(i) Listing of elements of a set.

(ii) Membership of a set defined by a rule.

(iii) Universe, subsets. Null set (empty set). Equality of sets.
(iv) Venn diagrams.
(v) Set operations: intersection and union (for two sets only), complement.
(vi) Commutative property for intersection and union.

Definition of set: A set is a collection of well defined objects or elements having certain
properties. Each object comprising a set is called element of the set.

Usually, a set is denoted by the capital letters A, B, C,D,etc and elements are
denoted by the small letters a, b, c, d, etc and also the elements of the set are
placed within a braces or second bracket.
Example:
(i) A set of all vowels, A={a, e, i, o, u}
(ii) A set of even number from 1 to 11
B={2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

Properties of set:
(i) It should be well defined
(ii) It is the collection of all objects
(iii) Elements of set must be well-distinguished and independent.
(iv) Elements of set must be homogeneous.
(v) Elements of set must be written second bracket {} and separated by commas (,).

Some examples of well defined collections:

(i) Rivers of Bangladesh
(ii) Red colors cars in Dhaka City
(iii) States under United Nations
(iv) Odd numbers
(v) Integers
(vi) Even Numbers

Examples which are not well-defined

(1) All rich men
(2) Broad roads in the Dhaka City
(3) Beautiful women
(4) d

Different types of sets:
(i) Finite set: A set is called a finite set if it contains a finite number of elements
Examples:
(1) A set of vowels in English alphabet
A={a, e, i, o, u}

(ii) Infinite set: A set is known as an infinite set if it contains an infinite number of
elements.

Example:
A set of all positive integers
A={x|x is a positive integer}

Universal set or Space Universe:
The arrangement of all possible objects under certain consideration in a given
experiment (or discussion) is called universal set. A universal set is denoted by U.

Example:
In the experiment of throwing a die our possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,and 6.
Therefore universal set in this experiment, U={1,2,3,4,5,6}

Subset:
If every element of a set A is also an element of the set B then A is defined to be a subset
of B and is denoted by A B

Equal set:
The two sets A and B are said to be equal if and only if A is the subset of B and B is
the subset of A, that is, AB and BA

Example:
If A={1,2,5}, B={2,5,1}, C={5,1,2}, D={5,2,1}, the sets A,B, C, D are all equal.
Equivalent Set:
If there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of two sets then they
are said to be Equivalent.
If total number of elements of one set is equal to the number of elements of another set,
then the two sets are said to be Equivalent.

Example:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = { b, a, l, 1}.
In A, there are 4 elements, 1, 2, 3, 4,
In B, there are 4 elements, b, a, 1, 1 (one-to-one correspondence), Hence, A B (symbol
is used to equivalent set)
A = { 3, 5, 8, 9}, B = { 5, 5, 8, 9, 3, 8, 9} C = { b, o, p, k}
Here A = B and A C

Proper Sub-set :
If each and every element of a set A are the elements of B and there exists at least one
element of B that does not belongs to A, then the set A is said to be a proper sub-set of B
(or B is called super-set of A). Symbolically, we may write,
A B (read as A is proper sub-set of B)
And B A means A is a super-set of B.
If B = {a, b, c}, then proper sub-sets are {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b,c}, {a, c},

Power set :
The family of all sub-set of a given set A is known as power set and is denoted by P(A)

Example :
(i) If A = {a}, then P(A) = {{a}, ,}
(ii) If A = {a, b}, then P(A) = {{a}, {b}, {a, b}, .}
(iii) If A = {a, b, c}. P (A) = {{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b} {b, c} {a, b, c}, .}
Thus when the number of elements of A is 1, then the number of sub-sets is 2; when the
number of
elements of A is 2; then the number sub-sets is 4 = 2
2
and when it is 3, the number of
sub-sets is 8 = 2
3
. So,
if A has n elements, P(A) will have 2
n
. sub-set.


Venn Diagram:

John Venn, an English logician (1834 1923) invented this diagram to present pictorial
representation. The diagrams display operations on sets. In a Venn diagram, we shall
denote Universe U (or X) by a region enclosed within a rectangle and any sub-set of U
will be shown by circle or closed curve.

Overlapping Sets :

If two sets A and B have some elements common, these are called overlapping sets.
e.g. : If A = {2,5,7,8} and B = {5, 6, 8}, they are called overlapping sets.

Union of Sets:
If A and B are two sets, then their union is the set of those elements that belong either to
A or to B (or to both).










The union of A and B is denoted symbolically as A B (read as A union B or A cup
B).
In symbols, A B = {x : x A or x B}
Example :
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7}, C ={ 2, 4, 7, 8, 9}.
Then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
and B A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
A B = B A (commutative law)
Again (A B) C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
(B C) = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A (B C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
(A B) C = A (B C) (associative law)
(ii) If A = {a, b, c, d}, B = (0}, C = , then
A B = {0, a, b, c, d},
A C = {a, b, c, d} = A and B C = {0}
Union of sets may be illustrated more clearly by using Venn Diagram as above.
The shaded region indicates the union of A and B i.e. A B




Intersection of sets:

If and B are two given sets, then their intersection is the set of those elements that
belong to both A
and B, and is denoted by A B (read as A intersection of B or A cap B).
Example :

(i) For the same sets A, B, C given above in example:
A B = { 2, 3, 5} here the elements 2,3,5, belong both to A and B; and
B A = { 2, 3, 5}
A B = B A (commutative law).
(A B) C = {2}
(B C) = {2, 7}, A (B C) = {2}
(A B) C = A (B C) (associative law)
(ii) For the sets A, B, C given in example (ii) above,
A B = , B C = , A C = .
Intersection of two sets A and B is illustrated clearly by the Venn Diagram as given
above
The shaded portion represents the intersection of A and B i.e., A B

Disjoint Sets :
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if their intersection is empty, i.e., no element of
A belongs to B.
e.g. : A = {1,3, 5}, B = {2, 4},
A B = . Hence, A and B are disjoint sets.
Difference of two sets:

If A and B are two sets, then the set containing all those elements of A which do not
belong to B, is known as difference of two sets, and is denoted by the symbol A ~ B or
A B (read A difference)

Draw a Venn diagram to represent the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 5}, B = {5, 3, 7, 8}and C =
{2, 3, 6, 8} and
hence find A B C
From the Venn diagram below, we find that A B C = {3}
A B C represents the portion containing element 3.
Draw a Venn Diagram to show : A B, A B, A B
Exercise:
1. Given : A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6}, C = {3}, D = {0, 1, 2,..,9]. Find :
(i) A C, (ii) A (B C), (iii) B C, (iv) C D (v) A (B C), (vi)
(A B) C,
(vii) A B.

[Ans. (i) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, (ii) {1, 2,.,6},
(iii) {}, (iv) {3}, (v) {1, 2,, 6},
(vii) (), (vii) {1,3, 5,6}]

2. Given, U (universal) = {0, 1, ,9}, A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7}, C = {6, 7}. Find
(i) A B. (ii) (A B) ~ C, (iii) (A C) (iii), (A U) (B C).

[Ans. (I) {1, 3, 5, 7}, (ii) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}
(iii) { 0, 1, 3, 5, 8, 9}, (iv) {6}]

3. If S be the set of all prime numbers, M = {0, 1, 2, ..,} Exhibit :
(i) S M, (ii) (S M )
4. Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {d}, C = {c, d}, D = {a, b, d}, E = {a, b}.
Determine if the following statements are true?
(i) E A, (ii) B C, (iii) A D, (iv) C D, (v) E = C, (vi) B C, (vii)
A ~ D.

Requirement in the questions To find out Helping formulae
1. At least one n(ABC) n(AB
C)=n(A)+n(B)+n(C)-n(A
B)-n(BC)-n(C
A)+n(ABC)
2. None of the three n(ABC)

n(ABC)

=n(U)-n(A
BC)
3. Only A and B but not C n(ABC

) n(ABC

)=n(AB)-n(A
BC)
4. Only A (A but not B and
C)
n(AB

) n(AB

)=n(A)-n(A
C)-n(AB)+n(ABC)
5. Only one or exactly one
of three
n(AB

)+ n(A

)+ n(A

C)
?
6. Only two or exactly two
of three
n(ABC

)+ n(A

B
C)+ n(AB

C)
?

Q. In a class of 30 students, 15 students have taken English, 10 Students have taken
English but not French. Find the number of students who have taken (i) French and(ii)
French but not English.

Let E stands for English, F for French.
n ( E F) = 30, n (E) = 15, n (E F) = 10
n (E F) = n (E) + n ( F) n (E F) .(i)
Now n (E F) = n (E) n (E F)
or, 10 = 15 n (E F), or, n (E F) = 15 10 = 5
From (i) , 30 = 15 + n (F) 5 or, n(F) = 20
n (F E) = n (F) n(F E) = 20 5 = 15

Q. In a survey of 1000 families it is found that 454 use electricity, 502 use gas, 448 use
kerosene, 158 use gas and electricity, 160 use gas and kerosene and 134 use electricity
and kerosene for cooking. If all of them use at least one of the three, find how many use
all the three fuels.

Let us take E for electricity, G for gas, K for kerosene.
Now n (E) = 454, n (G) = 502, n (K) = 448.
n ( G E) = 158. n ( G K) = 160, n (E K) = 134, n (E G K) = ?
n (E G K) = 1000
Again n (E G K) = n (E) + n (G) + n (K) n (E G)
n (G K) n (K E) + (E G K)
or, 1000 = 454 + 502 + 448 158 160 134 + n (E G K)
= 952 + n (E G K)
or, n (E G K) = 1000 952 = 48.

Q. In a class of 50 students appearing for an examination of ICWA, from a centre, 20
failed in Accounts, 21 failed in Mathematics and 27 failed in Costing, 10 failed both in
Accounts and Costing, 13 failed both in Mathematics and Costing and 7 failed both in
Accounts and Mathematics. If 4 failed in all the three, find the number of
(i) Failures in Accounts only.
(ii) Students who passed in all the three subjects.
A = Accounts, M = Mathematics, C = Costing (say),
Now n (A) = 20, n(M) = 21, n (C) = 27, n (A C) = 10, n (M C) = 13, n (A
M) = 7
n (A M C) = 4.
(i) n(AMC) = n (A) n (A M) n (A C) + n (A M C) = 20 7
10 + 4 = 7
(ii) Total no of students failed
= n (A) + n (M) + n(C) n (A M) n (M C) n (A C) + n (A M
C)
= 20 + 21 + 27 7 13 10 4 = 42
reqd. no. of pass = 50 42 = 8.


Q. In a class of 30 students, 15 students have taken English, 10 students have taken
English but not French. Find the numbers of students have taken: (i) French, and (ii)
French but not English.
[Ans. 20,15]

Q. In a class test of 70 students, 23 and 30 students passed in mathematics and in
statistics respectively and 15 passed in mathematics but not passed in statistics.
Using set theory result, find the number of students who passed in both the subjects
and who did not pass in both the subjects.

[Ans. 8; 25]

Q. In a survey of 100 students it was found that 60 read Economics, 70 read
mathematics, 50 read statistics, 27 read mathematics and statistics, 25 read statistics and
Economics and 35 read mathematics and Economics and 4 read none. How many
students read all three subjects?