What is

research??
Think about how
research contributes to
the following areas:
Medical
Childcare
Older people
Mental health
The role of research in Health and Social
Care
The advances made in Health and Social Care work
over the last century are primarily as a result of the
collection of research based evidence.
In some important areas research has moved
practice from guesswork to science
Research studies in every area of Health and Social
care work are constantly taking place so ways of
working can be updated and treatments moved
forward to meet client expectations.

Evidence Based Practice
The aim of most research is to provide a clear
evidence base for care practice. The supporting
evidence collected verifies what is the right thing to
do.
It is rare for research to be conducted on a gut
feeling. It is usually based on sound professional
experience and previously collected solid data.
This results in a testing and reviewing of current
policies to ensure best practice for clients.
Researchers will choose and adapt from a
range of approaches and methods in order to
seek answers to questions or hypotheses that
they wish to test.
The important thing is that whatever method
is used, the findings are reported
systematically and scientifically, in as clear and
honest a fashion as possible.
Who does research into health?
Universities
Hospitals
Medical Research Council
Research Council for
Complementary Medicine
Prince of Wales Foundation
for Integrated Health
Pharmaceutical companies
Who does research into Social Care?
Joseph Rowntree
Foundation
Institute for Public
Policy Research
Department of Health
Help the Aged
The Office for National
Statistics
Local Authorities
The Office for National Statistics
Government Department that deals with
information from the National Census.
Census is taken every 10 years, last in 2011.
Study of population characteristics is known
as demography.
Website www.statistics.gov.uk
Example from text p166

Yesterdays Task-
Yesterday I asked you to
research some of the
following areas.
1. The publics view of the
use of stem cell
research
2. The publics confidence
in the NHS stability
3. Peoples views of male
and female
Stereotypes within
Health and Social Care
4. The effects of media
on Peoples Self
Esteem.


Questions I want you to answer.
What did you find out?
What types of sources did
you use?
What information do you
believe is most reliable?
Why?

TASK-
Questions to answer for the purpose of research.

Research helps to identify the need- what does this mean? Give
an example.

Explain giving an example how research can highlight gaps in
provision of health and social care including informing policy and
practice and extend it.

By carrying out research how does it improve the knowledge
and understanding of the issues we face?

knowledge and understanding; improve practice; aid
reflection; allow progress to be monitored; examine
topics of contemporary importance evaluate the services
and their interventions.
Can we now answer these questions?
What role does research play in Health and Social Care?

How does it investigate new care-related situations and
problems?

How does it test and review existing knowledge, treatment
and practice?

How does it evaluate service interventions and policies?
HOMEWORK
USING YOUR RESEARCH
FIND OUT WHAT VALDITIY,
RELIABILITY AND ETHICS
IS. (GIVE EXAMPLES)
THEN TELL ME WHY THEY
ARE IMPORTANT IN YOUR
RESEARCH!
Using Research
Research denotes a systematic enquiry that is
designed to add to existing knowledge and/or
solve a particular problem. (Bell,1993)
Objectives: To explain why using research is essential
is Health and Social Care.
Todays Questions
1.Explain the importance of research in the health and
social care field, with explained examples including:
How it can help investigate new care-related situations
and problems.
How it can test and review existing knowledge,
treatments and practices.
How it can explain the relationship between factors
affecting health and well-being.
How it helps to evaluate service interventions and
policies.

Investigating new care related situations
Read information on Carers UK data and EBFT
study.
Qualitative data : pure qualitative data cannot
be expressed simply in numbers. It is often
concerned with peoples values, attitudes
and/or opinions

Testing and reviewing existing knowledge,
treatments and practices.
Research into medical treatments is continuous and
exhaustive.
Testing seeks to establish causes of diseases or
effectiveness of medical treatments.
Studies often involve the collection of quantitative
data.
Quantitative data: this is expressed in numerical
form. It can be presented in tables, bar charts, pie
charts or graphs.
MMR Vaccine
Read photocopy and timeline, discuss.
Look at recent research into measles (BBC
health)
Systematic Reviews
Randomised clinical controlled trial (RCCT) is a
research method involving more than one
sample group. One sample receives the
treatment bring investigated and the other
doesnt, and the results are compared.
A systematic review is a thorough and
systematic comparison of RCCTs
Newspaper Search
Look through newspapers, identify any
examples of research.
Consider reasons for research, findings,
outcome.
Also consider sample size and validity.

(internet water in elderly research)
Investigating Existing Practice
10.1
Systematic Reviews
Researchers periodically carry out systematic
reviews of previous research.
These reviews rigorously sift through and
assess the research evidence on the
effectiveness of specific H&SC practices
throughout the world.
This analysis of existing research is used to
find out if lots of studies support current
practice and procedures.
Systematic Reviews
Independent
organisations periodicaly
collect together and
review all health and care
research. Examples
include
The Cochrane
Collaboration
The Campbell
Collaboration
Use internet to search top
10 topics for 2012
searches.
A systematic review may
reveal a very expensive
intervention is not
working further
research and new ways of
targeting
information/treatment/su
pport are needed.
Equally, systematic
reviews may show that a
particular action is very
effective this should
encourage this practice to
be extended

Epidemiological and Census data
Data that is used is epidemiological data
study of the distribution and determinants of
disease within a given population and Census
data - statistics collected by the Government
every 10 years.
This information particularly helps
Governments to prioritise and plan services
for years to come.
Audit of Practice
An alternative to a systematic review is evaluating
practice using an audit. This is a methodical
monitoring of current practice or policy and its
evaluation against predefined standards.
The UK has a regular audit on Child Poverty. Mr Blair
in 1999 set policy auditors the historic task of
eliminating child poverty within 20 years.
Targets include halving child poverty by 2010, and
eliminating by 2020

The Nature of Scientific Research
Science is a way of testing the truthfulness of ideas
against empirical knowledge (knowledge we know to
be true because we can verify it, replicate the
research etc).
Scientific knowledge provides care workers with facts
on both positive and negative effects
eg increasing the minimum wage helps children of
recent immigrants.
eg smoking increases the risk of dying from lung
cancer

Scientific Research
Research in health areas tend to be more
precise than social care research because more
facts/statistics are included, less qualitative data
is used.
Eg effectiveness of new drug treatment
Eg effectiveness of racism campaign
Scientific Research
Science differentiates between opinion based
practice and verifiable knowledge.
The conclusions reached in the research are
only valid for the time being until further
developments come along.
Any changes in practice must be supported by
sound evidence drawn from research.
Scientific Research
Commonsense opinions may still be useful in
identifying areas or topics for research.
They are often the starting point for scientific
research eg hand washing.
Opinions are sometimes stated at the start of
a research programme as a HYPOTHESES
intelligent but untested proposition. These
can then be tested to see if they can be
supported by evidence
Ethics in Research
10.1
Ethics
Scenario prisoners and guards

The Milgram Obedience Study and The
Stanford Prison Study both revealed shocking
personality traits and caused extreme
emotional distress to the participants.
Did the benefits outweigh the disadvantages?

Ethics
Ethics refers to the
values and standards of
behaviour that a person
adopts in relation to
others.
A care researcher has
an ethical duty to seek
to help those whom
(s)he studies.
The Belmont Report 1979
Three basic ethical principles that researchers
should abide by:
1. Respect for persons: obtain informed consent from
research participants and protect those who are
unable to give informed consent.
2. Beneficence: do not harm participants, maximise
possible benefits and minimise possible harm.
3. Justice: distribute the benefits and risks of research
fairly.
Ethics
These principles are now
incorporated into codes of practice
The Department of Healths
Research Governance
Framework for Health and Social
Care 2010
http://webarchive.nationalarchives
.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/Abou
tus/Researchanddevelopment/Ato
Z/Researchgovernance/DH_40021
12
The Need for Ethics
History is littered with examples of poor
ethical research projects.
These include experiments on unwilling
concentration camp prisoners by Hitlers
scientists.
British servicemen in Nuclear testing.
Use of poor patients to test drugs which
ultimately benefit more of the well off
patients.
Ethics

A current cause for concern is the use by drug
companies of poor people in India to test new
treatments.
These drug trials can cost a fraction of the price of
conducting trials in Europe or the USA
It can be argued that the expenses paid to volunteer
participants are helping the poor communities, but it
is also feared that drug companies offering $100 to
poor people and undermining the principle of
informed choice.
Benefits and Risks in Care
Research
10.1
Risks
All research is monitored and the well being of
participants is paramount, there are times
when research will involve and element of
risk.
This must be evaluated to establish if the
intended benefit of the research will outweigh
any unintended harm
E.g drug trials, changes to doctors hours
Participants
Researchers must ensure
that participants
understand exactly what
the research will involve in
clear, non-technical
language and the
potential benefits and the
possible risks.

Consent

Informed consent must be at the centre of
ethical research. Extra care must be taken
when seeking consent from children and
vulnerable adults such as those with mental
health problems.
Care must be taken not to harm individuals in
order to benefit others.
The principle of doing the utmist to obtain
maximum benefits for all is a good starting
point.
Distributive Justice
Beneficence includes a commitment to social
justice (making things better for the poorest
people).
The belief in ethical social justice means fair
distribution of resources and any research
that provides for this is considered to be more
ethical.
Research
There was a headline grabbing drug trial for
TGN 1412 that went spectacularly wrong in
London in March 2006.
Research problems/outcome for volunteers.
Changes to trial protocol.
Data
Collection
Objectives:
To be able to explain the difference between primary and
secondary research
To be able to describe the different types of sampling.
To be able to evaluate the different methods of data
collection
Secondary Data
Secondary data is collected by
people other than the
researcher.
Someone doing research will
collect data from other sources
to put his or her investigation
into context.
Sometimes a researcher will
use data collected in previous
studies to form a basis for their
own research
SOURCES
Official statistics eg Census
data
Books on relevant topic
Articles in newspapers and
magazines
Articles in journals and
professional publications
Data collected by
organisations eg SCOPE,
Help the Aged
Data published by research
foundations eg Kings Fund

Primary Research
Primary data is collected
by the researcher during
the course of a study. It
includes;
Information from
questionnaires
Notes made from
observations
Notes made during an
interview
Experimental data
Selecting a group of
subjects
Identifying who to include as
the subjects of your research
depends on your objectives and
the topic chosen.
Sometimes it is not possible to
include all relevant subjects
within the scope of a piece of
research for example all
smokers in the UK for
logistical reasons.
In these cases we use a
technique called sampling to
reduce the population to a
manageable size.
Sampling should be a
representative cross section of
the population.
TASK- Find out the
four types of
sampling.

Use the text book
to help you!

TYPES OF
SAMPLING
TASK- Find out what the FOUR types of sampling are
and place the information in the boxes!
TYPES OF SAMPLING
Opportunity Sampling
Even though a population may
be easy to identify, there are
times when the researcher will
have to make do with whoever
is available to form the subject
group.
Not everyone may be willing
or able to take part in a survey,
for example.
When observing some people
may be missing at the time of
the observation.

Random Sampling
In order to choose participants a
sampling frame has to be drawn
up. This is a comprehensive list
of all possible targeted
participants (eg all 6
th
Form
students)
Names are then selected from
the list in such a way as to arrive
at a final list without any bias. (eg
choose every fifth name on the
list)
To make this completely random
it is usual to use a computer to
select participants from the
sampling frame.

TYPES OF SAMPLING
Stratified Random Sampling
This is used if it is important to
make sure that the views of key
sub groups or hard to reach
people are included within a
sample.
If secondary research had
identified differing attitudes to
smoking in people from a different
ethnic background, stratified
sampling could include more from
this group in order to investigate
more fully their views.
If it was found that a day centre
was used by 70% women and 30%
men then the research sample
group used would need to reflect
this gender split for the results to
be representative of the users.

Quota Sampling
This is often used by market
researchers in the street, who
might be instructed to stop a
specified number of eg men
over 65 and ask them about a
particular product or survey.
If eg a one stop facility in a
shopping centre, sampling
may be the views of 50 mums
with babies, 50 older females,
etc.



TASK
YOU ARE EACH GOING TO BE
GIVEN A METHOD TO
RESEARCH.
IS IT PRIMARY OR
SECONDARY?
YOU HAVE TO FIND OUT
WHAT IT IS.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF IT.
WHAT YOU HAVE TO DO
STRENGTHS AND
WEAKNESSES.
ISSUES OR STRENGTHS WITH
RELIABILITY, VALIDITY &
ETHICS
EXPERIMENTS-
OBSERVATION-
QUESTIONNAIRES-
INTERVIEWS-
You are to work by yourself for
the next half an hour. Use your
textbook to help you, your notes
and the internet may help too!
You will be presenting this on a
PowerPoint back to the class!
Self completed Questionnaires
This is the main form of
questionnaire used those
completed by the researcher in
conversation are classed as
interview questions.
Clear instructions must be given,
the form must be user friendly
and easy to complete.
Short, simple forms are much
more likely to be completed than
long, detailed and complicated
forms.
Collecting Structured Data
There are many different ways that
questions can be set out, depending on
the type of data you are seeking to
collect.
A simple question needing a yes/no
answer can establish if the correct
group of people are responding to the
questionnaire.
These questions can also be used for
routing directing respondents to the
part of the questionnaire that applies to
them.
Question types
Look at the photocopy 6 main types of
structured data collection.
LIST AND CATEGORY - This is useful when you
want to establish which of several options
applies to each of your subjects. They can tick
as many as apply

RANKING - Normally used to establish the
relative importance that a respondent
attaches to specific characteristics or services
Eg. What is most important when choosing a
nursery for your child
Opening hours, friendly staff, modern
premises, good offsted report, home cooked
meals, outside play area.
SCALE - This can be used to ask respondents
to place a value on services.
Eg. How highly do you rate the care given to
your child at the nursery
Excellent, Good, Average, Fair, Poor.
GRID - This is useful when you want to
establish which of several options applies to
each of your subjects. They can tick as many
as apply

This is usually collected by using open
questions questions that cannot be
answered with a yes or no.
Open questions usually begin with the words
what, why and how.
Open questions are used to collect qualitative
data, such as respondents views or opinions.
Some respondents are more reluctant to
answer open questions, so these are often
placed later in the questionnaire when the
person has settled in and become more
confident.

Collecting unstructured data
The design of the
questionnaire is very
important in
obtaining the
information you
need.
Consideration
needs to be given
to presentation
type the
questionnaire.
Consider font size
and design is it
easy to read for
your target group?
Use plenty of
white space to
aid clarity.
Make
instructions
clear.
Explain (or do
not use)
abbreviations
etc.
Line up the tick
boxes
Start with simple
questions, leave
complex ones
needing an
opinion to the
end.
Piloting the Questionnaire
Always test your
questionnaire on a small
group first this will
identify problem areas, or
areas where you are not
getting the data you need.
You then need to make
any changes before
printing out final version.

Questionnaires
Advantages of Questionnaires
Relatively cheap
Can include a large number
of participants
Some respondents may
prefer this to being
interviewed
No danger that the
interviewer can influence
the answers

Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Questions may be
misunderstood.
Respondents may collude
(copy each other) when
answering the questions.
Some questionnaires may not
be returned.
Some questions may be left
unanswered.
Some responses may be hard
to understand.
Questions may be wrongly
completed.

Interviews
Types of Interviews -
Structured
In a structured interview the
researcher uses a schedule
which may be very similar to
a self completing
questionnaire.
The interviewer reads out
each question and completes
the responses. The
interviewer can explain any
questions the respondent
doesnt understand.

The researcher aims to ask
the question in the same
way for each respondent.
This is to make sure that
data collected is
standardised, and to
minimise bias.
The interviewer may also
have a list of prompts or
probes to help
respondents provide
further detail in specific
areas.
Benefits of Structured Interviews
All or most of the questions will be answered
The risk of misunderstanding questions is minimised
The interviewer can dictate the pace of the interview
Additional responses/reactions can be noted
Problems of reading/writing and comprehension can be
overcome
Quantitative data will be produced in a standard way
Sensory and physical problems can be overcome
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
Advantages of Structured
Interviews
All questions will be answered
All questionnaires will be
completed
Interviewer can ask extra
questions
Data will be uniform if
researcher uses same format
each time
Interviewer may also collect
extra (unstructured) data

Disadvantages of Structured
interviews
Requires more research time
Respondents may be hard to
contact and arrange suitable
times with
Respondents may give
answers they think the
researcher wants to hear (bias)
Respondents may dislike the
interviewer
Questionnaire format may
restrict responses

Semi Structured Interviewing
This uses a
combination of
questioning types.
You may start with a list
of prepared questions,
but then allow the
respondent to answer
these in his or her own
words.
The respondent can
also introduce their
own themes within a
given topic.
WHAT ARE THE
ADVANTAGES AND
DISAVANTAGES OF
SEMI STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWING?
Unstructured Interviewing
This is when interviewees are allowed to talk about anything they
want to, without any further prompting from the interviewer.
The interviewer will probably initiate the topic, after that there will
be little effort to control what the subject wants to discuss.
This is also known as in-depth interviewing.

ADVANTAGES:
Much qualitative data will be
collected
Respondents can say exactly
what they think and feel
Interviewer can probe/follow
through on any topic of
interest


DISADVANTAGES:
Very time consuming, so sample may need to
be smaller
Interviewer needs very good communication
skills
Potential for bias, because of personality of
interviewer
Applicability of results may be limited
Very hard to produce quantitative data
Findings may be limited to sample group

Ethics and Interviews Code of Conduct
Obtain consent
Avoid deception
Provide debriefing
Allow withdrawal from research
Maintain confidentiality and anonymity of
participants
Protect participants from harm

Above all respect and value their identity
Observations
and
Experiments
Observation
Observation is the method
of choice when collecting
information from case
studies.
Example could be observing
services offered and take up
of services by users of a
mental health drop in
centre.
Observation
Observation is also used in
conjunction with the experimental
method.
An example may be when two groups
are observed separately, one of whom
is subject to certain conditions but the
other is not. The objective could be to
see if there are behavioural
differences between the two groups
TWO TYPES OF OBSERVATION
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Observation can be undertaken by participant
someone who joins in with the subjects of the
study.
NON PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Observations can also be undertaken by
someone who keeps themselves apart from
their subjects.


Protocol for Observation
It is essential that people undertaking an
observation work with supervision.
This usually means the care worker who is
usually with the clients remains for the period
of observation.
This is to protect both the client and the
researcher.
Observations
ADVANTAGES
Observer can watch subjects in
their own environment
Observer may see behaviours
that subjects are not aware of
Useful for non-literate subjects
(e.g. young children).
Both interpersonal
interactions and group
behaviours can be observed.

DISADVANTAGES
Some ethical problems
especially if the observation is
secret.
Observer may misinterpret
behaviour
Some behaviours may be
missed if note-taking is the
recording method
What happens may not be
relavent to the aim of the
research
Behaviours may be affected if
the observer is visible to the
group.

Participant Observation further
advantages
FURTHER ADVANTAGES
Observer gains in-depth and
accurate knowledge of
group behaviours.
Valid data is produced
Can give access to hard to
reach or closed groups e.g
homeless

FURTHER DISADVANTAGES
Presence of observer will
inevitably affect behaviours to
some extent known as
observers paradox.
Ethical problems if observer
does not disclose true identity
Time consuming
Advanced social skills needed
Observer may lose sense of
objectivity
Non-acceptance by group may
limit the value of the data.

Experiments
These involve setting up specific
situations to test the validity of
particular theories or hypotheses
A sampling frame will be set up
and a population selected.
This group will receive for
example a new drug.
A second or control group will
receive no treatment, a placebo
or carry on with existing
treatment.
The results will be used to
compare and contrast the
effectiveness of the new drug.
Experiments to predict or
measure human behaviour
are harder to set up and
control.
Example _prisoners and
guards scenario previously
discussed.

TASK- FIND OUT WHAT THE
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES ARE FOR
EXPERIMENTS!
Interpreting and Presenting Data
10.2
Reliability of Data
This is the extent to which a set of results can be reproduced
by repeating a piece of research.
Systematic reviewers are looking to see how far test results
have been repeated under similar conditions
If the same results are found time and time again, then the
findings may be said to be reliable.
The reliability of survey data can be assessed by asking how
far similar answers would have been given to interviewers on
different occasion.
Your research would prove to be reliable if the results were
broadly in line with the data in your secondary research.
Validity of Data
Data is valid if it accurately measures what it is
supposed to measure.
This means that the questions devised and the
methods of data collection must be designed
to collect exactly what is needed to tackle the
question which is the subject of the study.
In order to ensure validity you must make sure
you focus on your objectives and design data
collection tools to do the task in hand.
Presenting Qualitative Data
Tables
Pie charts
Bar charts
Histogram
Graph
Use of mean, mode,
median

Carrying out a
research project
Planning
It is essential to begin a research study with a
clearly defined task with explicit objectives.
Testing a hypothesis (e.g. that smoking causes lung
cancer).
Investigating a research question (e.g. where is the
best place to locate a new Doctors surgery).

Research may involve
Part 4&5 AB RESEARCH PROPOSAL
TODAYS TASK IS FOR YOU TO PRODUCE YOUR RESEARCH
PROPOSAL-Proposal is a plan (you propose you ideas)

YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION

Topic stereotype individuals into a certain group, e.g.
all teenagers binge drink.

Background on the topic-USIING SECONDARY
RESEARCH- WHY ARE YOU CONDUCTING A RESEARCH
PROJECT ON IT, WHAT IS THE PROBLEM? (few
paragraphs of what it is)consists of aims and objectives,

Hypothesis- a question that you want to answer through
doing your research.
motivation- ( reasons why you are choosing to study this
topic (personal + professional))

Proposed methods of data collection and justification
highlighting any possible issues.

Include ethical considerations, reliability and validity
into your proposal.



HERES AN EXAMPLE OF HOW TO
START IT. Introduction to your
proposal.

For the purpose of my research
project the topic the topic I will
focus on is body image and a little
bit of info on this reason/
motivations for choosing it
personal +professional
Hypotheses- narrow down your
topic into a specific that you want
to find about.
Health and social care topics might relate
to..
Care related situations and problems
Testing or review of existing knowledge,
treatments and practices.
Explaining relationships between factors
affecting health and well being.
Evaluating service interventions and policies.
Aims
The aim of your research must be very clear.
E.g. I aim to find out what is the biggest
influence when teenagers start to smoke.
E.g. My aim is to identify why teenagers
choose not to use sunscreen.
E.g. I aim to find out how much teenagers
know about the signs and symptoms of
Meningitis.
Checklist 1
Photocopies of checklist 1 should help you to
plan your project.
Your own research on a topic will focus the
purpose of the project not the other way
around.
When you have a research question or a
hypotheses see me, dont just carry on!!


Ethical Principles
Dont forget to follow basic
rules of courtesy to
everyone you involve in
your project.
Be sure to ask permission
from 6
th
Form team, from
Year team, from Tutor.
Dont expect anyone to do
anything for you everyone
is busy, its your
responsibility to give out
questionnaires and collect
them in again.
Make sure you fully
explain the purpose
of your research to
your subject
population.
This could be a note
on the top of the
questionnaire or an
explanation in person
to a group.
Data Collection and Confidentiality
Data must be recorded accurately and kept
safe at all times.
Names should be deleted from
questionnaires, and information should not be
shared with others.
Do not disclose personal information to
others.

DATA ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
PART C- ANALYSIS!!!

You need to be organised with
this section and use your results
to analyse your results overall.
Be prepared to find patterns
and trends in your data that
you did not set out to look
for.
Research can often show up
surprising trends and facts.
Remember that you will
need to compare your
findings to the secondary
research to check validity.

Section D
YOU SHOULD ALREADY
HAVE USED THE HELP
SHEET TO ANALYSE YOUR
RESEARCH.

REMEMBER THAT WE
ONLY HAVE UNTIL THE
25
TH
TO MAKE SURE THIS
IS FINISHED.