Chapter 4

MATTER AND SUBSTANCES.

4.1 Changes in The States of Matter.
Kinetic theory of matter
the properties of matter can be explained by using the kinetic theory of
matter.
the kinetic theory matter tries to explain the three states of matter : solid,
liquid, gas : based on the following assumptions :
(a) matter is made up of a very fine and discrete particles.
(b) the particles of matter constantly move or vibrate.
(c) the particles constantly collide against one another and the
walls of the container.
(d) forces of attraction exist among the particles in matter, the
forces of attraction become stronger when the particles are
packed closely together.
(e) the higher the temperature , the higher the kinetic energy of
the particles.
among the examples which support the kinetic theory of matter is the
diffusion process.
diffusion is the movement particles in matter from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration until both area have the
same concentration.
example if a little bit of perfume is sprayed in area , we can smell it in
are ! three metres away because the process of diffusion has occurred
this is because the particles of the perfume have moved into the empty
spaces between air particles.
the particles of liquid and gas move randomly and collide against one
another. (!rownian movement)
temperature influences the kinetic energy content of matter.
the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy content of the
particles.
Proerties of matter
Proerties of matter So!i" #i$%i" &as
rrangement of
particles
rranged
closely,
compactly and
orderly in fixed
positions. "here
is very little
empty space
between one
particle and
another.
#iquid particles
neatly nor
closely
arranged. "here
are empty
spaces among
the particles.
$ost of the
particles keep
contact with one
another.
%as particles
are not neatly
arranged and
are further apart
from one
another.
$ovement of particles &articles do not
move freely and
only vibrate at
their fixed
positions.
&articles move
slowly in a
random manner.
&articles move
fast in a random
manner and in
all directions.
'orces of attraction
between particles
(ery strong )ot very strong (ery weak
*nergy content (ery low $oderate (ery high
+hape 'ixed 'ollowing the
shape of the
container
'ills up the
whole container
(olume 'ixed 'ixed )ot fixed
,ompression )ot
compressible
(ery difficult to
compress
*asily
compressed
Changes in the state of matter.
heat is the energy that determine the movement particles in matter.
if the temperature of matter increases, particles will get higher kinetic
energy to move faster.
consequently, changes in the state of matter occur through the process of
heating or cooling, i.e. when heat energy is absorbed or releases from the
matter.
when heat is supplied, the state of matter will change from solid to liquid,
and finally to gas.
take changes in the state of matter which take place when heat is supplied
are melting, boiling, sublimation
when heat is released the state of matter will change from gas to liquid
and finally to solid.
the changes in the state of matter which take place when heat is released
are free-ing, condensation, sublimation.
sublimation occurs when the state of matter changes from solid to gas or
vice versa without going through the liquid stage.
Melting
when a solid is heated, heat is absorbed by its particles.
particles possesses more kinetic energy and vibrate faster.
at melting point, particles in the solid have enough energy to overcome
the forces of attraction between particles and to move freely.
the solid melts and changes to become liquid.
Boiling
when liquid is heated, heat energy is absorbed by its particles.
the liquid particles have more kinetic energy and move faster.
at boiling point, the energy possessed enable the particles to overcome
the forces of attraction between the particles and they released as gas.
Sublimation
when a solid is heated, its particles gain more energy and move faster.
the particles in solid separate from solid lattice and release as gas into
the air.
Freezing
when liquid is cooled, its particles lose energy and are held together by
strong forces of attraction between particles.
this cause liquid particles not able to move freely and they only vibrate in
their positions
the liquid free-es to become solid.
Condensation
when gas is cooled, its particles lose energy and are held together by
forces of attraction between particles.
this causes the particles to moves slowly.
the distance between gas particles becomes closer.
the gas changes to liquid.
Sublimation
when gas is cooled, its particles lose energy and are held together by
strong forces of attraction between particles.
this cause the particles to move very slowly.
the distance between gas particles becomes closer.
the gas changes to solid.
Changes in the state of matter involving heat change.
4.' Str%ct%re of Atoms.
Atoms
all matter consists of tiny units called atoms.
atom is a basic unit of all matter.
atoms cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope because they are so
tiny.
an atom consists of a nucleus in the centre surrounded by electrons.
electrons move around the nucleus following a certain orbit.
structure of an atom
S%(atomic artic!es
an atom is made up of particles that are even smaller called subatomic
particles.
+olid
%as #iquid
boiling
(heat absorbed)
condensation
(heat released)
free-ing
(heat released)
sublimation
(heat absorbed)
melting
(heat absorbed)
sublimation
(heat released)
nucleus
electron
orbit
there are three types of subatomic particles :
protons
neutrons
electrons
protons and neutrons from the nucleus in the centre of an atom.
electrons move around the nucleus at high speed.
the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
subatomic particles in an atom
Comarison (et)een s%(atomic artic!es
S%(atomic
artic!e
Sym(o! Position in atom Re!ati*e
charge
Re!ati*e
mass
Mass in gram
&roton p )ucleus /0 0 0.123 x 04
536
)eutron n )ucleus 4 0 0.127 x 04
536
*lectron e $oves around nucleus 50 080964 :.042 x 04
539
comparison between subatomic particles
atoms of any element are neutral because the number of electrons in an
atom are the same.
in a neutral atom, the total positive charges in the nucleus are the same as
the total negative charges from the electrons which orbit around the
nucleus.
Atom N%m(er of rotons N%m(er of
e!ectrons
N%m(er of ne%trons
;ydrogen 0 0 4
;elium 3 3 3
,arbon 1 1 1
+odium 00 00 03
number of subatomic particles in different atoms
ions are atoms or particles which have charge.
ions are produced when the number of protons (positive charge) and the
number of electrons (negative charge) are not balanced.
electron (5)
proton (/)
neutron
nucleus
positive ions are particles that are positively charged.
positive ions are produced when the number of protons is more than the
number of electrons.
negative ions are particles that are negatively charged
negative ions are produced when the number of electrons is more than the
number of protons.
4.+ Proton N%m(er an" N%c!eon N%m(er in Atoms of E!ements.
Proton n%m(er an" n%c!eon n%m(er
proton number is the number of protons in an atom of an element.
elements can be differentiated by referring to their proton number.
in a neutral atom, the proton number also refers to the number of
electrons in that atom.
nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom of
an element.
the number of neutrons in an atom can be calculated if its proton number
and nucleon number are known.
in a neutral atom :
table below shows that atoms of different element possesses different
numbers of protons and electrons.
proton number < number of protons
< number of electrons in a neutral atom
nucleon number < number of protons / number of neutrons
< proton number / number of neutrons
number of neutrons < nucleon number proton number
< nucleon number number of protons
a) nucleon number < number of electrons / number of neutrons
b) number of neutron < nucleon number / number of electrons
atoms of certain elements can represented by the following symbol :
,sotoes
are atoms of the same element that possesses the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.
can also be defined as atoms of the same element with the same proton
number but different nucleon number.
isotopes of the same element possess the same chemical properties.
the physical properties of isotopes are different.
E!ement ,sotoe N%c!eon
n%m(er
Proton
n%m(er
N%m(er
of
rotons
N%m(er
of
ne%trons
N%m(er
of
e!ectrons
;ydrogen ;ydrogen50 0 0 0 4 0
;ydrogen53 3 0 0 0 0
;ydrogen5= = 0 0 3 0
>xygen >xygen501 01 9 9 9 9
>xygen502 02 9 9 : 9
>xygen509 09 9 9 04 9
,arbon ,arbon503 03 1 1 1 1
,arbon50= 0= 1 1 2 1
,arbon506 06 1 1 9 1
examples of isotopes
E!ement N%m(er of
rotons
N%m(er of
e!ectrons
N%m(er of
ne%trons
Proton
n%m(er
N%c!eon
N%m(er
;ydrogen 0 0 4 0 0
;elium 3 3 3 3 6
#ithium = = 6 = 2
!eryllium 6 6 7 6 :
!oron 7 7 1 7 00
,arbon 1 1 1 1 03
)itrogen 2 2 2 2 06
>xygen 9 9 9 9 01
'luorine : : 04 : 0:
)eon 04 04 04 04 34
)
06
2
nucleon
number
proton number
symbol of
element
number of neutron < 06 2 < 2
PEN&E#ASAN UNSUR-UNSUR DA#AM .ADUA# BERKA#A
PEN&E#ASAN UNSUR-UNSUR DA#AM .ADUA# BERKA#A
?nsur5unsur disusun dalam @adual !erkala mengikut s%s%nan nom(or
roton sema/in mening/at.
)ombor proton meningkat daripada daripada kiri ke kanan dan daripada
atas ke bawah @adual !erkala
+etiap laAur tegak dikenali sebagai kumpulan
+etiap baris melintang dikenali sebagai kala
0 3 = 6 7 1 2 9 : 04 00 03 0= 06 07 01 02 09
B?$&?#)
0

3
=
6
7
1
2
B#

?nsur5unsur dalam kumpulan yang sama mempunyai sifat kimia yang

sama
+ifat fi-ik dan sifat kimia unsur5unsur beransur5ansur berubah merentasi
kala
Ci dalam @adual !erkala, terdapat 09 kumpulan dinomborkan daripada 0
hingga 09 dan 2 kala dinomborkan dariapda 0 hingga 2.
Bumpulan 0 (logam alkali) dan kumpulan 3 (logam alkali bumi) terdiri
dariapda logam5logam yang sangat reaktif.
?nsure5unsur dalam kumpulan 02 adalah bukan logam dan dikenali
sebagai halogen.
Bumpulan 09 terdiri daripada gas5gas lengai yang secara kimianya stabil
dan tidak reaktif.
?nsure5unsur yang terletak di antara kumpulan 3 dan 0= adalah unsure
logam peralihan
Keentingan .a"%a! Ber/a!a
Bepentingan pengelasan unsur5unsur dalam @adual !erkala adalah
untuk :
(a) $embantu kita untuk mengkaAi unsur5unsur dalam tertib dan
teratur dan secara bersistematik
(b) $embantu kita untuk mengetahui sifat5sifat unsur5unsur
dengan mudah kerana unsur5unsur dengan sifat yang sama diletakkan
dalam kumpulan yang sama
(c) $embantu kita untuk meramalkan sifat5sifat dan kegunaan
unsur dengan meruAuk kepada kedudukan unsur5unsur di dalam
@adual !erkala
S,0AT-S,0AT BA1AN BERDASARKAN KEPADA KANDUN&AN 2ARA1-
2ARA1
"erdapat tiga Aenis bahan5bahan
atoms are the tiniest particles in an element.
molecules are groups of atoms Aoined together.
a molecule consists of two or more atoms
ions are particles which carry positive or negative charges.
Atomic s%(stances.
are substances that consist of only atoms.
all metals are atomic substances. (ex : iron, lead, sodium)
the atoms are in atomic substances are packed closely, compactly and
arranged orderly in fixed positions.
the atoms in atomic substances are held together by a strong chemical
bond.
arrangement of atoms in metal
Mo!ec%!ar s%(stances.
molecules are the simplest particles found in molecular substances.
nitrogen, sulphur dioxide and iodine are examples of molecular
substances.
molecular substances are made up of molecules which have two or more
atoms of the same type.
for example, two oxygen atoms combine to form one oxygen molecule.
atom
molecular substances can also be made up of two or more atoms of
different types.
for example, one nitrogen atom combines with three hydrogen atoms to
form one ammonia molecule.
ammonia molecule consists of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms.
molecules are made up of non5metal atoms held together by a strong
covalent bond.
however, the forces of attraction between molecules in a molecular
substance are relatively weak . the weak forces between molecules in
molecular substance are called (an der Daals forces.
,onic s%(stances.
are formed when atoms of metals combine with atoms of non5metal
through chemical bonding to form compounds.
sodium chloride, lead (EE) bromide and magnesium oxide are examples of
ionic compounds.
positive ion and negative ion attract one another.
forces of attraction between ions of opposite charge are called
electrostatic attraction force.
Physica! roerties of atomic3 mo!ec%!ar an" ionic s%(stances.
Physica! roerty Atomic S%(stance Mo!ec%!ar S%(stance ,onic S%(stances
&hysical state at
room temperature
+olid except mercury +olid : Eodine
#iquid : Dater
%as : >xygen
+olid
rrangement of
particles
&acked very closely +olid : &acked
#iquid : )ot packed
%as : 'ar apart
&acked very
closely
'orces of attraction (ery strong Deak (ery strong
)
; ;
;
sodium ion (/)
chloride ion (5)
between particles
$elting point and
boiling point
;igh #ow ;igh
*lectrical
conductivity
ll metals and carbon
(graphite)
Coes not conduct electricity ,onducts
electricity in molten
state
+olubility Coes not dissolve in
anything
$ost of them dissolve in
organic solvent
$ost of them
dissolve in water
4.4 Proerties an" Uses of Meta!s an" Non-Meta!s.
Meta!s an" Non-Meta!s.
elements can be classified into metals and non5metals.
ex : iron, aluminium, -inc, copper, lead, tin ,and gold.
carbon, iodine, bromine, sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine are examples
of non5metals.
all metals exist in a solid state at room temperature except mercury.(liquid)
non5metals exist in a solid, liquid, or, gaseous state at room temperature.
Physica! roerties of Meta!s an" Non-Meta!s.
Meta!s Differences Non-meta!s
;ave shiny surfaces #uminosity ;ave dull surfaces
Cuctile Cuctility )ot ductile
*asily rolled or
hammered into foils or
thin sheets
$alleability ,annot be forged
;igh "ensile strength #ow
%ood conductor of
electricity
*lectrical conductivity Co not conduct electricity
except carbon
%ood conductor of heat ;eat conductivity &oor conductor of heat
;igh $elting point and boiling
point
#ow
;igh Censity #ow
+olid (except mercury in
liquid state)
+tate of matter at room
temperature
+olid, liquid, or gas
Uses of Meta!s an" Non-Meta!s in "ai!y !ife.
Meta! Physica! Proerty Use
Eron ;igh tensile strength Failway tracks and
framework for bridges
luminium #ight, good conductor of electricity
and heat
Bitchen utensils and electric
cables
,opper Cuctile and malleable, good
conductor of electricity and heat
*lectrical wires
"in Co not rust *lectroplating of food cans
%old Coes not rust and is shiny @ewellery
#ead Cuctile, malleable ,able casing
Non-meta! Physica! Proerty Use
,arbon (graphite) +oft and smooth, good
conductor of electricity
#ead of pencils, used as
the electrodes in
electrolysis and in dry cell
,arbon (diamond) ;ard Crill bits for cutting stone
)eon gas and
krypton
&oor conductor of heat #ights used for billboards
,hlorine cidic ?sed to kill germs in
drinking water
4.5 Metho"s of S%(stance P%rification.
Characteristics of %re s%(stances.
pure substances do not contain any impurities.
pure substances always have specific melting (free-ing) point and boiling
point.
for example : pure water boils at 044
o
, and ice melts or free-es at 4
o
, at
normal atmospheric pressure. pure iron melts at 0764
o
, and boils at
3944
o
, at normal atmospheric pressure.
any impurities added to a pure substance will increase the boiling point or
lower the free-ing (or melting) point of that substance.
for example : water that is added with salt will boil at a temperature higher
than 044
o
, and will free-e at a temperature lower than 4
o
,.
Metho" of s%(stance %rification.
impurities can be separated from pure substances.
the process of separating impurities form a substance is called
purification.
there are two methods of purification :
distillation
crystallisation
Distillation
is used to obtain pure liquid from a solution which contains impurities.
this method is used to separate two liquids (liquid mixture) that :
0. dissolve one another
3. do not react
=. possess different boiling points
distillation involves the process of heating liquid until it becomes vapour
(gas)
this vapour is then condenses to become pure liquid.
distillation can be conduced to separate mixtures of substances such as
purifying alcohol from a mixture of alcohol and water and also purifying
water from a mixture of water and salt.
the substance with a lower boiling point boils and vaporises earlier.
then the gas (vapour) will go through condensation to form the pure
product of distillation.
Crystallisation
crystallisation is a purification method carried out to obtain pure crystals
from a saturated solution of the substances.
example : purification of salt from its saturated solution.
saturated solution is a solution containing maximum quantity of solute.
A!ication of P%rification Metho".
distillation and crystallisation are often used to obtain pure substances.
these purification methods have produced many substances for our daily
needs.
examples of the application of distillation :
(a) breaking crude petroleum into its fractions such as petrol,
kerosene and diesel to produce fuels and to make various
kinds of plastic material.
(b) production of pure water or distilled water for the preparation
of chemical solution, medicine, as well as food and
beverages.
#iquid %as #iquid
boiling condensation
(c) obtaining pure ethanol from fermentation of sugar solution
and yeast.
examples of the application of crystallisation :
(a) production of salt from seawater.
(b) preparation of white sugar crystals from sugarcane Auice.