Md.

Saidul Islam, Paradigms of development: problems that held back

industrialization of poor countries were related to the irrational wa in which
resources were allocated in a traditional societ. !raditional societies became modern
b rationalizing resource allocation and b the elimination of cultural, institutional
and organizational roadblocks that did not allow countries to develop"
#egree of industrialization, urbanization and cultural values are the main
indicators of changes in development"
Mass population has the ultimate power: power to consume, power to bocott
products, power to elect their leaders to govern themselves" power centered in the
opinion of the masses"$

%eniamin &nutsson, !he intellectual histor of development: emphasis on economic
growth, industrialization, structural differentiation and functional specialization"
'()*s +, proclaimed the first development decade" ever-s countr right to
set their own targets" volume of aid increased .uickl"
%ackwardness/ main development problem"
0ostow-s 1 basic economic stages: traditional societ, pre/take/off societ,
take/off, drive to maturit, age of high mass consumption" preconditions for take/off:
increase in agricultural output, build up of social overhead capital and the emergence
of a new political class/the entrepreneurs/ who challenge traditional power structures"
increased investment" fordist mass production, mass consumerism" $
Maher, 2. 3**4: +, were established after 5orld 5ar II, aim: maintaining
peaceful relations and securit amongst nations" promoting economic and social
progress e.uall for all peoples
/development studies: born and raised in the sterile and affluent environments of
western institutions"
/modernization:$ conte6t: $rise of +S as a superpower7 spread of a united world
communist movement7 disintegration of 8uropean colonial empires and thus the birth
of man new fledgling nation states" third world$. 9im: to promote economic
development and political stabilit in order to avoid :losing- them to communism"
born on the foundation of evolutionar and functionalist theor"
understood development as a unidirectional process" focused on development of
the third world$" accredited internal cultural values and social institutions as the
ma;or obstacle to development and originall saw modern and traditional as
incompatible concepts" progress would be made through the venue of increased
western contact and capital penetration" strength: emphasis on histor" modernization
school is able to emplo analsis on social, political, cultural and economic levels.
/dependenc theor: an e6ternal e6planation for the relative failure of third world
development" historical e6perience of colonialism and domination have reversed the
development of man :advanced- third world countries and forced them into
backwardness <9lvin So=" core versus peripher" called for delinking from all western
international relations.
M>#/combine to form a whole$$
2ohn M. Shandra, #ependenc, democrac and infant mortalit: <0ostow '((*=:
/arising from neo/classical economic contentions that scarce resources are most
efficientl distributed through markets" emphasizes internal or intranational financial
factors in its analsis of development processes" ec M th views development as
bridging the gap between developed nations and developing countries through an
imitative process" ec growth is viewed as the driving force behind development within
countries. 8c dev fosters greater levels of industrialization and urbanization. Increases
in industrialization and urbanization tend to generate a higher standard of living and
greater access to advanced medical technolog that should decrease infant mortalit/
0ole education plas as an international factor in the development process within
a countr"
#emocracies in the developing world are more likel to be responsive to public
opinion, social movements, and special interests groups concerned with health/related
issues like infant mortalit"
8c dev maintains an inverse relationship with the infant mortalit rate. !his lends
support to ec modernization arguments that improvements in standard of living and
advancements in medical technolog accompanied b increases in the level of ec dev
tend to lower infant mortalit"
Supports soc modernization arguments that countries with high levels of education
have low levels of infant mortalit" level of female secondar education has a
beneficial impact on infant mortalit" increases in not onl education generall but
also female education specificall help to reduce im.$
+nderstanding underdevelopment: '(1*s and '()*s" comple6 conceptual model of
underdevelopment and development" most third world countries could and should
follow a path of political and ec M parallel to the one first travelled b the advanced
western nations" developing nations had to ac.uire modern cultural values and create
modern political and economic institutions" transforming traditional cultures was seen
as the first step in modernization process" traditional vs modern values" education,
urbanization, and the spread of mass media were identified as the central agents of
change. 9s peasants move to cities, as more children attend schools that teach modern
values, as more citizens access the mass media, cultural modernization will progress"
foreign aid can help this process of westernalization
/the forces modernization spread Mc#onald, computer technolog, ?ollwood
movies, 9merican rock music, democratic values around the world"
@reate more specialized and comple6 political and economic institutions"
Its proponents e6pected developing countries to achieve economic growth, greater
e.ualit, democrac, stabilit and greater national autonom simultaneousl and
smoothl" but ec growth proved to be no guarantee of democrac"$
8urocentric development thinking: state of underdevelopmentA observable
economic, political, social and cultural differences between rich and poor nations.
#ev implied the bridging of these gaps b means of an imitative process"
Paradigm can be summarized: dev is spontaneous, irreversible process inherent in
ever single societ" dev implies structural differentiation and functional
specialization" dev can be divided into distinct stages showing the level of
development achieved" dev can be stimulated b e6ternal competition or militar
threat and b internal measures that support modern sectors and modernize traditional
sectors"
@reated the rationale of development aid" the general outlook of M th still
constitutes the popular image of developing countries"$
'. #ependenc theor B**wds napkin
?istor
@ore ideas
@riti.ues
Md. Saidul Islam, Paradigms of development: based on Mar6ian understanding of
power" underdevelopment is seen as the result of une.ual power relationships
between rich developed capitalist countries and poor developing ones"
Creeing up the world trade one of the main aims of 5!D benefits the wealth
nations that are most involved in world trade"
Measured that M#@s could take: elimination of world debt"
Issues with # th: power is not easil redistributed as countries that possess it
are unlikel to surrender it$
%eniamin &nutsson, !he intellectual histor of development: '(E*s +, second
development decade" development could not solel be reduced to economic growth" it
had become increasingl clear to the development countries that the structure of
international econom disfavoured them and that the gap between the developed and
developing countries was widening" third world countries found themselves locked in
a position of raw material e6port, industrial commodit import and deteriorating terms
of trade"
,ew international target was set according to which developed countries
should allocate *.EF of G,I to development assistance" aid became more oriented
towards povert alleviation and creation of emploment which reflected a more
thorough problematization of development of something more than ;ust economic
growth" growing interest in incorporating representatives from the developing
countries in planning and implementation of development pro;ects"
Strongl emphasized that the main development problem was rich countries-
e6ploitation of poor countries"
Driginated from third world countries/ criti.ue of 8urocentric linear
modernization thinking" e6planation of povert and underdevelopment is found in
e6ternal relationships such as the international devision of labour and economical
penetration" centre and peripher" since the international economic structure is based
on e6ploitation of the peripher development countries must breakawa/ delink/ from
this structure and strive for national self reliance. #evelopment countries must
industrialize and strive for economic growth through an inward/oriented strateg
marked b protectionism and a strong interventionist state" need for import
substitution and reforms of the international economic sstem"
%oth M># th shared belief in economic growth, industrialization, importance
of the state agenc
Mainstream M paradigm was obsessed with internal factors and treated the
nation state as the given unit of analsis" # paradigm brought about important insights
of the importance of e6ternal factors and opened up for a more global analsis" #
thinking provided the theoretical foundation for a criti.ue of the e6isting international
economic order$
+nderstanding underdevelopment: '()*s/'(E*s" social scientists in Hatin 9merica
and the +S/ ob;ections to the M th" re;ected the claim that third world countries could
follow the same path to development as western nations had because the first
industrialized nations changed the landscape for those that followed them" toda
newl industrializing countries must compete against well established industrial
giants" third world countries have to borrow financial capital and purchase advanced
technolog from the developed world, thereb making them dependent on e6ternal
economic forces beond their control and weakening their development"
Hong after third world nations had achieved political independence, I,
developed countries have continued to use their economic power to create an
international division between nations" production and e6port of manufactured goods/
the most profitable economic activities/ were originall concentrated in the core" the
peripher was largel relegated to the production and e6port of food and raw
materials and were forced to trade for industrial imports on unfavourable terms"
!his ec dependence has caused the H#@s- political dependenc"
# th highlighted an important influence on the third world: international trade,
finance, investment patterns"
Shifted the focus from e6clusivel internal factors to international economic
and cultural relations" helped redefine the concept of economic development"
whereas earl research focused on issues of economic growth, dependistas
emphasised the importance of economic distribution and social ;ustice. 5hen rapid
economic growth is accompanied b an increased concentration of wealth and income
in the hands of minorit it offers little benefit to the impoverished ma;orit, who ma
be left even worse off" 5% reoriented their focus toward growth and redistribution
!oda: most contemporar analsts re;ect the ver idea of a single theor of
development" our current understanding of development draws on both approaches,
while recognizing their limitations" $
2ohn M. Shandra, #ependenc, democrac and infant mortalit: trade dependence
has aggravated the gap between core and peripheral countries because the e6change of
raw materials for processed goods is inherentl une.ual and prices for primar goods
have e6perienced long term decline relative to prices for processed goods <Crank
'()E="
#ebt and interest paments drain alread scarce capital awa from investment
in the national econom and, as a result, inhibit economic development. !his reduces
government spending on various health and social service programs, preventing an
reductions in infant mortalit"
Coreign direct investment leads to adverse dev outcomes in non/core nations
such as increased im.$
2onathan 0 %arton, 3**J: !ransformations in resource peripheries, @hile: trends:
these relate to economic dependenc and subse.uent vulnerabilities, the consolidation
of elitist social structures fed b the development model to the e6clusion of other
social classes and ethnic groups, uneven spatial development and poorl regulated
environmental impacts. !he challenges for governments of resource peripheries that
aspire to become semi/peripheries and regional cores are those of reducing the
gradients and negative flows between these economies and the cores, and also within
the peripheries themselves" the goals of public polic must be towards balanced socio/
economic and spatial development strategies and reducing low value/added resource
e6ports$
can do the emergenc aid programs on dependenc theor in case of
international market shocks
8rik 5ibbels, #ependenc revisited: increased trade dependence is associated with
greater welfare effort in the global ,orth"
#eveloping world tells a ver different stor: trade dependence has a significant
and negative effect7 measures of capital account openness and7 or dependence on
e6ternal capital are also negativel associated with welfare effort"
,ational income shocks associated with international markets are .uite modest in
the global ,orth, the are profound in developing nations" developing world: have
limited access to capital markets in tough times, more significant incentives to
balance budgets, tradable sectors that are sensitive to currenc fluctuations these
governments cut social spending at e6actl the times it is most needed"
Increased dependence on e6ternal finance and indebtedness to international
financial institutions result in significant ta6 burden/shifting from capital onto
labour.$
Patrick ?eller, #ependenc and development: building on earlier theories of
imperialism" critical perspectives and focusing on power ine.ualities among nations"
the plaing fieldI remains highl skewed, favouring some nations and some interests
at the e6pense of others" Mar6ist heritage" dependenc was after all a criti.ue,
emanating from the global south" asmmetric power relationships across countries,
which was at the heart of the notion of dependence" $

3. M#Gs J**wds
?istor
8numerate
'. 8radicate e6treme povert and hunger
3. 9chieve universal primar education
4. Promote gender e.ualit and empower women
B. 0educe child mortalit
1. Improve maternal health
). @ombat ?IK79I#S, malaria and other diseases
E. 8nsure environmental sustainabilit
J. #evelop a Global Partnership for #evelopment
?ow the are considered the main contemporar development thinking
I suggest that the first si6 M#Gs are a conse.uence of the modernization theor,
while dependenc influences can be observed for the last two. 9lso conditionalit/ #
th.
#iscussion ')**wds
Give e6amples on each M#G from different countries
!r to bring the dependenc in somehowIdon-t know howLLL !here is no
dependenc shaping in the M#GsImabe E and J goals
I can talk about dependenc as the main criticism brought upon modernization
Mabe sth about 5!D #CI# 5?D
4. #evelopment
%eniamin &nutsson, !he intellectual histor of development: possible to view
development as some kind of .ualitative improvement of societ"
/end of 5orld 5ar IIInew beginning of development thinking" dev thinking
reinvented itself in relation to former colonial areas"
!hird world and developing countries concepts"
8merging @old 5ar, the post war reconstruction of 8urope, inauguration of
+, <'(B1= and %retton 5ood institutions: IMC, 5%, G9!!/ general agreement on
tariffs and trade, decolonialization" in this competition povert and lack of
development became interpreted as a securit issue" Marshall plan turned out to be
ver successful and as such it was to become a statute for future international
development assistance" points concerned the developing world and promoted a
substantial increase of international development assistance: povert was considered a
threat to <our= securit, modern industrialized countries were viewed as the blueprint
for development, economic interests"
9ll development economists in this period shared 3 fundamental notions:
development e.uals economic growth and a large in;ection of investment is crucial in
order to achieve it. !hus lack of domestic investment was considered a ke obstacle
which could be solved with domestic savings or international development assistance"
0ole of institutions" modern industrial sector was conceived as the engine of
economic growth"
Paradigms in social science tend to accumulate rather than fade awa"
,ew millennium/ increasing comple6it" intensified globalization, impressive
ec growth @hina, India" power relationships of the world are under transformation"
increasing interest for the resource rich, et poor, 9frican countries" climate change"
M#Gs innovative aspect: measurable, time/bound, the responsibilit for the
rich countries is made e6plicit in goal J"
Paris declaration: regards the methodolog of development assistance"
addressed problems: lack of ownership, inclinations towards e6ternall imposed
solutions, fragmentation, parallel sstems, and high transaction costs" new aid
architecture: ownership, alignment, harmonization, managing for results, mutual
accountabilit" general budget support as the preferred aid modalit"
Goal of contemporar mainstream development thinking seems to be a
comple6 merge of povert reduction, economic growth, enhanced capabilities, human
rights, securit, democrac, gender e.ualit, environmental sustainabilit, whereb
different schools of thoughts such as modernization, sustainable development, human
development, global development becomes largel mi6ed up
#evelopment assistance alone will never be able to solve the development
problemati.ue"
#evelopmentA accumulation of paradigms, starting with the modernization th
55II/'()*, '(E*M # th '(E*/'(J*I$
Md. Saidul Islam, Paradigms of development: after the end of 55II a new phase of
development emerged"
#evelopment can be seen in terms of evolution of theories and ideas" histor
can be seen from the perspectives of changes and transformations in the discursive
regime" dev is no wa a monolithic discourse" dev is not all about power" dev is rather
both empowering and disempowering operated and functioned in a ver comple6
interwoven was of power relations. It empowers certain actors, spaces, species,
while disempowering others"$
Michael @owen and 0obert Shenton, !he invention of development: dev means
different things to different people" dev is about betterment of human kind through the
alleviation of povert and the realization of human potential" good and bad dev" under
and over dev" dev can be autonomous, appropriate, gender conscious, sustainable, or
the opposite of all these"
!he eighteenth centur writers are supposed to have come up with the first theor of
dev"$
8urocentric development thinking: central element of dev/ growth"
#ev economics as a distinct subdiscipline emerged onl after the 55II"
Specific political conditions gave birth to dev ec: rapid li.uidation of the
colonial power structure, craving for development in the underdeveloped countries,
cold war"
4 pillars behind the emerging dev theor: growth, planning, aid"$
@onclusion B**wds
0eferences
Maher, 2., !he pursuit of development in Ghana, 3**4. 9frican #iaspora ISPs, Paper
1'. http:77digitalcollections.sit.edu7africanNdiasporaNisp71'
MDGs: cross-sectoral analysis and principles, Jeff Waage:
The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
emerged from the nited !ations (!) Millennium
Declaration in "###,
are argua$ly the most politically
most important pact ever made for international development
These goals have su$stantially shaped development
dialogue and investment
%ulme,&' for instance, suggests that the
MDGs developed through an interaction $et(een, on
the one hand, a )-led, neo-li$eral ideology (one that
promotes economic gro(th $ased on free trade and
mar*ets) lin*ed to results-$ased management and, on
the other hand, a development approach of some other
(ealthy countries, multilaterals, and non-governmental
organisation (!G+s) that focused on multidimensional
human development,eg, health, education, and gender
e-uity, treating these as $oth development goals and
development means. The emerging goals are $iased
to(ards a human development approach,/fi ve and a
half of the eight MDGs are a$out enhancing human
capa$ilities0&',and there is a strong emphasis on $asic
needs. %o(ever, they also incorporate neo-li$eral
thin*ing a$out economic gro(th into their important
poverty goal (MDG &), and their overall results-$ased
frame(or* focused greatly on international development
partnerships. Manning1 o$serves ho( the early
neo-li$eral leanings of the goals (ere tempered $y
recognition of the need for $uy-in $y developing
countries and $y !G+s, leading to the inclusion of
goals more focused on human (elfare and development,
such as health and education.
With this target focus came an
important shift from ma2imalist vie(s of development
(in (hich development involves poorer countries
achieving aspirations of e-uality (ith richer countries) to
minimalist standards (of proportions of people crossing
poverty thresholds or accessing particular services or
avoiding mortality or mor$idity)3 and from societal and
national change to changes for individuals (ithin nation
states.
4ndorsed $y &5' governments, the MDGs represent an
unprecedented consensus on international development.
Conceptualisation and execution p6
Dependency and development in northern Thailand, 6. Geoffrey 7acher
Modernization: .an inevitable evolutionary path from traditional
to modern, characterized by a transformation from agriculture
to industry, from rural to urban and from traditional to modern values
and social institutions (Harrison, 1988 cited in elfer ! "harpley,
#$$8, p% 11&
Dependency modernization in developing countries has failed, primarily
due to structural relations of dependency bet'een the 'orld ((core
of original capitalist po'ers and the 'orld ((periphery of ne'ly independent
developing countries (Hanson, 1998&%
)ssentially, the dependency theory vie's the 'orld as consisting of
binary opposites * ((developed+underdeveloped, ((center+periphery,
((metropole+satellite (,apoor, #$$#, p% -./&% his thesis
holds that the modern and traditional sectors of developing societies
are independent% he former sector is modern because of its e0posure
to the outside capitalist 'orld 'hile the latter is underdeveloped due to
its lac1 of such e0posure, but it can be modernized through the diffusion
of ((capital, institutions, and values (2ran1, 19-9, p% /&%
he focus of dependency theory centered on
the ability of industrial countries in utilizing their technological, political,
and financial superiority to force the developing countries to
develop in a manner that is advantageous to 'ealthy countries%
3hile dependency theory traces its roots to the Mar0ist vie' of
political economy, it is distinct in at least t'o 'ays% 2irst, dependency
analyzes the une4ual and e0ploitative relationship bet'een different
areas, 'hile Mar0 analyzed the relationship bet'een classes% "econd,
dependency theory has e0amined ine4uality in e0change relations,
not in terms of production as Mar0 did% he unbalanced e0change
relations occur because the 'orld economic system favors the rich
industrialized countries due to their ability to control and manipulate
the 'orld economy through capital accumulation, control of foreign
investments, and political influence (5aran, 19.67 8os "antos, 196$7
2ran1, 19-9&% hese unfair e0change relations can be created in a
variety of 'ays% 2oreign po'ers may use military might and colonial
rule to e0propriate 'ealth for the developing country (5aran, 19.6&%
2oreign investment may lead to many of the companies in the periphery
being o'ned by the core, and those companies can siphon much
of the economic surplus out of the country 4uic1ly (8os "antos, 196$7
2ran1, 19-9&% 9eripheral countries may struggle to develop an industrial
sector, as they are out+competed by the industrialized countries
(8os "antos, 196$&% his ma1es their industry reliant on e0porting
primary products, 'hich according to many dependency theorists,
constantly lose value ('hen compare to manufactured goods& on
the international mar1et7 many these primary products are then sold
bac1 to the developing countries after having value added in the
developed country (9rebisch, 19.$&%
he t'o theories
agree that the 'orld is divided bet'een developed and less developed
nations, but they vie' the relationship bet'een the different
nations in nearly opposite 'ays% Modernization theory holds that all nations
are on a linear path headed to'ards more development, 'ith the
developed 'orld helping the developing nations move for'ard along
this path through international trade and foreign investment (:osto',
19-$&% 8ependency theorists re;ect these notions and believe that the
developed nations use their political and economic advantages to e0ploit
the less developed countries (5aran, 19.67 8os "antos, 196$7
2ran1, 19-9&% 3hile modernization theory encourages developing nations
to open their mar1ets to international trade and investment as
'ell as strengthening national la's protecting property rights, dependency
theorists generally ignore national political and legal institutions
and instead suggest that developing nations must either 'ea1en or sever
their ties 'ith the developed 'orld to stop the e0ploitation of their resources
(2ran1, 19-97 Hunt, 19897 3allerstein, 1969&%
Ho'ever, through the -$s and 6$s, the developing countries that
'ere most open to foreign e0change and investment tended to develop
more rapidly% his led to the dependency school being largely discredited
by the 8$s, and thus modernization theory remained the dominant
paradigm of development (Hunt, 1989&%
3ith the recent popularity of
postcolonial and globalization theories, dependency theory has lost its
prominence and is no' considered old+fashioned and ill+suited to analyzing
the development of emerging economies of the developing 'orld
(Herath, #$$8&% "ome scholars have suggested developing a holistic
frame'or1 that combines the strengths of dependency and postcolonial
theories (,apoor, #$$#&, or dependency and globalization theories
(Herath, #$$8&% <ccording to these scholars, dependency theory
remains still relevant as its central concepts have been re'orded and rephrased
to define the later theories%
dependency occurs on multiple spatial scales
modernization vs. dependency revisited
<ccording to the modernization
arguments, the inflo's of foreign capital, technology, and 1no'+ho' generate
gro'th, increase absolute incomes of all economic groups (8eardorff and "tern
199/&, and as a result, alleviate hunger (Hein 199#7 2irebaugh and 5ec1 199/7
sai 199.&%
Ho'ever, based on the dependency theory and its offspring, a countrys
reliance on foreign capital and foreign processed goods, even if inducing
gro'th, 'idens the income gap bet'een the rich and the poor (:ubinson 196-7
5ornschier and =hase+8unn 198.7 sai 199.7 2eenstra and Hanson 19967 Mah
#$$#7 >hang and >hang #$$?7 aylor and 8riffield #$$.7 "tiglitz #$$-7 5asu and
@uariglia #$$6&% 28A inflo's thus reduce food security by generating relative
losses for the poor ()scudero 19917 3imberley 19917 3imberley and 5ello
199#&%
they continue to inform the contemporary debate about the socioeconomic
impact of globalization% An