT#ant+phT2@2?)B2)
M"% Dpen:orseWareH :hemistry (httpHTTocw.mit.edTDcwWebT:hemistryTinde$.htm) .
M"% Dpen:orseWareH Physics (httpHTTocw.mit.edTDcwWebTPhysicsTinde$.htm) . 8ee B.2=
(httpHTTocw.mit.edTDcwWebTPhysicsTB+2=8pring+122@T:orse6omeTinde$.htm)
8tanford :ontining 3dcation P6C 1?H Qantm Mechanics
(httpHTTwww.yotbe.comTstanford_gTcTB=:)2-5:7)<);B=)) by &eonard 8sskind, see corse
description (httpHTTcontiningstdies.stanford.edTcorsesTcorse.phpZcidM122A1XP6CN121?) Fall
description (httpHTTcontiningstdies.stanford.edTcorsesTcorse.phpZcidM122A1XP6CN121?) Fall
122A
?` 3$amples in Qantm Mechanics (httpHTTwww.physics.csbs,.edTQMT)
"mperial :ollege Qantm Mechanics :orse.
(httpHTTwww.imperial.ac.kT#antminformationT#iTttorials)
8park 9otes + Qantm Physics.
(httpHTTwww.sparknotes.comTtestprepTbooksTsat1TphysicsTchapter)5section;.rhtml)
Qantm Physics Dnline H interacti!e introdction to #antm mechanics (>8 applets).
(httpHTTwww.#antm+physics.polytechni#e.frT)
3$periments to the fondations of #antm physics with single photons. (httpHTTwww.didaktik.physik.ni+
erlangen.deT#antmlabTenglishTinde$.html)
-QM3 (httpHTTwww.nanohb.orgTtopicsT-QM3) H -d!ancing Qantm Mechanics for 3ngineers . by
%.7ar'so, <.Iasileska and E.Flimeck online learning resorce with simlation tools on nanohb
Qantm Mechanics (httpHTTwww.lsr.ph.ic.ac.kTWplenioTlectre.pdf) by Martin Plenio
Qantm Mechanics (httpHTTfarside.ph.te$as.edTteachingT#mT;B5.pdf) by >ichard Fit'patrick
Dnline corse on #uantum (ransport (httpHTTnanohb.orgTresorcesT12;5)
F-Qs
Many+worlds or relati!e+state interpretation. (httpHTTwww.hedweb.comTmanworld.htm)
Measrement in Qantm mechanics. (httpHTTwww.mtnmath.comTfa#Tmeas+#m.html)
Media
P6C8 12)H Fndamentals of Physics "" (httpHTToyc.yale.edTphysicsTphys+12)_sessions) by >amamrti
8hankar, Dpen Cale :orse
&ectres on Qantm Mechanics (httpHTTwww.yotbe.comT!iewXplayXlistZpMB=:)2-5:7)<);B=))
by &eonard 8sskind
3!erything yo wanted to know abot the #antm world
(httpHTTwww.newscientist.comTchannelTfndamentalsT#antm+world) . archi!e of articles from Aew
"cientist.
Qantm Physics >esearch (httpHTTwww.sciencedaily.comTnewsTmatterXenergyT#antmXphysicsT) from
"cience 6aily
D!erbye, <ennis (<ecember 1A, 122?). /Qantm %rickeryH %esting 3insteinGs 8trangest %heory/
(httpHTTwww.nytimes.comT122?T)1T1ATscienceT1Aeins.htmlZscpM)Us#M#antmN12trickeryUstMcse) .
%he 9ew Cork %imes. httpHTTwww.nytimes.comT122?T)1T1ATscienceT1Aeins.htmlZ
scpM)Us#M#antmN12trickeryUstMcse. >etrie!ed -pril )1, 12)2.
-dioH -stronomy :ast (httpHTTwww.astronomycast.comTphysicsTep+);B+#antm+mechanicsT) Qantm
Mechanics . 0ne 1225. Fraser :ain inter!iews Pamela &. Eay.
Philosophy
/Quantum Mechanics/ 0http122plato3stanford3edu2entries2qm4 entry by 0enann "smael in the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
/Measurement in Quantum 5heory/ 0http122plato3stanford3edu2entries2qt-measurement4 entry
by 6enry Frips in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
>etrie!ed from /httpHTTen.wikipedia.orgTwTinde$.phpZtitleMQantmXmechanicsUoldidM?)@?1@2;1/
:ategoriesH :oncepts in physics Qantm mechanics
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