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1.

3 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY


1.Scalar Quantity
Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude alone.
Magnitude is the numerical value of a quantity
Examples of scalar quantities are distance, speed, mass, volume, temperature,
density and energy.

2. Vector Quantity
Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, and magnetic field.


Example 1 :
Categorize each quantity below as being either a vector or a scalar.

Speed, velocity, acceleration, distance, displacement, energy, electrical charge,
density, volume, length, momentum, time, temperature, force, mass, power, work,
impulse.

Answer:
Scalar Quantities:
speed, distance, energy, electrical charge,density, volume, length, time,
temperature, mass, power, work
Vector Quantities :
velocity, acceleration, displacement, momentum, force, impulse

Error
1. Error is the difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value
obtained in measurement.
2. There are 2 main types of error
a) Systematic Error
b) Random Error
Systematic Error
Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all measurements in a systematic
way so their mean value is displaced. Systematic errors can be compensated if the
errors are known.

Examples of systematic errors are:
a) zero error, which cause by an incorrect position of the zero point,
b) an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.
c) consistently improper use of equipment.
Systematic error can be reduced by:
a) Conducting the experiment with care.
b) Repeating the experiment by using different instruments
Zero error
1. A zero error arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly
zero.
2. Zero errors are consistently present in every reading of a measurement.
3. The zero error can be positive or negative.

(NO ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the ammeter place on zero when no current flow
through it.)

(NEGATIVE ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the ammeter does not place on zero but
a negative value when no current flow through it.)
Random errors

POSITIVE ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the ammeter does not place on zero but a
negative value when no current flow through it.)

1. Random errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition.
2. It fluctuates from one measurement to the next.
3. Random errors are caused by factors that are beyond the control of the observers.
4. Random error can cause by personal errors such as :
a) human limitations of sight and touch.
b) lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the instrument fail to respond to the small
change.
c) natural errors such as changes in temperature or wind, while the experiment
is in progress.
d) wrong technique of measurement.

5. One example of random error is the parallax error. Random error can be reduced
by:
a) taking repeat readings
b) find the average value of the reading.
Parallax error
A parallax error is an error in reading an instrument due to the eye of the observer
and pointer are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of the scale.



Precision
1. Precision is the ability of an instrument in measuring a quantity in a consistent
manner with only a small relative deviation between readings.
2. The precision of a reading can be indicated by its relative deviation.
3. The relative deviation is the percentage of mean deviation for a set of
measurements and it is defined by the following formula:



Accuracy
1. The accuracy of a measurement is the approximation of the measurement to the
actual value for a certain quantity of Physics.
2. The measurement is more accurate if its number of significant figures increases.
3. Table above shows that the micrometer screw gauge is more accurate than the
other measuring instruments.

4. The accuracy of a measurement can be increased by :
a) taking a number of repeat readings to calculate the mean value of the
reading.
b) avoiding the end errors or zero errors.
c) taking into account the zero and parallax errors.
d) using more sensitive equipment such as a vernier caliper to replace a ruler.

5. The difference between precision and accuracy can be shown by the spread of
shooting of a tar-get (as shown in Diagram below).

Sensitivity
1. The sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect small changes in the quantity
that is being measured.
2. Thus, a sensitive instrument can quickly detect a small change in measurement.
3. Measuring instruments that have smaller scale parts are more sensitive.
4. Sensitive instruments need not necessarily be accurate.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1. Ruler

A metre rule has sensitivity or accuracy accuracy of 1mm.

Precaution to be taken when using ruler:
a) Make sure that the object is in contact with the ruler.
b) Avoid parallax error.
Avoid zero error and end error.

2. Thermometer


There are 2 types of mercury thermometer :
a) Thermometers of range -10
o
C - 110
o
C with accuracy 1
o
C.
b) Thermometers of range 0
o
C - 360
o
C with accuracy 2
o
C.

Precaution to be taken when using thermometer :
a) Make sure that the temperature measured does not exceed the measuring
range.
b) When measuring temperature of liquid immerse the bulb fully in the liquid
c) stir the liquid so that the temperature in the liquid is uniform
d) do not stir the liquid vigorously to avoid breaking the thermometer


3. Stopwatch



There are 2 types of stopwatches :
a) analogue stopwatches of sensitivity 0.1s or 0.2s
b) digital stopwatches of sensitivity 0.01s.
The sensitivity of a stopwatch depends on the reaction time of the user.
4. Ammeter and Voltmeter


1. Ammeters are measuring instrument used to measure electric current.
2. An Ammeter is always connected in series with the load (resistor) in a circuit.
3. Voltmeters are measuring instrument used to measure potential difference
(voltage).
4. A voltmeter is always connected parallel to the load (resistor) in a circuit.














1.5) SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

The scientific method is a systematic method in doing their work.

A report of the investigation must include:
a) Objective of the experiment,
b) Inference,
c) Hypothesis,
d) Three types of variables: manipulated variable, responding variable and fixed
variable,
e) List of apparatus,
f) Procedure,
g) Tabulation of data,
h) Analysis of data,
i) Conclusion.

a) Inference:
Inference is a statement to state the relationship between two visible quantities
observed in a diagram or picture.

b) Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is a statement to state the relationship between two measurable
variables that can be investigated in a lab.

c) The Variables
A variable is a quantity that can vary in value. There are 3 types of variable:

i) Manipulated Variables: Manipulated variables are factors which
changed for the experiment.
ii) Responding Variables: Responding variables are factors which
depend on the manipulated variables.
iii) Constant Variables: Constant variables are factors which are kept the
same throughout the experiment.

d) Tabulating Data
A proper way of tabulating data should include the following:
The name or the symbols of the variables must be labelled with respective units.All
measurements must be consistent with the sensitivity of the instruments used.All the
values must be consistent to the same number of decimal places.

e) The Graph
Graphs are used to make a relationship between variables.
Gradient value and extrapolation of a graph are used to analyse a graph.
A well-plotted must contain the following features:
a) A title to show the two variables under investigation,
b) two axes labelled with the correct variables and their respective units,
c) the graph drawn is greater than 50 % of the graph paper,
d) appropriate scales (1:1 x 10
x
, 1:2 x 10
x
and 1:5 x 10
x
)
e) all the points are correctly plotted,
f) a best fit line is drawn

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