IB 12

1
Electric Circuits
In the electric circuit shown below, energy is transferred from the battery to the light bulb by charges
that move through a conducting wire because of a potential difference set up in the wire by the battery.
Schematic
mark potentials at each spot
The circuit shown contains a typical 9-volt battery.

a) What is the emf of the circuit?


b) How much energy does one coulomb of charge carry around the circuit?



c) How much energy do two coulombs of charge carry around the circuit?



d) How much energy does each coulomb of charge have at point B?


e) How much energy does each coulomb of charge have at point C?


f) What is VB? What is VC?


g) What is VBC? What is VCD? What is VDA?
Official Definition of One Ampere (1 A) of current a fundamental unit

One ampere is the amount of current flowing in each of two infinitely-long parallel wires of negligible cross-sectional area
separated by a distance of one meter in a vacuum that results in a force of exactly 2 x 10
-7
N per meter of length of each wire.

Short form Current is defined in terms of the force per unit length between parallel current-carrying conductors.
Formula: Units: Type:
I = q/t A (ampere) = C/s Scalar

Unofficial definition: rate of flow of electric charge
Electric Current

Closed circuit: complete pathway
for current
Open circuit: incomplete pathway for current
break in circuit infinite resistance

sketch
Short circuit: circuit with little to no
resistance extremely high current
overheating

sketch
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Resistance
Resistance: ratio of potential difference applied
across a piece of material to the current through the
material
Formula: Units: Type:

R = V / I ohm () = V/A scalar


For a wire conductor:

A short fat cold wire is the best conductor

A long hot skinny wire has the most resistance
Formula:

R = L/A

Power: energy per unit time Unit: W = J/s Type: scalar

Mechanical Power:

P = W/t = F s/t = F v
Electrical Power:
P = E/t = (q V)/t

P = I V

Alternate Formulas:
Substitute V = IR

P = I (IR) = I
2
R

P = (V/R)V = V
2
/ R
Meters in a circuit
Schematic diagram
Ammeter: measures current
Placement: Must be placed in series to allow
current to flow through it

Circuit must be broken to insert ammeter


Ideal ammeter: has zero resistance so it will not
affect current flowing through it
Voltmeter: measures potential difference
Placement: Must be placed in parallel to measure
potential difference between two points
circuit does not to be broken


Ideal voltmeter: has infinite resistance so it will not
allow any current to flow through it and disrupt circuit
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Series and Parallel Circuits
Characteristic Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
Number of pathways
for current
one More than one
Current
Same everywhere same for all
devices
Current splits shared among devices
Potential Difference
(Voltage)
Voltage shared among devices
voltage splits
Same for all devices
Overall resistance high low
Power low high

VT = V1 + V2 +

IT = I1 = I2 =

RT = R1 + R2 +

PT = P1 + P2 + . . .
VT = V1 = V2 = . . .

IT = I1 + I2 + . . .

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . .

PT = P1 + P2 + . . .
Formulas:
Voltage Ratio Current Ratio
Power Ratio Power Ratio
Series Circuits Parallel Circuits
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Analyzing Circuits
Determine the current through and the voltage drop across each resistor in each circuit below.
1. 2.
3. 4.
Potential Divider: Resistors in series act as a potential (voltage) divider. They split the potential of the source between them.
5. A 20 device requires 40 V to operate properly but no 40 V source is available. In each case below, determine
the value of added resistor R1 that will reduce the voltage of the source to the necessary 40V for device R2.
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6. A mini light bulb is rated for 0.60 W at 200 mA and is placed in series with a variable resistor. Only a 9.0 volt battery is
available to power it. To what value should the variable resistor be set to power the bulb correctly?
Bulb needs only 3 V

Bulb has resistance of 15 at rated
power

Added resistance should be 30
ohms
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The Use of Sensors in Circuits
1. Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Light Sensor: A photo-conductive cell made of
semiconducting material whose resistance decreases as the intensity of the incident light increases.
2. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor or Temperature Sensor: A sensor
made of semiconducting material whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases.
3. Strain Gauge or Force Sensor: A long thin metal wire whose resistance increases as it is
stretched since it becomes longer and thinner.
Automatic light switch
Describe how the LDR activates the light switch.
Describe how the NTC thermistor activates the fire alarm.
Fire alarm
Describe how the strain gauge can measure the strain put on a
section of an airplane body.
As ambient light decreases, resistance of LDR increases

Potential difference across LDR increases

Switch needs minimum PD to turn on

When light intensity drops to desired level, PD is high
enough to turn on switch
As external temperature increases, resistance of NTC
decreases

Potential difference across R2 increases

Switch needs minimum PD to turn on

When temperature increases to desired level, PD is high
enough to turn on switch
As strain increases, resistance of strain gauge increases

Potential difference across R2 decreases

Voltmeter can read change in voltage which can be used
to determine amount of strain on part
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Combination Series-Parallel Circuits
2. The battery has an emf of 12 V and negligible internal resistance and the voltmeter has an internal resistance of 20 k.
Determine the reading on the voltmeter.
1. Determine the current through and the voltage drop across each resistor.
3. A cell with negligible internal resistance is connected to three resistors as shown. Compare the currents in each
part of the circuit.
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5. A battery with emf E and negligible internal resistance is connected in a circuit with three identical light bulbs.

a) Determine the reading on the voltmeter when the switch is open and when it is closed.
b) State what effect closing the switch has on the current through each bulb and the brightness of each bulb.

4. Determine the current through and the voltage drop across each resistor.
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Ohms Law
Ohms Law: for a conductor at constant temperature, the current flowing
through it is proportional to the potential difference across it

Resistance: ratio of potential difference applied across a piece of material
to the current through the material
Formula:
R = V / I

Relationship:
V I

Example: resistor
Ohmic Device: a device that obeys Ohms law for a wide range of potential differences
2. A resistor is connected to two 1.5 volt cells and has 0.40 ampere of current flowing through it.
b) If the voltage is doubled, what is the new current?

V = IR for resistor
Resistance is constant so double current

R = V/I
R = 7.5
a) Calculate the resistance of the resistor.

1. On the axes at right, sketch the I-V characteristics for a resistor.
Resistance:

a) R = V/I at any point


b) related to slope of graph

(Reciprocal = resistance)
Meaning: a device with constant resistance
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Non-Ohmic Device: a device that does not obey Ohms law
Example: filament lamp
1. On the axes at right, sketch the I-V characteristics for a filament lamp.
Meaning: resistance is not constant
Resistance:

a) R = V/I at any point


b) as current increases, wire filament heats up and
resistance increases


c) Resistance is NOT related to the slope


d) except in initial linear region
2. A flashlight bulb is connected to two 1.5 volt cells and has 0.40 ampere of current flowing through it.
b) If the voltage is doubled, what is the new current?
V = IR for bulb but resistance is not 7.5 ohms any
more R increases with T so less than double current
R = V/I
R = 7.5
a) Calculate the resistance of the bulb.

X: resistance increases - ratio V/I increases

Y: resistance is constant ratio V/I is
constant

Z: resistance decreases ratio V/I
decreases
3. Discuss how the resistance varies with increasing potential difference for devices X, Y, and Z.
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Using a Potentiometer to Measure I-V Characteristics
Potentiometer: a type of variable resistor with three contact points
Common use: as a potential divider to measure the I-V characteristics of a device
The schematic shows how a potentiometer can be used as a potential divider to measure the I-V characteristics of a
filament lamp. It is placed in parallel with the lamp and the slider (center contact point) effectively splits the
potentiometer into two separate resistors AB and BC. By moving the slider, the ratio of the voltage drops across the
resistors AB and BC is varied.
Redraw the schematic with an ammeter and a voltmeter correctly
placed to measure the I-V characteristics of the filament lamp.
Comment on the circuit characteristics as the slider is moved from A to B to C.
Slider at A:
Slider at B:
Slider at C:
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Internal Resistance of Batteries
Electromotive force (emf): total energy per unit charge supplied by the battery Symbol: or E

Units: V = J/C
A 6 volt battery is connected to a variable resistor and the current in the circuit and potential difference
across the terminals of the battery are measured over a wide range of values of the resistor. The results
are shown in the table.
Resistance ()
Predicted
Current (A)
Actual
Current (A)
Voltage across
battery (V)
2000 0.003 0.003 6.00
200 0.03 0.03 5.99
20 0.3 0.29 5.85
2 3 2.4 4.80
0.2 30 8.8 1.71
0.02 300 11.5 0.23
0.002 3000 12.0 0.02
0.0002 30000 12.0 0.00
Why does the current seem to be limited to a maximum of 12.0 amperes and why does the voltage
across the battery not remain constant at 6.0 volts?
The battery has some internal resistance. As the
external resistance decreases, more and more of the
energy supplied by the battery is used up inside the
battery.
Terminal Voltage (Vterm): potential difference across the terminals of the battery
Ideal Behavior: Vterm always equals emf since no internal resistance
Real Behavior:

1) Think of battery as internal E and tiny internal resistor r


2) Vterm only equals the emf when no current is flowing


3) E is split between R and r


4) When R>>r, Vterm emf


5) As R decreases, Vr increases and VR decreases
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Relationship between emf and terminal voltage

Treat internal resistance as a series resistor

= I RT

= I (R + r)

= IR + Ir

Note that in the absence of internal resistance, = Vterm
1. A resistor is connected to a 12 V source and a switch. With the switch open, a voltmeter reads the potential difference
across the battery as 12 V yet with the switch closed, the voltmeter reads only 9.6 V and an ammeter reads 0.40 A for the
current through the resistor. Sketch an appropriate circuit diagram and calculate the internal resistance of the source.
2. Discuss the expected I-V characteristics for this battery and how they can be
experimentally determined.
R can be adjusted from 0 to its max value

A graph of Vterm vs. I can be drawn

Specific equation of graph can be compared to math model to derive
internal resistance

Emf = Vterm + Ir

Vterm = -Ir + emf so slope = -r and y-intercept = emf