Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Challenges, Issues, and Obstacles and the Implications for Educators, Administrators, and
University Officials
By
Mohamed S. Omeish
Dissertation Directed by
BY
1998
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to the souls of men and women
who have died for their people’s just causes; to all freedom fighters who are seeking
better tomorrow for their people; to every caller for justice and equality; and to every
The purpose of this research was to (a) study the Muslim students, as a minority
group--a group that no longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of the
prevalent prejudice and discrimination found in the media and elsewhere; (b) investigate
universities; (c) explore their satisfaction with their academic experience; (d) determine
the main concerns and issues of Muslim students in academia and the importance of such
issues to them; and (e) provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines
metropolitan area as the sites from which the sample population (N=237) of the local
participants was drawn. Another sample (N=232) was selected from among the
The instrumentation of this study consists of four parts. The first part consists of
basic demographics. The questionnaire's Part II was adopted from previous studies
iv
measuring perceptions of prejudice and discrimination. Parts III and IV, highlighting
issues of concern and importance to Muslim students, were developed by the researcher.
well as inferential statistics (including one- and two-way ANOVA, independent t-test,
and Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient test) were employed to report
The findings indicate: (a) majority of Muslim students who participated in this
institutions of higher education; (b) majority of Muslim students who participated in the
study were satisfied with their academic and intellectual development at the schools they
attend; and (c) majority of Muslim students attach greater importance to matters of
religious obligations and commitments than to other matters; thus, it is suggested that
considerate and attentive to the needs and concerns of the growing numbers of Muslim
students in academia.
v
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE:
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to say that, I owe it first and for most to Allah (God) Almighty for
instilling in me the courage and patience to complete this dissertation. I then owe it to
my family, starting with my parents for their continuing encouragement and persistence
that I continue and complete what I have started. I am also grateful and indebted to my
loving wife, Haifa. Her patience over the past seven years had made the difference in my
I am also grateful to my advisor, Dr. Reynolds Ferrante, for his belief in me and
his continuous support and encouragement. I have enjoyed his advisorship and mentor in
my academic pursuit. I would like also to thank Dr. Parator for his time and willingness
accompanied this dissertation up until his retirement from GWU in spring of 1998. I
would like also to thank Drs. Brown, Nyang and Nimer for their time and efforts in the
final oral defense. I would like also to thank the academic staff of the GSEHD at GWU.
I owe it also to the many friends who have help me with their advice, support and
efforts in completing the study, among them are: the team of the International Relief
Organization, Dr. Ahmed Yousef, Dr. Anisa Abdelfatah, Sara Al-Dahir, Dr. Fatima Al-
Association of USA & Canada chapters and national officials who have helped with the
distribution and collection of the survey, especially at GWU, GMU, and GU.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH...............................................................................vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................vii
Table of Contents................................................................................................ix
List of Tables.....................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER 1........................................................................................................1
Introduction .....................................................................................................1
Background......................................................................................................4
Islam, the Faith of Muslims..........................................................................4
The Pillars of Islam ......................................................................................5
The Pillars of Faith in Islam .........................................................................8
Muslims .......................................................................................................9
Prejudice and Racism .................................................................................13
Prejudice and Hostilities against American Muslims ..................................14
Statement of the Problem ...............................................................................15
Purpose of Study............................................................................................18
Need for the Study .........................................................................................19
Research Questions........................................................................................21
Research Hypotheses .....................................................................................21
Assumptions ..................................................................................................23
Limitations.....................................................................................................23
Definitions of Terms ......................................................................................24
CHAPTER 2......................................................................................................29
Literature Review...........................................................................................29
Muslims and Islam .....................................................................................30
Where Are the Muslims?............................................................................32
The American Muslims: The Immigrants ...................................................32
The American Muslims: The Indigenous Muslims......................................33
Demographics of American Muslims .........................................................35
ix
Prejudice and Discrimination .....................................................................37
Basic Concepts and Definitions of Prejudice ..........................................37
Historical Research on Prejudice and Discrimination..............................39
Forms and Sources of Prejudice..............................................................42
Religious Prejudice ................................................................................43
Racial Prejudice .....................................................................................47
Why Deal With Prejudice? .....................................................................50
Why Muslims Face Prejudice? ...............................................................55
The Media..............................................................................................56
Reports of Prejudice and Discrimination.................................................58
Muslim Students' Experience in American Academia.................................60
Muslim Students in Doctoral Research Studies...........................................66
Summary .......................................................................................................75
CHAPTER 3......................................................................................................77
Methodology..................................................................................................77
Population......................................................................................................78
Sample .......................................................................................................78
Instrumentation ..............................................................................................80
Reliability ......................................................................................................85
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................86
Data Analysis.................................................................................................87
Summary .......................................................................................................88
CHAPTER 4......................................................................................................90
Findings.........................................................................................................90
Overview ...................................................................................................90
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents .............................................91
Analysis of Data/ Presentation of Findings................................................... 103
Research Question 1................................................................................. 103
Research Question 1.2.............................................................................. 109
Research Question 2................................................................................. 112
Research Question 2.1.............................................................................. 114
Research Hypothesis 1 ............................................................................. 121
Research Hypothesis 2 ............................................................................. 122
Research Hypothesis 3 ............................................................................. 123
Research Hypothesis 4 ............................................................................. 126
Research Hypothesis 5 ............................................................................. 127
Research Hypothesis 6 ............................................................................. 129
Research Hypothesis 7 ............................................................................. 133
x
Research Hypothesis 8 ............................................................................. 135
Research Hypothesis 9 ............................................................................. 137
Research Hypothesis 10 ........................................................................... 140
Research Hypothesis 12 ........................................................................... 147
Research Hypothesis 13 ........................................................................... 150
Research Hypothesis 14 ........................................................................... 151
Summary ..................................................................................................... 153
Summary of Demographics ...................................................................... 153
Summary of Research Questions Findings................................................ 154
Summary of Research Hypotheses Findings ............................................. 154
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
xii
List of Tables (continued) Page
xiv
List of Tables (continued) Page
xv
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
education institutions in accommodating and reconciling the hard issues surrounding race
relations. However, if one looks deeper into these issues, the findings show that there is
still a long way to go to attain the desired equal status for all races. Research studies
affirm that "Most administrators and faculty are not trained in an environment that
emphasizes cultural pluralism, and as well intentioned as they may be, they are likely to
scholars that we have a problem when, "Seeing White people only as a norm by which to
measure others is a narrow view that is acquired by living in a society that perpetuates
White norms and by believing that what differs from these norms is a deviation" (Dutton,
Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). These scholars point out that "Racial identity and
acceptance are important for all races, especially in this increasingly multicultural
society" (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). Moreover, "Despite decades of legal
and educational reform, racism remains a serious social problem in the United States.
Research findings have demonstrated that in the wake of the civil rights movement,
racism has not declined but has merely changed forms" (Maluso, 1995, p. 50).
1
2
According to Loo & Rolison, "despite civil rights legislation, the national
goal of providing ethnic minorities with equal access to quality institutions of higher
education and opportunities for academic success has yet to be realized" (1986, p. 58).
Siggelkow also concurs with Loo & Rolison when he emphasizes the role of
academia by saying that "Perhaps colleges and universities are no less racist than other
societal institutions and the commercial world, but the potential for irreparable harm is
far greater in higher education . . . Serious, unfinished business remains" (1991, p. 104).
The race issue is very serious and one that academia must deal with and resolve to
preserve the democratic values for which America stands. Dean Trueba, Dean of the
School of Education at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, argues that the American
society may lose its democratic values if it ignores the race issue or does not deal with it
properly (1993). Trueba views the university as an institution with a vital role in healing
the society's race and ethnic problems. Moreover, he says that "If the resolution of these
conflicts is crucial for the survival of our democracy, the role of universities in
goes on to say, "Universities are the main instrument that democratic societies use to
generate and transmit new knowledge, and to inculcate democratic values and respect for
Trueba poses a critical question to educators and administrators a like, "What can
modern universities do to heal America's racial and educational crises?" (1993, p. 52).
He follows up his question with a reply that sums up the university's role. He says,
3
understanding of the nature of race and ethnicity, to help solve racial and ethnic
problems, and to develop the necessary knowledge and strategies to heal ethnic and racial
hatred in democratic societies" (Trueba, 1993, p. 5). And because one of the goals of
socially and academically, it is vital for these institutions to design environments that will
provide opportunities, incentives, and reassurances for growth and development (Arnold
& King, 1997; Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989; Huebner &
Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard, & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston, 1991;
It is with these concerns of Trueba and other scholars in mind, that this study was
Castaneda, Nora & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991; Harris, 1995;
Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Prieto, 1995).
Therefore, this study is an attempt to enrich scholarly research in the area of the study of
Muslim students as a minority group within this truly diverse society--a society where
every member should be respected for who he/she is, where every member in the society
longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of all the prevalent prejudice and
4
discrimination found in the media and elsewhere (Haddad & Esposito, 1998;
exploration of their satisfaction with their academic experience. Parallel to that, through
the study the researcher sought to determine the main concerns and issues of Muslim
students and the importance of such issues to them as they make their way through
academia. This study was also intended to provide educators and administrators with
insights and guidelines to use when interacting with this unique group of students.
Background
study. To help the reader better understand the subjects of this study, the following
background is provided.
Islam is one of the three monotheistic religions. It emerged in the Arab peninsula,
which we know as Saudi Arabia in 622 AD Like the other two of the three monotheistic
faiths, Judaism and Christianity, Islam was revealed through a prophet who is known as
the Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him [PBUH]). Judaism is believed to be based
on the teachings and laws of the Prophet Moses, while Christianity is said to take its
social and moral codes from the teachings of the Prophet Jesus. All three religions are
5
believed to have their roots in the teachings of the Prophet of God, the patriarch
Abraham.
be a blood descendant of Abraham. The Prophets Moses and Jesus are believed to have
descended from Abraham’s son Isaac, born through his first wife Sarah, while the
Prophet Muhammad is said to have descended from Abraham's son Ishmael, who was
born through Abraham's wife Hajar. Ishmael is also believed to be the first member of the
Arab nation since he and his mother Hajar settled in a previously uninhabited desert that
became Mecca, and subsequently the site of the Kaba. Mecca is a place of Arab (and
now Muslim) pilgrimage in Saudi Arabia (Gen.16 and 17, The Holy Qur'an, 2:124-130).
In Arabic, the word Islam means "to submit," or "to surrender and obey." The
Qur'an, the Muslim Holy Book, never uses the word Islam as we do, but says, "Al-Islam,"
or "The Islam," referring to a way of life that follows a distinct code of moral, social, and
legal behaviors that were revealed by God through His various Prophets with a specific
mankind to the best in this life and the next life (or afterlife) (Emerick, 1997; Rahman,
1988).
of life, affecting every aspect of human existence. The "Pillars" of Islam are actions
6
which serve as the foundations of the faith and cover aspects of both belief and
ritual worship.
The first of these Pillars is the belief in the oneness of God. In Islam this oneness
is called Tawhid, an Arabic word that means "One." It means that God is eternal and
absolute, that He has no beginning and no end. That everything other than God was
created by God and that God is without equals, rivals, sons, daughters, or fleshly
manifestation. It is this belief about God that is central to the Muslim's faith and actions.
Obedience to God emanates from this basic belief that is obligatory upon adherents of
Islam. Muslims believe that God's laws take precedence over any cultural or habitual
affectations that one might acquire in life. When habits or cultural behaviors are in
conflict with God's guidance, they are not accepted as acts of faith (CIE, 1995; Emerick,
The Holy Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) through
inspiration, or rather Wahi which means "communication with God." It is said that this
revelation began in the form of dreams and later came while the Prophet was awake. It
was brought to the Prophet by an angel named Jibril, whom we know in English as
Gabriel. This religious view is important to the understanding of the Pillars of faith
because part of the belief in God's oneness is also the belief in His Prophets, whose exact
Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was the last of these
Prophets. A Muslim must accept the prophecies of Muhammad (PBUH) and follow their
7
guidance. Muslims must also obey the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) teachings
and explanations of the Qur'an by following what is called the Sunnah of the Prophet, or
"His way." John Esposito in Islam: The Straight Path (1991, p. 89) explains Tauhid, the
first Pillar of Islam, as "acknowledgment of and commitment to Allah and His Prophet."
The second Pillar of Islam is prayer. Five times a day Muslims turn towards the
Kaba in Mecca and perform ritual prayers. The method or technique of prayer is based on
the example of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) given during his lifetime. The Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH) used to lead the congregation of Muslims in Mecca and Medina in
prayer, thus demonstrating to them the way in which prayer should be performed.
The prayer consists of reciting the first Surah of the Qur'an, Al-Fatihah, referred
to as "the seven often repeated verses," followed by the recitation of a chosen verse or
verses of the Qur'an and various praises to God. For each segment of the prayer, a
Muslim adopts a distinguishing bodily position, beginning with standing and placing
hands across the heart, and then bowing and kneeling. Muslims repeat these positions a
prescribed number of times depending on which prayer is being performed. The five
daily prayers are the morning prayer, Fajr, the noon prayer, Dhur, the afternoon prayer,
Asr, the evening prayer, Maghrib, and the night prayer, Ishaa. To pray five times a day is
an obligation that every Muslim must adhere to except those exempted by Islamic law
The third Pillar of Islam is Zakat, or the mandatory tax levied annually upon the
Muslim's possessions. This tax is distributed to the poor (Holy Qur'an, 2: 43). It
8
provides a source of revenue for the Muslim State in the form of an income tax.
It is seen as an act of worship where the rich and able is providing for the poor and the
needy. The Islamic law provides others details for on how and what is subject to this
taxation.
The fourth Pillar is the Fast of Ramadhan. This obligatory fast commemorates
Ramadhan. The month of Ramadhan is determined by the lunar calendar. From the time
of dawn to the end of daylight, Muslims not only abstain from water and food, but also
from sexual intercourse, slander, profane speech, and other actions considered
The fifth Pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage, or Hajj. This is a journey that the
Muslim is obliged to take to the site of the Kaba and to other religious sites in and around
Mecca. There Muslims perform certain religious rituals and prayers as they were first
performed by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his followers. This Pillar is only
obligatory upon those who are able to afford the cost effort involved (Holy Qur'an, 2:196-
203).
The Pillars of faith in Islam are distinguished from the pillars of religion because
they focus on the system of belief rather than ritual worship and laws that govern these
9
actions, even though one cannot express true faith without submission to the law.
• To believe in Allah (God) in His Existence, His right to be worshipped, His Oneness,
• To believe in angels
• To believe in the Holy Qur'an and the other Holy Books, (Torah, the Gospel of Jesus,
• To believe in God's Messengers, of whom Adam was the first and the Prophet
Many scholars have written various explanations of these pillars, and this list of
the Pillars of Faith are accepted as basic to belief in Islam by every sect and school of
Muslims
adult male and female who consciously and solemnly witnesses that , "there is no God
but God and Muhammad is the Prophet of God." That person is entitled to all privileges
and rights of a Muslim and bound by all the duties and obligations of Islamic law (CIE,
When translated into Modern English, the word Muslim simply means
"servant". From the meanings of this term we are able to understand that the Muslim
laws upon which social and moral codes that govern everyday life are established.
Over 1.2 billion of the world's people are Muslims. Twenty-three percent are said to
come from south Asia, 16.7% from Africa, 15% from Arab countries, 14.2% from
southeast Asia, 4.2% from central Asia, 4.2% from China, 4.2% from Iran, 4.2% from
Turkey, 1.7% from Europe, 1.3% from Afghanistan, 0.5% from North America, 0.25%
percent are African American, 24.4% are south Asian, 12.4% are Arab, 5.2% are African,
3.6% are Iranian, 2.4% are Turk, 2.0% are southeast Asian, 1.6% are Caucasian, and
5.6% are undetermined. According to the most recent data, approximately 1 million
Muslims live in California; 800,000 in New York; 420,000 in Illinois; 200,000 in New
130,000 in Ohio; and 70,000 in Maryland. Smaller Muslim communities are believed to
exist that are not represented here, and whose numbers are not documented in any census
Texts of various slave documents support a theory that the first Muslims to come
to America's shores came as slaves from Africa in 1717. Reports of Muslims in North
11
America prior to this are based on the history of a Muslim known as "Estevanico" who
accompanied the Spanish explorer Marcos de Niza in 1539 in his exploration of what is
now known as Arizona (Lovell, 1983; Muhammad, 1998). Although data on Muslims in
the Americas in the days of European exploration are rare, if at all, there is greater
evidence of Muslim presence during the colonization period when African Muslims were
part of the captured slaves from the African continent (Austin, 1997; Muhammad, 1998;
Poston, 1992).
Just how many slaves were Muslims is unknown. The documents referred to here
are unique in that they bear lists that include Muslim names such as Omar Ibn Said, Job
bin Solomon, and Prince Omar. It is possible that many of the slave's names were
misunderstood by their captors and may have been misspelled, or not written at all. In
1864 an amateur ethnologist by the name of Theodore Dwight wrote in the Methodist
Quarterly Review of 1864, "Among the victims of the slave trade among us have been
men of learning and pure and exalted characters, who have been treated like beast of
burden by those amongst us who claim a purer religion." He is believed to have spoken
of a Black slave named Ayub ibn Sulayman Diallo. He was an African Muslim Prince
who became a victim of the slave trade in 1731 (Austin, 1997; Muhammad, 1998; Nyang,
1981).
The first voluntary migration of Muslims to America spanned 37 years from 1875
to 1912. The majority of these immigrants were Arabs who were either fleeing
12
were primarily single males from the rural areas of Syria, Jordan, Palestine, and Lebanon.
They were mostly unskilled and so they worked as peddlers, in mines, and in factories.
Most of these men settled permanently in the United States, thus establishing Muslim
immigrants were mostly the family members of the previous wave of Arab Muslim
immigrants. It was not until after the Second World War, in response to the immense
political upheavals that followed the war, that the United States saw an immigrant wave
of Muslims from the Asian continent. Unlike the African slaves, or the previous Arab
immigrants, these immigrants were mostly from the elite of their societies. They were
well educated, and they avoided excessive absorption into the western culture.
Additional waves continued to bring more and more Muslims to this land; the latest of
which included refugees from Bosnia, Iraq, and Somalia (Ahmed, 1994; Albanese, 1981;
Ba-Yunus; 1979; CIE, 1995; Elkholy, 1966; Emerick, 1997; Gaustad, 1993; Haddad,
1986; Kettani, 1986; Lindley, 1996; Mehdi, 1978; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton, 1989;
Miller, 1976; Naff, 1980; Nu’man, 1992; Nyang, 1981; Nyang & Ahmad, 1985; Nyang,
1986; Philipp, 1980; Poston, 1992; Roof, 1993; Shulman, 1981; Winters, 1977).
13
Prejudice, discrimination, and racism are ills that undermine the society's social
fabric. These ills stem from attitudes people harbor. Scientists have found that attitudes
"can influence a broad range of cognitive processes such as social inference, reasoning,
perception, and interpretation, and can thereby influence behavior. In general people
favor, approach, praise, and cherish those things they like, and disfavor, avoid, blame
those things they dislike" (Pratkanis & Turner, 1993, p. 326). Pettigrew stated that
prejudice can be seen as " 'an opinion for or against something without adequate basis.'
Notice that this conception includes both irrationality ("an opinion ... without adequate
Furthermore, Pratkanis and Turner discussed sources that influence the formation of
attitudes. Among these sources are the "mass media, parental influence, socializing
agents such as schools and religious organizations, important reference groups, total
institutions such as prisons and cults, and observation of one's own behavior and direct
In 1993 Wolford illustrated that "the effects of prejudice in American society, and
throughout the world, are generally considered devastating, not only to the individuals
prejudice but also to the integrity of society as a whole" (p. 1849). She also reported that
"Newspapers and television news frequently report acts inspired by prejudice, such as
'hate crimes' against minorities. Violations of the civil rights of minorities sill occur,
14
with a very important note that "much more progress is clearly needed in studying ways
predominately white institutions find themselves in racial climates that may be intolerant
to their ethnic background. This usually leads them to feelings of prejudice and
alienation. And when students feel alienated, they will either resort to their subculture
groups, if any exist, or they will leave their institutions (Cabrera, Castaneda, Nora, &
Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Loo & Rolison, 1986; Nora & Cabrera, 1996;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Stabb, Harris & Talley, 1995). In either case, the minority
students are at a disadvantage that may hinder their development and growth. Thus,
tolerance and inclusiveness are best for students in general and minorities in particular
(Arnold & King, 1997; Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989; Huebner
& Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston, 1991;
education, and social standing (Faruqi, 1980; Faruqi, 1983; Fredrickson & Knobel, 1980;
Glazer & Ueda, 1980; Haddad & Esposito, 1998; Kamalipour, 1997; Sarna, 1992;
Mehden, 1983). Reports of prejudice and racism against Muslims in this country are on
(ADC), the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), and the American Muslim
Council (AMC) report increased hostility and acts of discrimination against individuals
of Arab/Muslim decent. These acts of hostility are found to increase around hostile times
in the Middle East or home (Gulf War, Oklahoma Bombing, World Trade Center, and the
crash of TWA Flight 800). These acts of hostility range from verbal assault to physical
harm against individuals, communities, and places of worship (ADC, 1995; ADC, 1997,
CAIR along with other organizations, reported more than 300 incidents of various
hate crimes toward Muslim residents in the United States after the Oklahoma Bombing,
Gulf War, and the crash of TWA flight 800 (Abou El Fadl, 1986; ADC, 1996; ADC,
1997; AMC, 1993; CAIR, 1996; CAIR, 1997; Antoun, 1994; Zogby, 1993).
The Muslim community in the United States has grown in numbers in the past
several years reaching about 6-8 million. It is projected that Islam will be the second
largest faith by the beginning of the 21st century in the United States.
16
faced with classical questions such as how to live an Islamic life while living in a non-
Islamic society? And to what extent one can become involved? Furthermore, Muslims
also face, with other religious groups in America, the challenges presented by the
emergence of post-industrial society and its impact on culture and faith (Abd-al Ati,
1974; Albanese, 1981; Abugideiri, 1977; Ba-Yunus, 1974; Ba-Yunus, 1979; Idris, 1993;
Lindley, 1996; Moore, 1994; Nasr, 1986; Nyang, 1986; Parker-Jenkins, 1992; Poston,
Furthermore, Muslims in North America and specifically in the United States are
faced with prejudice and discrimination at times hostilities. This makes Muslims, as a
non-Muslim scholar describes it "feel they are living in a country that is hostile not only
to their ethnic origins, but increasingly to Islam and Muslims in general. Their situation
has been likened to being on a roller coaster on which they are forced to experience new
Haddad goes on to say the "awareness that the truth about the Arab world, Islam,
and Muslims is being distorted for political expediency by those in office" (p. 224). An
example of this is when President Reagan, the night Libya was bombed by the U.S., said
that there is a need to "respond to Qaddafi, terrorism, and the worldwide Muslim
officials spoke of the threat in the 20-century in which they include Islamic
17
In addition, the media is reinforcing the "stereotyping of Islam and Arabs and
their equation with radicalism and terrorism . . . The negative image of the Arab world
and of Islam has been further distorted by those Western commentators who have in
recent years portrayed Islam as a triple threat: a political, cultural, and demographic
threat" (Esposito, 1996, p. 11). These dilemmas and challenges are causing Muslims to
"wonder what the next chapter in their life in America will be as they struggle to define
1991, p. 230).
preserving the democratic values of the society, among which are pluralism and diversity
of the American society at large and in particular the campus environment. This task
requires the understanding of the new developments, such as the make up of the
American society, the changes in demographics and ethnic representation, and the
different needs of the different students (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998; Huebner &
Lawson, 1990; Trueba, 1993). To date, little or no research has been written about the
problems, issues, and challenges that Muslim students face while attending higher-
education institutions.
in Houston, Texas. "In 1989 a professor at Texas Southern pointed to the foreign
18
students in the class including Zayd and said, 'You come here to get an
education which we taxpayers pay for.'..." (Antoun, 1994, p. 184). A second example of
prejudice against Muslim students can be found in a study conducted at the University of
Maryland at College Park. This study measured the attitudes of freshman students
toward Arab students. The findings were statistically significant in showing the
magnitude of prejudice held against Arabs in general and students in particular (Sergent,
Woods, & Sedlacek, 1989). A third example is an article published in New Directions for
Teaching and Learning, titled "Respect for Religious Differences: the Case of Muslim
Students." In it the author identifies four areas of concerns to Muslim students that were
expressed during interviews with four Muslim students, 2 males and 2 females of which 2
were undergraduates and the other 2 were graduates. These areas of concern were (a)
students, (c) lack of respect to their own religion and/or religions in general, and (d) the
failure on the part of the professors to accommodate students’ religious practices. (Speck,
1997).
Purpose of Study
toward certain groups and members of groups, gender, races, and religions" (Wolford,
1993, p. 1848). Among its effects are: "low self-esteem, demoralization, racial self-
hatred, helplessness and lack of control, social ostracism, social avoidance, lack of
19
All of those effects are detrimental to the development and growth of a healthy campus
The purpose of this research was to (a) study the Muslim students, as a minority
group--a group that no longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of the
prevalent prejudice and discrimination found in the media and elsewhere; (b) investigate
universities; (c) explore their satisfaction with their academic experience; (d) determine
the main concerns and issues of Muslim students in academia and the importance of such
issues to them; and (e) provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines
Research and studies regarding minority students always refers to such groups as
African American, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian students. Little research has
institutions. This fact is acknowledged by scholars who consider the Islamic Student
voice as one missing, yet one voice that needs to be recognized and studied (Evans,
Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998, p. 286). Muslim students in research studies are almost
always treated as foreign students and the focus of these studies is almost always on
adjustment problems. These studies never classified Muslim students as a minority nor
20
The lack of such studies could be explained in light of the fact that the word
community or race. Although the above explanation might be true on one aspect; it falls
short of recognizing that, to Muslims, Islam is an identity that surpasses race and color.
Therefore, Islam has created what can be called or defined as "Islamic People." These
people have the same belief system, share the same concerns, and aspire to a similar
(1983, p. 97) said, "Muslims in America are best defined as the type of minority that
wants to maintain its group identity based on religion but that also wants to give full
allegiance to society." Thus, when one speaks about Muslim students, one is referring to
a group of students with a similar cultural and moral heritage, in spite of their diverse
ethnic backgrounds.
Therefore, the need for this study lies in the fact that (a) the number of Muslim
prejudice and discrimination and their main needs and concerns in American academia;
and (c) Muslim students have not been studied as an indigenous population, as other
Research Questions
experience?
attending college?
Research Hypotheses
3. Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America
4. Muslim students, both males and females in each institution and nationally,
discrimination.
discrimination.
importance similarly.
9. Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America
similarly.
10. Muslim students, both males and females at each institution and nationally,
11. Muslim students, when compared racially at each institution and nationally,
13. Muslim students, among the undergraduates at each institution and nationally,
Assumptions
group.
sample.
Limitations
1. The study will only concentrate on Muslim Students who are studying in
Definitions of Terms
feelings of alienation.
Allah: Literally, "The God". Muslims use this Arabic term as the proper name for
God. Muslims view Allah as the Creator and Sustainer of everything in the universe,
Who is transcendent, has no physical form, and has no associates who share in His
25
known as the Nation of Islam. So-called "Black Muslims" are not to be confused with
Likewise, the Nation of Islam, a nationalistic organization, is not to be confused with the
ethnicity.
Eid. An Arabic term meaning "festivity" or "celebration." Muslims celebrate two major
religious holidays, known as Eid al-Fitr (which takes place after Ramadhan), and Eid al-
culture.
Halal. An Arabic term designating that, which is deemed lawful, or permissible. When
Halaqa. Literally means circle. It refers to a study circle where an individual learns
about Islam.
26
In-Group. The select group with which one identifies and in favor of which one is
generally biased.
Jihad. An Arabic word which is derived from the three-letter root j-h-d, and means "to
exert oneself" or "to strive". Other meanings include endeavor, strain, effort, diligence,
struggle. Usually understood in terms of personal betterment, jihad may also mean
fighting to defend one's (or another's) life, property, and faith. Because jihad is highly
misrepresentation.
Muhammad. The prophet and righteous person believed by Muslims to be the final
messenger of God, whose predecessors are believed to include the Prophets Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and other. Born in 570 CE, Muhammad grew up to
become a well-respected member of Maccean society. In 610 CE, he received the first of
many revelations that would eventually form the content of the Qur’an. Soon after this
initial event, he was conferred prophethood and began calling people to righteousness
and belief in One God. Muhammad died in 632 CE, after successfully (re)establishing
the religion known as Islam and providing Muslims with a model for ideal human
behavior.
Muslim. Literally (and in the broadest sense), the term means "one who submits to
God." More commonly, the term describes any person who accepts the creed and the
27
not worship Muhammad, nor do they view him as the founder of the religion. The word
Out-Group. A group with which one does not identify and against which one is
generally biased.
Prejudice. An attitude toward members of some out-group (in this case the Muslims) in
perception that faculty and staff harbors feelings of prejudice towards minority students.
Qur'an. "The recitation" or "the reading", and refers to the divinely revealed scripture of
Islam. It consists of 114 surahs (chapters) revealed by God to Muhammad over a period
of 23 years. The Qur'an continues to be recited by Muslims throughout the world in the
language of its revelation, Arabic, exactly as it was recited by Prophet Muhammad nearly
fourteen hundred years ago. The Qur'an is viewed as the authoritative guide for human
beings, along with the Sunnah of Muhammad. Translations of the Qur'an are considered
explanations of the meaning of the Qur'an, but not the Qur'an itself. The spelling
Stereotype. A set of beliefs, often rigidly held, about the characteristics of an entire
sayings, practices, and habits. The Hadith of the Prophet constitute a written record of
his Sunnah.
bringing. It refers to the holistic education of a Muslim in reference to his or her faith
Literature Review
basic concept of who Muslims are; where these Muslims are to be found; Muslims of
above concepts in this chapter will build on concepts introduced in the first chapter that
discuss the faith of Muslims, pillars of Islam, and faith and its history. In addition, the
review covers the concept of prejudice and discrimination. It provides an overview of the
concept and its definition. An outline of historical development in the field of the study
prejudice with a focus on religious and racial prejudices. Also illustrated is, in order to
preserve this society's democratic ideals, the need to address the issue of prejudice and
discrimination. The reasons Muslims face prejudice and discrimination is explored. The
media's negative depiction of Islam and Muslims is highlighted and reports on the status
The final section of the review starts with an overview of the theoretical
framework of the study. It outlines the three major student developmental theories and
focuses on the person-environment school of thought theory, which suggests that the
29
30
better developed and satisfied students. The review goes further to include research
found about the study of students' perception of prejudice and discrimination. It is clear
from research studies that there is a deficiency in the study of Muslim students'.
Research also confirms that minority students at a predominately white institutions are
more prone to face prejudice and discrimination. It then provides a survey of searches
experience in academia.
In order to speak about Muslims, one should give some background about who
are the Muslims? Muslims get their name from the Religion they follow, Islam. Islam is
an Arabic word defined in the New Dictionary of Religions as "the Name of the faith
means 'submission [to God]', the adherent or Muslim being therefore 'one who submits
himself to God' (Allah), i.e. surrenders himself unconditionally to the divine will."
One becomes a Muslim simply by declaring the "Shahadah", the confession that
there is no god worthy of Worship except the true God (Allah) and that Muhammad is
His Messenger. This declaration then entitles a Muslim to the prescribed obligations and
duties in Islam.
31
Faruqi in his book Islam. He says “The reason why Islamicity is so simple to define, so
sacramental religion. One does not have to be born a Muslim; nor does one have to have
any Muslim parent, guardian, family or people. Every person in the world may become a
Muslim if he or she chooses, by a personal decision alone. Initiation into Islam needs no
organized body. Therefore, all people are absolutely equal in that the house of Islam may
be entered by everyone after satisfying the simplest of requirements" (Faruqi, 1995, p. 5).
God, in Islam, judges people by their actions and deeds, and the declaration of
faith does not guarantee one salvation. The scale of virtue and righteousness is an infinite
one and the Muslim should be always striving to attain the highest possible status.
Furthermore, it is God alone who should be the judge of how good or evil one's actions
were and it is He who will reward people accordingly (Albanese, 1981; CIE, 1995;
Emerick, 1997; Faruqi, 1995; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton, 1989; Shulman, 1981).
Muslims, like Christians and Jews, “are the Children of Abraham, since all trace
their communities back to him. Islam’s historic religious and political relationship to
Christendom and Judaism has remained strong throughout history. This interaction has
been the source of mutual benefit and borrowing as well as misunderstanding and
Muslims make up one-fifth of the World population today and they can be found
Islam, since its revelation, spread to Asia, Africa, Europe, North and South
America, and Australia. There are more than forty-four Muslim countries and significant
Muslim minorities can be found in many parts of the World, such as the former Soviet
Union, China, India, England, France, and United States. This makes Islam the second
largest religion in the world (Ba-Yunus, 1979; CIE, 1995; Emerick, 1997; Esposito,
1991; Mead, 1995; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton; 1989, Philipp, 1980).
Accounts of when Islam came to America differ. The earliest account goes back
as far as 1717. Most of those slaves brought to the New World did not survive the
encounter and those who did were most likely forced to abandon their faiths. Muslims
from the Middle East first came in 1875. They were from what used to be Syria, which
combines Syria of today, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. They came as uneducated,
The second wave peaked in the 1930s and was halted due to the Second World
War. Immigration laws of that era were discriminatory and "were designed to keep out
The third wave of immigration was between 1947 and mid 1960’s. But
this time the new influx of immigrants was different from their predecessors. The
political situation in the homeland was not stable and persecution in some countries
The fourth wave started in 1967 and continues to the present time. The
immigrants of this wave have been mainly educated, fluent in English, and Westernized.
They were from a variety of nations, beyond the Middle East. They came to settle,
education and superior technical training for specialized work opportunities (Ahmed,
1994; Albanese, 1981; Ba-Yunus; 1979; CIE, 1995; Elkholy, 1966; Emerick, 1997;
Gaustad, 1993; Haddad, 1986; Kettani, 1986; Lindley, 1996; Mehdi, 1978; Meir &
Firestone, 1992; Melton, 1989; Miller, 1976; Naff, 1980; Nu’man, 1992; Nyang, 1981;
Nyang & Ahmad, 1985; Nyang, 1986; Philipp, 1980; Poston, 1992; Roof, 1993;
indigenous Americans and ex-slaves, their move into the Islamic worldview has
to be protest against the abuses of Christianity. While this may have been a
34
alongside their brothers and sisters from the Muslim world, have developed the
p. 73).
taken different shapes and turns. Some Black Muslim groups have disappeared or
declined. Examples are the Moorish Science Temple, the Hanafi Muslims, and Darul
Islam. Others have survived until this day. Examples are the American Muslim Mission
(recently changed to the American Muslim Society), the Nation of Islam, and Ansarullah.
For the most part Black Muslim movements have been seen as separatist and
militant ones. They call for black salvation and freedom from "white man" domination.
At times they have resorted to violence. The killing of Malcolm X is one example.
The most influential among the Black Muslim movements has been the Nation of
took place after the death of its founder, the Honorable Elijah Muhammad, in 1975. It
was under the leadership of Warith Deen Muhammad, Elijah’s Son, that the Nation of
Islam changed its name to the World Community of Al-Islam in the West, then to the
Warith Deen also was instrumental in bringing the former Nation of Islam to
orthodoxy. He abandoned the beliefs that his father taught. Some of these beliefs were
35
that Elijah is the Messenger of God and that God came to him in the form of a
man called Fard Muhammad, who later disappeared mysteriously. The Nation of Islam
ceased to view the white man as a devil and has agreed to pledge allegiance to the
Constitution of the United States. The transformation that Warith Deen institutionalized
has resulted in establishing him in a highly recognized position in the world of Islam.
changes that were brought by Warith Deen Muhammad. This minister is Minister Louis
with its tone of racism (Flick, 1981; Jones, 1983; Kyle, 1993; Lincoln, 1983; Lovell,
1983; Mamiya, 1983; Mamiya, 1996; Mead, 1995; Meir & Firestone, 1992; Melton,
1989; Moore, 1994; Muhammad, 1998; Nu’man, 1992; Nyang, 1981; Waines; 1995;
Williams, 1989).
Stone (1991) noted. The two most recent studies available were done ten years apart.
Stone did the first study in the year 1980. At that time the Muslims were estimated to be
about 3.3 millions. The number represented 1.5% of the United States population of the
The second study, done by Nu’man (1992) in 1991, reported the numbers of
Muslims in America to be 5.2 million. Furthermore, the author says that the most
36
acceptable estimates for Muslim social scientists and researchers are between 5
Muslims in the United States is caused by a number of factors. One factor is that
religious affiliation of American has never been a subject studied in the United States
Census of Population. And another is that when major surveys are conducted, they
usually do not include Islam as a choice for religious preference. Therefore, the burden
to provide such statistics falls upon the Muslim institutions (Nu’man, 1992). A number
of authors and researchers other than Stone and Nu'man have provided other statistics
about the Muslim population in the United States (CIE, 1995; Elkholy, 1966; Kettani,
observe that these issues are not unique to any one society, group, or historical period in
time. Throughout the recorded history of mankind the challenge to understand and
discrimination has been present (Allport, 1979; Brown 1995; Young-Bruehl, 1996).
and religious beliefs, or between groups that share similar cultures, values, and beliefs;
researchers on these subjects have found that people generally judge others by group
association, and then treat others according to their assessment of the groups
that a stereotype is "a set of beliefs about the personal attributes of a group of people."
Thus stereotyping is the application of beliefs about the attributes of a group to judge an
Even when stereotypical characteristics are only perceived and are not based on
and characteristics, while out groups are burdened by the assumed possession of traits or
38
detrimental and even threatening to the dominating or popular ideals of a society (Young-
Bruehl, 1996).
toward a person who belongs to a group, simply because he, or she, belongs to that group,
and is therefore presumed to have the objectionable qualities ascribed to the group"
shared by others, (Bernard, 1957; Coser, 1956; Levine & Campbell, 1972). Research of
the seventies and eighties that focus on cognitive processes in intergroup relations
(Hamilton, 1981) emphasize the cognitive and perceptual processes and assume that
Realistic conflict theories assume that competition is at the root of intergroup strife and
that real differences between groups are generally the cause of dislike, more because we
value our own characteristics rather than we do those of others (Sherif, Harvey, White,
of targeted groups that do not result from individual choice, i.e., skin color, race,
ethnicity, or physical attributes such as handicaps and disabilities. These discussions are
facilitated by a growing social repulsion toward biases that are based purely on what are
39
There are fewer voices raised to defend a hierarchy of races. It has become almost
the harm that prejudice does both to the minority and the majority, and an
moving toward a society in which the prejudiced person will be the non-
ideological groups are complicated by the issue of choice, and the fear that an out-group
ideology may pose a threat to the continued dominance of an in-group ideal, or tradition.
The use of the word "dominance" here is not intended to imply that dominating ideals are
always dominant because they are the ideals that are shared by a majority of people in a
given society. It has been shown that one ideal can dominate another simply because it
through power of position as well as power in numbers can influence group attitude
Bergman (1994) this research focused on three central issues: whether prejudices are
40
the question of the defectiveness of prejudice; and whether prejudice results from the
Psychological research on prejudice and discrimination between 1920 and the late
1940s was almost exclusively preoccupied with direct and indirect measurements of
attitudes. It was during this period that Emory Bogardus introduced the social distance
scale, Harry C. Triandis and Leigh M. Triandis devised a 7-point behavioral distance
scale, and H.H. Grace and H.H. Rimmer developed an 11-point behavioral distance scale.
It was during this same period that Daniel Katz and Kenneth Braly developed the
ethnocentrism scales and Daniel J. Levinson and R. Nevitt Sanford introduced an anti-
Semitic scale. These scales represented approximately five different methods of attitude
measurement:
1. Self-report measures where the test person is asked for oral or written
questionnaires.
pupil reactions, or other reflexes that reveal positive or negative feelings toward certain
responses that can predict a certain behavior that is motivated by a distinguished attitude
toward a specific target group. Specific criticisms question the reliability of result
interpretation since test persons respond in socially desired directions and test situations
deviate from real situations and refer to non-existent attitudes. The primary objection that
touches nearly every method of measuring prejudice is centered on the reactive character
of these methods. Test persons respond in a defined test situation and can adjust their
behavior.
Beginning in the late 1930s the focus of academic research on prejudice shifted
from the measurement of attitudes to the development of theories on prejudice that are
the effective components of prejudice, seeking to clarify their function in the psychic
stability of the individual. These theories are mostly built on the general assumption that
prejudices are both the result and resolution of internal psychic conflict and are not
There are two historical periods that impact the character of these theories. The
period 1930 through the 1950s was preoccupied with the individual personality in
42
conflict, while the period 1950 through the 1960s saw the advent of group
psychological theories. The theories from these two historical periods traced prejudice
from specific forms of relations between the in group and the out-group.
The 1960s and 1970s saw a shift in the interpretation of concepts of prejudice.
Where previous theories assumed that prejudice was a psychological dysfunction born of
internal conflict, through research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s assumed that
"Despite decades of legal and educational reform, racism remains a serious social
problem in the United States. Research findings have demonstrated that in the wake of
the civil rights movement, racism has not declined but has merely changed forms"
identify the various forms and sources of prejudice as they have been identified through
research in the field of social psychology, specifically in the area of attitude development.
Gordon Allport (1979) among others, recognized and emphasized the importance of
distinguishing between the various forms of prejudice in the course of research, saying,
"without knowledge of the roots of hostility, we cannot hope to employ our intelligence
prejudice from another aids us in our search to understand the development of various
43
methods through which these attitudes can be changed, prevented, or even eliminated.
distinct forms of prejudice and their sources. Through this discussion it will be shown
that various different forms of prejudice could impact Muslim students, even though they
The various forms of prejudice that have been selected for this discussion are
religious prejudice, and racial prejudice. This selection is not intended to represent all
existing forms of prejudice. It is rather a selection of those forms of prejudice that appear
mind that individual Muslim students depending on their age, weight, cultural habits,
modes of dress, etc.--may be affected by more varied types of prejudices than are
represented here.
Religious Prejudice
Probably the oldest form of prejudice is religious prejudice. Before there was
interaction between groups of various colors or races, there was internecine conflict
within groups that shared a common racial ancestry. These conflicts were mostly the
result of religious prejudices (Kung, 1986). Even the persecution of Jews which is
commonly held to be the result of racial prejudice is believed by some to have originated
44
owners was justified as being the fulfillment of a biblical scripture that says that Noah
cursed his son Ham, condemning him and his descendants to forever be "servants of
servants" (Allport, 1979, p. 17). It is generally, though not widely, believed that African
people are the direct descendants of Ham, implying that Ham himself was black. There
are historians and theologians who believe that black people are more likely the
descendants of Noah's grandson Kush who was one of the sons of Ham, and the father of
Nimrod the Hunter who ruled Babylon and Assyria and whose descendants inhabited
North Africa, specifically Egypt (Genesis, 9:12). We read in the Bible in the Book of
Psalms that during the plagues inflicted upon Egypt, God struck down the first born of
the Kushites, "the beginning of their generative powers in Ham," (Psalms, 78:51).
prejudiced attitude that seriously and negatively affected the fate of a large number of
African Blacks, since it was the Bible, a religious book and an authoritative source, that
supposedly identified African Blacks as the "cursed" children of Ham. We can assume
that if this biblical scripture had been interpreted otherwise, or if it had not existed, the
history of Blacks in America and the rest of the world might have been quite different.
Other examples of religious prejudice include practices in the Crusades, the Inquisition,
witch hunts, Western colonialism, Northern Ireland, the Middle East, and at times in
places characterized by the total obliteration of native cultures (Batson & Burris, 1994).
45
In the Draft Platform for Action, the working document of the United
Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, religious traditions and dogma were
targeted more often than other factors as "barriers" to women's full and equal
participation in society (Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration, UNDPI, 1996).
Yet gender prejudice is usually discussed outside of the context of religion. This is
perhaps due to the general belief that psychology and religion in both the popular and
scientific mind are at odds with each other and that neither is able to describe the other
(Hood, 1994).
describing one another, how do we then come to understand the role that religion plays in
the development of group prejudices and individual attitude development within the
because we may find clues to the elimination of other prejudices through our further
understanding of religion and the way that religious values and beliefs influence human
personality development and behaviors. Most of the world's religions have doctrines of
universal peace and brotherhood that condemn prejudice and discrimination. These
doctrines shaped the attitudes of the world's great contemporary humanitarians, such as
Gandi, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, and others. Yet, often people who uphold
religious beliefs act in violation of religious ideals (Batson & Burris, 1994).
findings in a series of lectures that were published in 1950 in a book The Individual and
His Religion. Allport observed that children are totally incapable of understanding the
abstraction of theology, and so take family religion as a matter of course, like learning to
speak English, or brush teeth, etc. Then, according to Allport, there is a period of
questioning. The questioning is not of religion, but rather of what his or her parents have
taught, and the way that he or she understood them. The child begins to question his or
her own approach to the information, and Allport believes that this questioning process is
college students reported having very acute adolescent rebellion. Beyond adolescence
the development of religious attitudes becomes very individualized and subject to any
From other studies there emerged a distinction between two aspects of religion
that appeared to impact the individual personality differently. One aspect reflects
humanitarian concerns, while another reflects a more selfish aspect. Seeking to define
this seeming contradiction Allport tested these dimensions using a scale for extrinsicness
and one for intrinsicness. Allport defined extrinsic as something that the person uses for
his or her own purposes: to make friends, influence people, sell insurance, develop
prestige in the community, or signify wish fulfillment. Intrinsic attitude refers to the
view that the individual serves religion. In extrinsic approach religion is used the same as
memberships to clubs, sororities, fraternities, and lodges. When religion is used in this
47
because it is part of the fact that religion is perceived to be solely for his or her benefit.
This is the religion of the majority according to Allport. The minority attitude is the
intrinsic view. Allport says of those people holding the intrinsic view: "They have
decided that the creeds and doctrines, including the doctrine of human brotherhood, are
necessary for their value system, and they adopt for themselves the entire religious
system, then live by it" (Evans, 1980, p. 36). Allport's tests indicated that the extrinsic
attitude is correlated with prejudice, and the intrinsic with very low prejudice.
Racial Prejudice
In the 1940s when academic research on the subject of prejudice was still in its
infancy, a great deal of research was focused on racial prejudice. This may be due in part
to the fact that racial prejudice as it has been experienced in America has been at times a
very painful catalyst of historic events and changes both positive and negative, within the
Allport (1979) suggests that the race concept of prejudice became popular
because it had "the stamps of biological finality, and spared people the pains of
examining the complex economic, cultural, political, and psychological conditions that
Yet one might argue that the psychological, economic, cultural, and
political conditions that result from discrimination against targeted groups are phenomena
that are the result, rather than the cause, of racial prejudice. It would be difficult at any
given time to conduct an analysis of American economic and political conditions without
taking into consideration the fact that racial prejudice has played a significant role in the
certain amount of control over the lives of both majority and minority group members
Ethnocentrism may be defined as "the unquestioned belief in the superiority of one's own
ethnic group and the consequent inferiority of other groups" (Pettigrew, 1980, p. 821).
This feeling of superiority among American whites grew from the attitudes of the
English towards Black African peoples, from as early as the 16th century. The English
saw Africa itself as a savage place where cannibalism, pagan rituals, and sexual
promiscuity and immorality flourished. Therefore in this view Africans were considered
to be "uncivilized." The black color of the African's skin is said to have conjured up all
of the associations that blackness had with evil and filth that were already firmly
The English colonist of the New World in the early 17th century held similar
views about Native American Indians. They were considered "savages" and "wild
beasts." Their humanity also came into question. These stereotypes are believed to have
49
begun with the tall tales of European voyagers and explorers. Prior even to the
settlement of Europeans in the New World, before there was any competition for food,
water, wealth, or power, European whites held prejudiced attitudes against native
American Indians that were based on negative stereotypes (Fredrickson & Dale, 1980).
observation of Allport that was mentioned earlier. It has been suggested that Jewish
that might result in the collapse of an already established socioeconomic and political
order. To distance themselves socially from this newly arrived and seemingly aggressive
group, "old stock" citizens began to close ranks under the banner of Anglo-Saxon
superiority. Europeans who were not of Anglo Saxon origin were considered members of
"sub-cultures."
Charles Darwin's theory of "natural selection" and "survival of the fittest" that served the
represented the weak and failed of their own societies, and so these ignorant individuals
According to Loo and Ralison, "despite civil rights legislation, the national goal
of providing ethnic minorities with equal access to quality institutions of higher learning
has yet to be realized" (1986, p. 58). Some might argue that this is not a question of
prejudice, but rather one of economy and test scores. The ongoing affirmative action
debate is indicative of the sentiments that are circulating on the role that America's
government and private institutions should play in the race/ethnic issue, particularly as it
affects higher education. There are those who feel that affirmative action is itself a
discriminatory practice that penalizes white students for being members of the white race
(McGinnis, 1996). Others argue that only affirmative action can level the historic
equality in academia, but as Dean Henry Trueba of the School of Education at the
University of Wisconsin Madison argues, "America may lose its democratic values if it
ignores the minority issue, or if it is not dealt with properly" (1993). It is Trueba's
opinion that universities have a vital role to play in healing our society's racial and ethnic
problems.
Dean Trueba raises the issue of "properly" in his quote. It is the question of proper
information on how and why people develop prejudiced attitudes and behaviors. We have
developing many new theories about it. Along with this progress, certain problems have
evolved that are only now being observed and that must be resolved if academia is to play
the important role in American social development that Dean Trueba foresees.
There is a one and many problem-an assumption that prejudice is one thing, a
generalized attitude, even though it may have many causes, and the opposite
assumption that prejudices can be defined by the group or kind of group they
Young-Bruehl goes on to say, "In the broader social and political context where
both academic and non-academic studies have appeared, this additional layer of
complexity has turned studying prejudice into a matter of competition for scarce
In her first statement Young-Breuhl appears to be saying that there is still a lot of
research and study to be done on the issues of prejudice and discrimination. In her second
52
assertion that the study of prejudice has become a matter of competition for public
attention and concern, then the possibility exists that only those proposed studies that
satisfy the popular or political sentiments that are deemed favorable at any given time
will succeed in receiving funding or publicity. Should this happen, efforts to develop
methods and policies that affect solutions to the race/ethnic issue will be limited and the
In his earlier statement Dean Trueba seemed to agree that the national discourse
Perhaps Trueba spoke not only to the possibility that academic life in America will
become sterile and deprived of the contributions of our minorities, but also to the
overwhelming political force that will control future research studies and their
The possibility that politicization of the race/ethnic issue could pose a problem for
American academia is supported by at least one study that focuses on power differentials.
A study was conducted that involved dominant and subordinate groups within a stable
decision making study that asked how to distribute an extra course credit for taking part
53
in an experiment. The students were told that the study was being used to
determine how individuals reach decisions in situations where they have little
categorized into groups Z and W, using a coin toss. The students were then told that they
would receive one credit for taking part in the study, but they had the chance to give and
receive a second course credit that would exempt them from writing an essay for their
introductory psychology course. In this way, the students were making decisions that
equal-power group (50%) position also discriminated. Group members who were
subordinate, but who had some power (30%), used the little power that they had to
discriminate against out-group members. Only the "no" power group members refused to
discriminate at all against out-group members. Bourhis states further that taken together
these results suggest that usable "power is a necessary condition for effective intergroup
research and matriculation in American universities come under the control of one
political or ideological group that lacks accurate or objective and scholarly information,
we can assume that minority issues will be neglected. We can make this assumption
since minority groups represent an out-group in the academic setting, while politicians
54
the race/ethnic issue could possibly lead to a regression to past discriminatory practices,
or to a too aggressive affirmative action program that might result in at least a perception
The findings of the Bourhis study also seem to imply that usable power differs
from non-usable power in its impact on decision making. Even groups that had very little
usable power employed the little power that they had to discriminate. The study also
based on the usable power variable only. In other words, they discriminate simply
because they can. If we refer to the Sherif studies on intergroup conflict, we might say
that they move to limit any threat of competition from outside groups by refusing to
Politicians certainly have usable power, and as a rule politicians and policymakers
seldom are objective in their analysis or use of information. For these reasons academia
must continue to deal with prejudice, advocate independence in research, and develop
alternative sources of funding for research that will ensure credible studies and projects,
and the integrity of information. Along with this, academia must advocate for diversity in
education and work to develop programs that will ensure a continuous minority presence
Young-Breuhl in the Anatomy of Prejudice observes that "the last century has an
making them peculiarly deadly--as the ethnic conflict in the former Yugoslavia has
prejudice that people of rigid, super ego-dominated characters often display and the sort
of prejudice that societies organized and functioning obsessively are riddled with.
Obsessional prejudices are the prejudices toward which people who are given to fixed
ideas and ritualistic acts gravitate and through which they can behave sadistically without
being conscious of their victims. People in such a mind-set behave as though they are in
a trance, and act ruthlessly. The obsessional prejudices feature conspiracies of demonic
enemies everywhere, who are omnipresent social pollutants and filthy people and who
must be eliminated, washed away, flushed away, fumigated, and demolished (Young-
Breuhl, 1996).
observation that Muslims in America are experiencing the same type of prejudice that
Jews did in America after the Second World War. As with Judaism, Americans are
confused as to whether Muslims are a religion or a race. Often Arabs who are both
56
Muslim and Christian are targeted for hate crimes against Muslims by those
who believe that Islam and Muslims are a race. The American people know very little
about the religion of Muslims and Islam and have been victimized by a media driven
(Mehden, 1983), much the same way as Hitler did when he directed propaganda against
the Jews. Today the media create images of terror, desires and conspiracies for world
conquest, and sly and sophisticated monetary schemes that will cripple America like the
oil crisis of the 1970s. All of the familiar Nazi techniques and methods that were used to
poison the minds of the world against Jews, are now being used to poison the world's
The Media
to the oil crisis and to the Iranian Revolution in the 1970s to the Oklahoma City bombing
of 1995, the American media have played a significant role in the development of
prejudiced American attitudes towards Islam and Muslims. The negative images
perpetuated by the media have mostly focused on Arab Muslims, although most
Americans are not able to distinguish between Arab Muslims and other Muslims.
In his analysis of American newspaper editorials from the year 1966 through
1974, Robert Trice observes that Arab issues were almost always connected to the issue
of Israel, and that in this connection the Arab was usually vilified. In 1980 liberal
57
cultural group has been so massively and consistently vilified [as the Arabs]" (Mehden,
1983, p. 27).
So what made the media decide to target Muslims? There are several theories.
There is of course the theory that because the media are liberal and pro-Israeli they tend
to promote Israel over the Arabs. In so doing they vilify the Arabs and Islam, often
portraying Arabs as terrorists (Lilienthal, 1978). The Iranian Revolution, which was a
revolution that centered on the overthrow of an abusive and hated Iranian dictator,
angered Americans because American hostages where taken. The visual imagery of the
hostage situation was so vivid that the television show (Nightline) came into being that
was dedicated solely to projecting images of the revolution into the American home.
Little information was given as to how and why the events of the Iranian Revolution
transpired as they did. Few people, especially television media people, knew anything
about Iranian politics. There was no one who could put this powerful imagery into
perspective for the average American, who was angry and frightened by the revolution,
(CAIR) following the Oklahoma City bombing of the Murrah building, the Council
documented the worst instances of biased media reporting. They included quotes linking
Muslims and Arabs to the bombing on all of the major networks including PBS (CAIR,
1995).
58
Anthony Mason on CBS Evening News, Steven Emerson said: "Oklahoma City, I can tell
you, is probably considered as one of the largest centers of Islamic radical activity
outside of the Middle East." Again on CBS News Steven Emerson is quoted as saying,
"This was done with the intent to inflict as many casualties as possible. This is a Middle
Eastern trait." Larry Johnson, a supposed security expert said on the PBS McNeil Lehrer
Report, "This strike in the heart of America is probably the Pearl Harbor of terrorism."
Several days later a white male suspect, who was not a Muslim, was arrested for the
bombing, and has now been tried and convicted for the crime (CAIR, 1995).
directed toward Muslims. After the Oklahoma City bombing, a study was conducted that
sought to identify trends in discrimination and prejudice against Muslims. The finding
showed that about two-thirds of all anti-Muslim incidents in the United States took the
forms of bias, harassment, and intimidation. Victims came from various backgrounds,
and seventy percent of these incidents occurred in a mosque. The perpetrators actually
went to the Mosque to commit acts of hatred. The report goes on to say that Muslims
were pursued by their attackers into the privacy of their homes and places of worship,
rather than being attacked in random encounters or attacks. The majority of these acts
59
occurred within forty-eight hours of the Oklahoma City bombing (CAIR, 1995).
subjected to prejudice, discrimination, and hate crimes in America. It is not clear whether
Arabs are targeted because they are assumed to be Muslim, or whether Muslims are
targeted because people generally believe that all Muslims are Arabs.
(ADC) in the section entitled "The Political and Cultural Context of Anti-Arab
Discrimination," we find:
Many Arab American problems are tied to major U.S. policy issues−i.e., U.S.
between times of national crisis and the incidences of anti-Arab hate crimes and
following the U.S. bombing of Libya in the 1980's, as well as during the 1991
Gulf War and in the immediate aftermath of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.
Although these crises were not Arab related, Arab Americans find themselves
convenient scapegoats in the rush to pass legislation designed to allay the public's
fears, regardless of the fact that such legislation essentially discriminates (ADC,
1997, p. 3).
60
affected by racial prejudices and are often used as scapegoats to facilitate any number of
political initiatives. Muslim students, who may or may not be Arab, are affected by both
the prejudices held against Muslims due to their religion, as well the prejudices that are
directed toward Arabs since Americans generally believe that Arabs are Muslims, even
though there are Arab Christians and Jews who live in Arab countries.
as they make their way through academia. Scholars group theories of student
development into at least three major theoretical schools of thought. These schools of
thought are: "(1) the cognitive-structural theories concerned with intellectual and moral
development, (2) the psychosocial theories concerned with personal and life cycle
development, and (3) the person-environment interaction theories that focus attention
upon the ecology of student life" (Miller & Winston, 1991, p. 12).
concerned with how people learn, think, reason, make decisions, take positions on ethical
issues, and reach conclusions based on available information. These theories are
concerned with how students learn and not what they learn. They seek to describe the
process of change and focuses on cognitive structures that the individual constructs to
61
The psychosocial theories on the other hand are concerned with the content of
what is learned. They consider individual development as a process in which one has to
the next stage or phase. A deficiency in any of the developmental stages may hinder the
individual's ability to develop and advance into the next phase or stage. Major
contributors to this school of thought are Erikson, Havighurst, Chickering, Sanford, and
Axelrod.
interaction between the individual and the environment. They emphasize the importance
the physical environment. The concept central to all of the above factors is congruency.
Researchers have found that for student development to progress in a normal and healthy
manner, congruency must be present between the individual and his/her environment.
Major contributors to this school of thought are Moos, Holland, Pace, Banning, King,
Stern, and Lewin. Furthermore, even though these schools of thought approach
development from a different angle, all of them are needed to approach development in a
62
holistic manner (Arnold & King, 1997; Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998;
Huebner, 1989; Huebner & Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard & Associates, 1996;
Miller & Winston, 1991; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Rodgers, 1989; Rodgers, 1991).
white institutions. The research body in this area focuses on the experiences of minority
students of African American, Hispanic, Asian Americans, and Native American origin.
The major concern of these research studies is the role of the perceptions of prejudice and
of higher education. Researchers are in agreement that minority students are more prone
to face prejudice and discrimination at predominately white institutions. They are also in
agreement that different minority students have different needs and concerns (Cabrera,
Castaneda, Nora, & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991; Harris, 1995;
Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Prieto, 1995).
Furthermore, little or no research has been written about the problems and
number of searches were conducted to identify relevant literature. The ERIC database
was searched using different keywords. The words "Muslim students" and "prejudice,
discrimination or stereotype" when combined, did not yield any references. However,
when the keyword "Muslim student" alone was used one relevant reference was found.
The reference is an article that was published in New Directions for Teaching and
63
Students." In this article the author identifies four areas of importance to Muslim
students. The article is based on an interview of four Muslim students--two males and
two females of whom two were undergraduates and the other two were graduates. These
religion and/or religions in general, and 4) the failure on the part of the professors to
accommodate students' religious practices. (Speck, 1997). Although this study is a brief
one, it is among the first to deal with such issues of concern to Muslim students. It
Another study was identified by using the keywords "Arab student." The study
found deals with prejudice against Arab students. The study was conducted at the
University of Maryland at College Park and dealt with measuring attitudes of freshman
students regarding Arab students. The results indicated that students held more negative
prejudiced attitudes towards Arabs to ignorance, saying, "In general it is felt that most of
the stereotypes that people in the U.S. have toward Arabs are derived from ignorance of
Arab culture." (Sergent, Woods, & Sedlacek, 1989, p. 7). This study confirms other
64
studies that describe the challenges that face Muslims and Arabs in general. J.
W. Wright (1994-95), in the Journal of Intergroup Relations, reported one such study. In
that study the author speaks of the social distance, discrimination and political conflict in
regard to Arabs. He cites an example by another researcher who notes that "antagonism
toward Arabs in America is manifest in unfounded attitudes about Islamic states and
Arab countries" and that people "persistently asserted that they did not like Arabs because
experience in Houston, Texas. He writes: "In 1989 a professor at Texas Southern pointed
to the foreign students in the class including Zayd and said, 'You come here to get an
number of articles that have a relevance to the subject studied. The first of these articles
community often play an important role in producing and critically analyzing portraits of
various groups. But most have ignored the harm done by the Arab stereotypes." (1990, p.
B1). However, he warns those who critically analyze portraits of various groups that they
might "risk being accused of being prejudiced themselves or of promoting some hidden
agenda. While researching the image, for example, I was characterized by some
65
Understanding Shaheen's message and that of others like Esposito (1993), who
wrote an article discussing the secular bias of scholars in reference to Islam and Muslims
The less we know, the more we apparently tend to generalize and stereotype.
Moreover, many scholars who analyze Islamic movements have had little or no
actual contact with them. Islam is portrayed as a monolithic political and social
and the news media during the cold war (1993, p. A44).
against Muslim students found that Muslim students' religious needs are overlooked or
ignored (Leatherman, 1990) or that they were attacked and/or harassed as individuals or
groups ("Assailants Beat," 1991; Heller, 1991; Leatherman, 1996; Shea, 1993; Wilson,
1991).
These articles have one issue in common and that is: These students were attacked
or harassed because they were thought to be either Arabs or Muslims. They also
highlighted the prejudicial attitudes harbored by others towards these students, a situation
that requires the attention of the academic community to intervene and put an end to such
behavior.
66
encountering of prejudice and discrimination on the university campus has been limited
campus or 2) the attitudes of non-Muslim students toward Islam, Muslims, and/or Arabs.
Little research has been devoted to the particular needs of Muslim students in the areas of
of the literature shows that it is clear that no research has been performed on the subject
university campuses was conducted among the members of the Muslim Students
Association of the San Francisco Bay Area. The Michigan International Student Problem
Inventory was used to measure the concerns of the 79 Muslim student participants. Luna
(1993) explores the question: What problems are perceived by Muslim students in
adjusting to life in the United States in the areas of social adjustment, financial
adjustment, academic adjustment and language adjustment? The second part of the
survey attempts to ascertain whether or not Muslim students change their attitude toward
Muslim students did not correlate with previous studies carried out among the general
university population. For instance, financial aid and academic achievement were ranked
high among the general population where as religious services, social adjustment and
then financial aid were the three areas of greatest concern for Muslim students.
Analysis of individual responses reveal that the Muslim students often find
presuppose their feelings and beliefs based upon their religion. One student expressed
the desire not to be labeled or considered an "ideologue." Furthermore, the media were
identified as particularly biased. Finally, many students revealed that forums, such as the
Muslim Students' Association, were among the very few public venues were they felt
safe to express their views, get involved in larger university politics, and interact within
Luna concludes that the necessary cultural orientation of Muslim students has not
been met on University campuses. To this, she recommends that satisfactory orientation
academic advisors must offer special social services for their Muslim student population.
Though the researcher demonstrates that social adjustment ranks high among the
concerns of Muslim students, her research does not reveal the causes of the problems of
adjustment. Furthermore, the area of greatest concern for the subjects is lack of religious
services. Religious facilities to accommodate the unique needs of the Muslim student
68
the research conducted that a lack of services, whether unavailable or unattainable, may
The conclusions of Luna's studies are supported by a more specific study carried
out among Arab male students in 1989. Ibrahim Addou conducted research among 400
Arab male students in the Washington, D.C. area to see whether educational difficulties
were related to selected factors, such as marriage, length of stay in the United States, and
area of study. The instruments used were the Personal Data Inventory (PDI) and the
Educational Difficulty Checklist (EDC). Addou's purpose was to determine the extent of
performance, and educational resources. The research reveals that difficulty did correlate
with age, marital status, area of study and length of stay in the United States. Though not
directly concerned with the issue of prejudice, the study reveals that the university
administration did not provide programs that made the transition between foreign
universities to the American system an easy one. Nor did there exist an adequate social
atmosphere that enabled the new Arab male student to easily cope with American life,
particularly for the unmarried students. Thus, social adjustment and academic facilities
ranked high as areas of problem and difficulty for the international Muslim Arab student
(Addou, 1989).
Muslim students are particularly concerned with maintaining their identity in the
to measure the extent of religiosity of Muslim students in universities and other factors,
such as academic status, field of study, number of social science courses taken, length of
stay in the United States, and sect of Islam, was distributed by Pouryousseffi (1984) to
182 Muslim students in Western Michigan University. Similar research had been
conducted among Christian and Jewish students which suggest that the extent of religious
attachment is diminished by these selected factors (other than the influence of sect). The
highly secular state university environment, compounded with peer group influence to
modify behavior to acceptable norms, causes many students to question their religion. In
would be considered counteractive to the usual growth of awareness and reason that a
university student would experience. Pouryousseffi proposes that the Muslim student
would fall under these pressures and thus exhibit less religious affinity in the university
atmosphere.
His research reveals the contrary, however. Muslim students maintained a high
index of religiosity in the belief dimension, but the ritual dimension of religion remained
rather low. The overall decline of religiosity of Muslim students remained low,
especially in comparison with research carried out among Christian and Jewish students.
Of course, the main drawback of this study was that the research model was based upon
studies for Christian and Jewish students. Islam, though an Abrahamic faith, starkly
70
contrasts with these two religions in the historical attitude toward reason and
the methods of cultural expression, thus making the research method less applicable to
the subjects.
Very pertinent to this study is that although belief remained high, exercising this
belief remained low. Unlike Jews and Christians, Muslims are required to pray five times
a day. This multiple reaffirmation of faith is a key tenet of Islam. The Muslims,
although expressing belief in God and Islam, were not exercising the Islamic rituals,
which confirm this belief. Previous research already confirmed that social adjustment
and religious facilities ranked high among concerns of Muslim students. Pouryousseffi
(1984) does not suggest that lack of religious expression might be tied to lack of religious
facilities provided by the university. Furthermore, his research does not discuss any of
the factors that affect religiosity as they pertain specifically to the Muslim student. Within
the theoretical framework of his discussion, issues of peer group pressure, the secular
university environment, and change in attitude are all discussed. Yet for the Muslim
cultures must be added. If taken from those perspectives, the issue of why religiosity is
Houston addressed the problem: What is the relationship between selected nonacademic
factors and the social adjustment of Arab and non-Arab Muslim students attending an
perception of American culture, satisfaction with the United States, and social
disagreed that Americans think highly of their (the Muslim student's) culture. Eighty
percent felt that Americans do not know about their (the Muslim's) culture. Twenty-five
percent felt that they had been discriminated against because of nationality. Ninety-five
percent disagreed or strongly disagreed that American culture was like their own culture.
getting involved with social activities with Americans, discrimination, and finances were
listed as the five most troublesome areas. Additional findings revealed that one of the
most important concerns of the Muslim students was preserving their faith.
literate about the foreign students in their universities. The international student should
be educated on the extent of cultural diversity and cultural relativism in the United States.
Ultimately, there must be some kind of adjustment in the teacher's education programs to
promote multiculturalism.
El-Refaie (1993) comes very close to discussing the issues of prejudice. Most
American society. The reasons may be cultural isolation, ignorance of other cultures, or
a sense of cultural superiority on the part of the majority population. It is unclear from
the study if any of this sentiment resulted from specific instances of prejudice. Whether
72
the sentiment is a general view stemming from feeling out of place on the part
of the Muslim student or lack of outreach on the part of the majority population is
unclear. Research focusing on the non-Muslim student and Islam may provide some
are intimately tied to the classroom environment and the type and quantity of interaction
with the faculty. Ibtesam Halaweh (1996) conducted research on the perceptions of
Muslim students toward social and faculty interaction, intellectual development, and
personal growth in 1996 among 135 international Muslim students at Ohio University in
Athens. Halaweh argues that formal and informal student-faculty interaction strongly
correlate to the academic success of students. The atmosphere established by faculty, and
peer group attitudes and interaction establish the classroom atmosphere, which enables or
hinders student intellectual growth. Halaweh's purpose was to test these hypotheses on
Muslim students.
The instrument used covered the areas of: 1) personal information, 2) dependent
(academic integration, peer relations, social integration, informal faculty relations, faculty
concern, and student commitment). The results of the survey indicate that social and
growth of the Muslim student. Halaweh recommends that "the university and the students
should be responsible for the increase of these [student-faculty] interactions and facilitate
73
unique methods of interaction needed by the Muslim student, usually within the context
of cross-cultural communication. Also, the attitude of faculty members was not explored
at all; only how the Muslim students "perceived" them was a research interest.
Furthermore, two studies deal with the attitudes of non-Muslim students toward
Islam, Arabs and Muslims. It was these attitudes, measured in a classroom setting, which
succeed.
"Attitudes Toward Muslims: Initial Scale Development." She developed the Attitude
toward Middle Eastern Muslim students. Five focus groups were selected, three with
college student members and two from community churches, totaling 35 people. The
survey revealed that most participants were familiar with Malcolm X and Muslim
athletes. Muslims were also seen as non-Caucasians, and no distinction was made
between Arabs and Muslims. Muslims were seen as individuals who wore robes, had
distinct names, were devout, and consisted of dominant males and subordinate females.
Most groups saw Muslims as culturally different, foreign, and a group to be feared. The
sources of information were movies, Nation of Islam, the oil crisis, and sports figures.
This research, when linked with the following research, gives an insight into the attitudes
a questionnaire to students in (a) an Islam course through the Department of Religion and
(b) a course on Muslim societies in the Department of Anthropology. She devised the
questionnaire to deduce American students' perception of Islam and the Arab world, to
detect reasons for their views, and to determine the effect of teaching on the perception of
cultural differences. The findings of the student case studies indicate that the most
negative perceptions of Islam and the Muslims came from the media. Those who
indicated the media (television, radio, newspapers and magazines) as their source of
information had a very negative image. Islam was described as hostile to the West and is
a religion of violence. When history texts served as the source of Islamic education, the
students carried a similar negative perception. This negative perception is due to the
inaccuracy of reporting events in the Muslim world and the general ignorance about
Islam and Muslims. Yet students who had personal contacts with Muslims had a more
The description of Islam provided by the media focused on (a) stereotyping and
dehumanizing Arabs and Muslims and (b) inaccurate and distorted information. Siam
Her research calls for a more balanced understanding of Islam and Muslim to be
presented at universities. The teachers must realize that distorted images exist and must
strive toward providing positive images within a realistic approach. Furthermore, for the
75
decrease so that positive interaction may occur will naturally diminish the majority of
negative stereotypes. Non-Muslim students who had personal relationships with Muslim
students reported a balanced view of Islam. If the university environment can facilitate
atmosphere where prejudice is not tolerated, then the Muslim student could easily adjust
Summary
Academicians have a very important role to play in the shaping of the future of
the democratic society in which we live. The literature reviewed clearly outlines the
dangers of prejudice and discrimination. It highlights the fact that Muslims in general
and American Muslims in specific are facing prejudice and discrimination inside and
outside of academia.
undermine the Muslim presence in North America; a campaign that is lead primarily by a
bias media and ignorant individuals. Academia's role in the effort to halt prejudice and
ideas, and a peaceful and civilized exchange of information away from politics.
76
backgrounds and will remain this way. The challenge, however is to determine how a
real and genuine progress can be made and maintained. This challenge remains to be met
by everyone and especially educators, for they are the teachers of future generations of
Americans!
CHAPTER 3
Methodology
This chapter describes the methodology of the study. It is divided into sections
describing the general research approach, the sample, and the instrumentation. A
longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of all the prevalent prejudice and
discrimination found in the media and elsewhere (Haddad & Esposito, 1998; Kamalipour,
and discrimination while attending colleges and universities and an exploration of their
satisfaction with their academic experience. Parallel to that, through the study the
researcher sought to determine the main concerns and issues of Muslim students and the
importance of such issues to them as they make their way through academia. This study
was also intended to provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines to
77
78
Population
Muslim students who are attending institutions of higher education are the
subjects of this study. No statistics regarding the numbers of Muslim students in higher
education exist due primarily to two factors. First, not all the schools require students to
declare a religious preference; and second, if students make such declarations, not all
of United States & Canada’s (MSA), there are about 300 MSA chapters across the United
States. On the average, these chapters have in their membership 30 students at small
schools, and about 500 students at big schools. Unofficial estimates put the total number
Sample
area. These three institutions are designated as the local sample and they will be referred
The three schools have active MSA chapters and hold weekly Friday prayers
service in addition to other activities. These schools also represent a variety of four-year
school with an active Muslim population of about 200 students. Grp 2 is a private,
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about 50 students. Grp 3 is a public, predominately white school with an active Muslim
An additional sample in this study is drawn from among the 600 students
attending the MSA's 1997 annual national conference and from the 200 subscribers to the
MSA chapters’ leadership e-mail list (MSA-ORG). The additional sample was used for
comparison and validation purposes with the local sample. (See Table 1 for groups
Number of Cumulative
Participants Percent Valid Percent Percent
Groups Grp 1 95 20.3 20.3 20.3
Grp 2 98 20.9 20.9 41.2
Grp 3 44 9.4 9.4 50.5
National 232 49.5 49.5 100.0
Total 469 100.0 100.0
form of sampling is the most common type in educational research [and] involves using
whatever subjects are available to researcher. This may, for example be a class of
students or a group of subjects gathered for a meeting" (1989, p. 161). McMillan &
Schumacher list two major limitations with the above sample type. These limitations are:
80
1) the sample may not be representative of the larger population, and 2) there
may be a bias to the available sample (i.e., volunteers vs. non-volunteers) (1989).
The study should avoid such limitations, first, by the fact that the surveyed
students come from both local and national samples, which in turn are representative of
the population. Second, although the sample is a volunteer sample, in the case of Muslim
students, those who participate in MSA activities are by default a volunteer group of
students because not all Muslim students at a university are members of MSA. Thus, this
Instrumentation
developed by the researcher (see Appendix A). An optional incentive of a chance to win
free software was offered for the completion of the questionnaire. The questionnaire
Part I
The first part contains demographic data, such as gender, school, year in school,
grade point average (GPA), age, martial status, ethnic background, nationality, etc. The
Part II
The second part consists of 13 items. The first 8 items measure perceptions of
measure satisfaction with academic experience. All items were measured using a five-
point Likert scaling technique. The scale ranges are "strongly agree" as 1, "agree" as 2,
For content and construct validity, items in Part II are based on a series of studies
discrimination. These measures are divided into three dimensions: (a) Racial/Ethnic
Climate on Campus, (b) Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff, and (c) In-Class
discrimination, students then would feel alienated and do not belong in their institutions.
Moreover, researchers also included a fifth dimension that measures students' satisfaction
prejudice and discrimination based on race and ethnicity. It is concerned with whether
students have observed discriminatory words or gestures. The four indicators designated
are: (a) I have observed discriminatory words, behaviors or gestures directed at minority
students at this institution, (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among
82
students, (c) I have encountered racism while attending this institution, and (d)
I have heard negative words about people of my own race or ethnicity while attending
Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff Dimension. This dimension deals with
students’ perception that faculty and staff harbors feelings of prejudice towards minority
students. The two indicators designated are: (a) I feel there is a general atmosphere of
prejudice among faculty at this institution, and (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of
prejudice among academic staff at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).
experiences and accounts of prejudice and discrimination inside the classroom. The two
indicators designated are: (a) I have been discouraged from participating in class
discussions, and (b) I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other
alienation are: (a) Being a student at this institution is a pleasant experience, and (b) I feel
academic experience was measured with three items on the questionnaire. These items
are: (a) I am satisfied with the extent of my intellectual development since attending this
experience at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1996). The results are also compared with
student’s GPA to determine whether any relationship exists between feelings of prejudice
and discrimination on the one hand and satisfaction level regarding academic experience,
Part III
The Literature review suggests that a number of issues concern Muslim students.
These issues can be grouped into three dimensions: (a) Religious Dimension, (b) Social
Dimension, and (c) Academic Dimension. (Abdul-Rauf, 1993; Addou, 1989; Barazangi,
1991; El-Refaie, 1993; Haddad & Lummis 1987; Luna, 1993; Speck, 1997).
The third part consists of 19 items. For content validity, these items were
developed, in addition to the review of the literature and feedback by a panel of experts,
by conducting a survey of more than 200 college students across the United States and
Canada. These students were asked to list the 3 most important issues/concerns that they
8. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus
These issues then were grouped and combined by the researcher as follows:
Religious Dimension items (1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, and 18), Social Dimension
items (7, 8, 13, and 16), and Academic Dimension items (3, 4, 6, 12, and 19).
85
important issues in their opinion. They were given the chance to write-in any issue that
they might feel left out by the researcher. There were no write-in issues that were added.
Part IV
In Part IV, students were asked to rank all of the 19 issues in accordance to their
importance, as they perceive them. A five-point Likert scale ranges were used as follows:
and "not important" as 5. In this section students were given the choice to rank issues, as
Reliability
Cronbach Alpha is usually used to assess the reliability of a questionnaire. It is the most
appropriate technique for survey research in which ranges of answers are possible for
each item (McMillan & Schumacher, 1989, p. 248). The reliability coefficient for Part II
and satisfaction with academic experience, is (α = .87). It should be noted that items 9 to
13 in Part II were re-coded to be consistent with the rest of the items. Moreover, the
reliability coefficient for Part IV of the questionnaire, which record the importance level
86
MSA chapters at Grp 1, Grp 2, and Grp 3 were contacted to arrange for survey
distribution during each chapter's main events, such as the Friday prayer service and
general body meetings. The researcher went to these events and made brief presentations
about the study's purpose and significance. The actual data collection took place during
the fall of 1997. Data entry and coding took place during the 1998 Spring semester.
Data analysis was conducted and completed during the month of June 1998.
Students were given the choice to fill an actual printed form or send in an e-mail
version (See Table 2). They were also given the choice to include their contact
Data Analysis
The data analysis generated by the responses were performed using the SPSS/PC
for Windows, version 8.0, statistical package software. Demographic information was
and 2.2, measuring perceptions of prejudice and discrimination and issues of concerns
independent t-test was used to answer research questions 2 and 8, comparing both local
and national samples. Two-way analysis of variance was employed to answer research
hypotheses 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. It compared each of the different institutions
with the national sample, using the independent variables, gender, place of birth,
88
dimensions. Research hypothesis 14 was answered using the Pearson Product Moment
correlation coefficient test to uncover any relationship between feelings of prejudice and
discrimination and satisfaction with academic experience. The 0.05 level of significance,
unless otherwise indicated, was used in hypothesis testing as the level accepted and
Summary
metropolitan area as the sites from which the sample population of the local participants
were drawn. Another sample was selected from among participants in national activities
of the national MSA. The purpose was to measure Muslim students' perceptions of
prejudice and discrimination and also to determine the important issues and concerns to
Muslim students.
The instrumentation of this study consists of four parts. The first part consists of
basic demographics. The questionnaire's Part II was adopted from previous studies
and satisfaction with academic experience. Parts III and IV, highlighting issues of
concern and importance to Muslim students, were developed by the researcher, utilizing
89
independent t-test, and Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient test) were
employed to report demographic data and to answer research questions and hypotheses.
CHAPTER 4
Findings
Overview
The purpose of this research was to (a) study the Muslim students, as a minority
group--a group that no longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of the
prevalent prejudice and discrimination found in the media and elsewhere; (b) investigate
universities; (c) explore their satisfaction with their academic experience; (d) determine
the main concerns and issues of Muslim students in academia and the importance of such
issues to them; and (e) provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines
when dealing with this unique group of students. This chapter presents demographic
summary.
90
91
Gender
The total number of local and national participants were 469. The breakdown of
these numbers is as follows (N=466): Locally, male participants were 131 (55.5%), and
female participants were of 105 (44.5%). Nationally, male participants were 142 (61.7%)
and female participants were 88 (38.3%). The total of local male participants were 273
(58.6%). The total of female participants were females 193 (41.4%). For a breakdown
Table 4
Local
Gender National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
N % N % N % N % N %
Male
64 27.1 48 20.3 19 8.1 131 55.5 142 61.7
Female
30 12.7 50 21.1 25 10.6 105 44.5 88 38.3
92
Age:
Ages of participants are grouped into three ranges. The first range is 20 years of
age or younger, the second is 21 years of age to 24 years, and the third range is 25 years
of age or older.
The age ranges of the participants are: The first range is 110 (47.4%) locally and
82 (37.1%) nationally; the second range is 67 (28.9%) locally and 90 (40.7%) nationally;
and the third range is 55 (23.7%) locally and 49 (22.2%) nationally. The total age ranges
are: the first age range is 192 (42.4%); the second age range is 157 (34.7%); and the third
age range is 104 (23%). For a breakdown by each school, see Table 5.
Table 5
Educational Level
national graduates. In addition, there are 323 (70.4%) local and national undergraduates
and 136 (29.6%) local and national graduates. For breakdown by each school, see Table
6.
Table 6
Local
Educational National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
Level
N % N % N % N % N %
Under-
graduate 61 26.3 82 35.3 30 12.9 173 74.6 150 66.1
Graduate
31 13.4 14 6 14 6 59 25.4 77 33.9
GPA
The GPA is reported in a range format: The first range is below 2.0, the second
range is between 2.0 and 2.5; the third range is between 2.6 and 3.0; the fourth range is
between 3.1 and 3.5; and the fifth range is above 3.5. Participants' GPA ranges are as
follows: The first range is none for local participants and only 4 (1.9%) from national
participants; the second range is 17 (7.5%) local and 19 (9%) national; the third range is
94
32 (14.1%) local 28 (13.3%) national; the fourth range is 88 (38.8%) local and
70 (33.2%) national; and the fifth range 90 (39.6%) local and 90 (42.7%) national.
The overall totals are as follows: The first range 4 (0.9%), the second range 36
(8.2%), the third range 60 (13.7%), the fourth range 158 (36.1%), and the fifth range 180
Table 7
Local
GPA National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
N % N % N % N % N %
Between
2.0 - 2.5 7 3.1 10 4.4 0 0 17 7.5 19 9
Between
2.6 - 3.0 10 4.4 22 9.7 0 0 32 14.1 28 13.3
Between
3.1 - 3.5 34 14.98 39 17.2 15 6.6 88 38.8 70 33.2
Participants were asked about whether they were born in North America or not
born in North America. Eighty-one (34.5%) of local participants were born in North
America, and 154 (65.5%) were not. And 104 (46%) of national participants were born
in North America, and 122 (54%) were not. The overall totals are 185 (40.1%) were born
95
in North America and 276 (59.9%) were not. For a breakdown by each school,
see Table 8.
Table 8
Local
Place of National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
Birth
N % N % N % N % N %
Born In
North 28 11.9 27 11.5 26 11.1 81 34.5 104 46
America
Not Born In
North 66 28.1 71 30.2 17 7.2 154 65.5 122 54
America
Nationality
Participants were asked about their nationality, whether they are American,
Canadian, or other. One hundred thirty (55.6%) local participants were American and
134 (58.5%) national participants were American. None of the local participants were
Canadian and 39 (17%) of the national participants were Canadian. One hundred four
(44.4%) local participants and 56 (24.4%) national participants were neither American
nor Canadian.
The total numbers of participants who were American citizens were 264 (57%).
The total number of Canadian participants was 39 (8.4%), and the total number of other
participants was 160 (34.5%). For a breakdown by each school, see Table 9.
96
Table 9
Local
Nationality National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
N % N % N % N % N %
US
Citizen 35 15 59 25.2 36 15.4 130 55.6 134 58.5
Canadian
Citizen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 17
None of the
Above 59 25.2 37 15.8 8 3.4 104 44.4 56 24.4
Ethnicity of Participants
Participants were asked about their ethnicity. Three (1.3%) local participants and
participants and 124 (54.1%) national participants were from Indian or Pakistani origin
participants were Arabs. Nineteen (8.1%) local participants and 8 (3.5%) national
participants were Asian. Ten (4.2%) local participants and 6 (2.6%) national participants
were White American. Twenty-seven (11.4%) local participants and 9 (3.9%) national
participants were other ethnicity. For a breakdown by each school, see Table 10.
97
Table 10
Local
Ethnicity National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
N % N % N % N % N %
African
American 0 0 1 .4 2 .9 3 1.3 5 2.2
White
American 2 .9 5 2.1 3 1.3 10 4.2 6 2.6
Participants were asked whether they graduated from high school in North
America or not. One hundred thirty seven (62.3%) local participants and 148 (68.8%)
national participant graduated from high school in North America. Eighty-three (37.7%)
local participants and 67 (31.2%) national participants on the other hand did not graduate
The overall totals are as follows: 285 (65.5%) who graduated from high school in
North America vs. 150 (34.5%) who did not. For a breakdown by each school, see Table
11.
98
Table 11
Grad. Local
H.S. National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
In North
America N % N % N % N % N %
Live on Campus
local participants lived on campus, and 183 (81.3%) did not. Fifty-six (25.1%) of
national participants lived on campus, and 167 (74.9%) did not. The overall totals are as
follows: 98 (21.9%) lived on campus, and 350 (78.1%) did not. For a breakdown by each
Table 12
Live Local
On National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
Campus
N % N % N % N % N %
Marital Status
Participants were asked about their marital status. Participants were asked to
choose one of the following options: single, married, or other. Two hundred seven
(87.7%) local participants were single, 28 (11.9%) were married, and 1 (0.4%) was other.
On the other hand, 175 (77.8%) national participants were single, 44 (19.6%) were
The overall totals are as follows: 382 (82.9%) were singles, 72 (15.6%) were
married, and 7 (1.5%) were other. For breakdown by each school, see Table 13.
100
Table 13
Local
Marital National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
Status
N % N % N % N % N %
Participants were given the choice to provide their contact information since a
drawing was offered. One hundred sixty five (69.6%) local participants did leave some
sort of contact information, and 72 (30.4%) local participants chose not to do so. One
hundred seventy nine (77.5%) national participants chose to provide contact information,
The overall totals were, 344 (73.5%) participants chose to leave contact
information and 124 (26.5%) chose not to do so. For a breakdown by each school, see
Table 14.
101
Table 14
Local
Contact National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
Information
N % N % N % N % N %
Survey Format
Participants were given the choice to either fill surveys manually or to submit
them electronically via e-mail. There were 185 (78.1%) local participants who filled the
survey manually, and 52 (21.9%) who submitted it electronically. On the other hand, 180
(77.9%) national participants filled the survey manually, and 51 (22.1%) who submitted
it electronically.
The overall participants who filled the survey manually were 344 (73.5%) vs. 124
(26.5%) who submitted it electronically. For a breakdown by each school, see Table 15.
102
Table 15
Local
Survey National
GRP 1 GRP 2 GRP 3 Total
Format
N % N % N % N % N %
Research Question 1
Do Muslim Students perceive that they face prejudice and discrimination while
attending college/university?
Findings
Part II, items 1 to 10, of the questionnaire provides answers to research question
one of the study (See Table 16.) There are four dimensions by which the respondents
give their opinion about their perception of prejudice and discrimination (Part II of the
questionnaire). These four dimensions are, Campus Racial/Ethnic Climate (Part II, items
1-4), Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff (Part II, items 5-6), In-Class
Discriminatory Experiences (Part II, items 7-8), and Feelings of Alienation (Part II, items
9-10).
from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they have observed
the statement.
Thirty-eight percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed
that they feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among students, and 38% either
Thirty-seven percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed
that they have encountered racism while attending college/university, and 40.1% either
ethnicity while attending classes.) Forty-seven percent of students from all the local
institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they have heard negative words about people
of their own race or ethnicity while attending classes, and 38.1% either disagreed or
agreed or strongly agreed that they feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice among
faculty at their college/university, and 43.3% either disagreed or strongly disagreed with
the statement.
105
local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they feel there is a general atmosphere of
prejudice among academic staff at their college/university, and 43.8% either disagreed or
Twelve percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that
they have been discouraged from participating in class discussion, and 74.5% either
Statement 8: (I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other
students.) Fifteen percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly
agreed that they have been singled out in class and treated differently than other students,
Feelings of Alienation
seven percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that
being a student at their institution is a pleasant experience, and 12.9% either disagreed or
students from all the local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they feel they belong
106
Table 16
Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Responses to Part II of Questionnaire, Dealing with Feelings of Prejudice and Discrimination
(table continues...)
108
Table 16
Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Responses to Part II of Questionnaire, Dealing with Feelings of Prejudice and Discrimination
Findings
13. These items measure the students' own satisfaction with their academic experience.
institutions agreed or strongly agreed that they are satisfied with the extent of their
intellectual development since attending their college/university, and 13.6 percent either
intellectual growth and interest in ideas.) Seventy-three percent of students from all the
local institutions agreed or strongly agreed that their academic experience has had a
positive influence on their intellectual growth and interest in ideas, and 9.8% either
college/university.) Sixty-four percent of students from all the local institutions agreed or
strongly agreed that they are satisfied with their academic experience at their
110
the statement.
It is worth mentioning that the GPA scores among the local participants as well as
the national participants are high. Ninety-three percent of local participants have a GPA
of either 2.6 or higher, compared to 89.2% of the national participants. (See Table 7.)
111
Table 17:
Frequencies and Percentages of Local Participants' Satisfaction with Their Academic Experience
Research Question 2
What are the perceived main issues/needs to Muslim students while attending
college?
Findings
The top 10 issues that were chosen by participants (from three local universities) from
among the 19 issues (see Table 18) that were listed in the questionnaire are:
Table 18
Chosen by
Issues of Importance/Concerns
N %
Table 18
Chosen by
Issues of Importance/Concerns
N %
Findings
In Part IV, local participants were asked to rank the 19 issues/concerns that fall in
three major dimensions: the Religious, Social, and Academic Dimensions. The Likert
scale was used. The scale is coded according to the format: "Extremely Important,"
Important, Very Important, and Important were coded as 1, 2, and 3, respectively. (See
Table 19.)
seven percent of participating students from the 3 local institutions feel that it is
115
students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very
students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very
participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important,
percent of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely
campus.
Ninety-six percent of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is
to peers/campus community.
116
of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely
students from the three local institutions feels that it is extremely important, very
participating students from the three local institutions regard the unity of Muslim students
students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very
important, or important to observe their Islamic dress code (especially for female Muslim
students).
Social Dimension
participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important,
students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very
five percent of participating students from the three local institutions feel that it is
on campus.
from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very important, or
Academic Dimension
students from the three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very
three local institutions feel that it is extremely important, very important, or important to
from the three local institutions regard academic achievement as either extremely
of participating students from the three local institutions regard the adjustment to
Table 19
(table continues...)
120
Table 19
Research Hypothesis 1
Findings
Climate, which combines the first four items in Part II of the questionnaire. xGRP 1 = 3.1,
xGRP 2 = 2.8, xGRP 3 = 3.0 (F = 3.2, p= .044 <.05). (See Table 20). However, the Scheffe's
test of post hoc was not significant; indirectly the existing differences are other than
Table 20
Research Hypothesis 2
Muslim students, locally and nationally, have the same perceptions of prejudice
and discrimination.
Findings
An independent t-test was applied to compare mean scores of the local and
national participants. The results did not yield any significant difference; i.e. both groups
Table 21
Local and National Participants' Mean Scores Comparison Regarding Feelings of Prejudice and
Discrimination
x
Statement Groups N SD t P
1. I have observed discriminatory words, Local 236 2.9 1.3
behaviors or gestures directed at minority 1.682 .93
National 230 2.7 1.3
students at my college/university.
Table 21
Local and National Participants' Mean Scores Comparison Regarding Feelings of Prejudice and
Discrimination
x
Statement Groups N SD t P
7. I have been discouraged from Local 236 4.0 1.4
participating in class discussions. -.544 .586
National 231 4.0 1.1
8. I have been singled out in class and Local 234 3.9 1.2
treated differently than other students. .852 .394
National 231 3.8 1.2
9. Being a student at this institution is a Local 234 2.2 1.0
pleasant experience. -.079 .937
National 231 2.2 1.0
10. I feel I belong at my Local 236 2.3 1.1
college/university. -1.159 .247
National 230 2.4 1.1
Research Hypothesis 3
Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America at
each institution and nationally, have similar feelings regarding perceptions of prejudice
and discrimination.
Findings
born in North America differ with others who were not born in North America, regarding
their feelings of prejudice and discrimination. Statistically significant results were found
in two dimensions of the prejudice and discrimination scale. The first dimension is
Three). Significance was found among those students who were born in North America
and those who were not in all of the groups other than the GRP 2 group. It is noticeable
124
that in all of the groups other than the GRP 1 group, students who were not
born in North America perceive more prejudice and discrimination under this dimension.
xBN = 3.0, xNB = 2.9, (F = 4.11, P = .043 <.05). (See Tables 22 and 23.)
The second dimension that yielded significant results was, Prejudiced Attitudes of
Faculty and Staff. This dimension consists of 2 items (see Chapter 3). An interaction
between the groups and place of birth was found to be significant in this dimension. It is
found that in the first two groups (GRP 1 and GRP 2), students who were born in North
America had a lower mean score where in the other two groups (GRP 3 and National) the
opposite is true. xBN-GRP 1 = 3.2 and xBN-GRP 2 = 2.9 vs. xNBN -GRP 3 = 3.1 and xNBN -NAT =
3.1 (F = 2.81, P = .039 <.05). No pairwise comparison was found. (See Tables 24 and
25.)
Research Hypothesis 4
Muslim students, both males and females in each local institution and nationally,
Findings
A two-way ANOVA test did not yield any significance on all of the four
dimensions. There was no significant difference in the perception of male and female
Research Hypothesis 5
Muslim students, when compared racially at each institution and nationally, have
Findings
Experiences Dimension. There was an interaction between groups and ethnicity. This is
clear from the mean scores. All ethnic groups mean scores were above 3.0 except for
GRP 3 where the White American mean score was xGRP 3-White-American = 2.2, which
indicates a high level of feelings of prejudice and discrimination under this dimension.
Research Hypothesis 6
Findings
measure discrimination and prejudice. The first dimension that yielded a significant
result was on the Racial/Ethnic Climate Dimension. There was an interaction between
groups and educational level (graduate and undergraduate). The interaction can be seen
in GRP 2 and GRP 3 where in the GRP 2 group, the undergraduate scored a lower level
of mean compared to a higher level of mean in GRP 3 group and vice versa for the
130
graduate students, xUndergrad-GRP 2 = 2.7 and xGrad-GRP 2 = 3.2 vs. xUndergrad -GRP 3 =
The second dimension that showed significance was the In-Class Discriminatory
participants, xUndergrad = 3.9 and xGrad = 4.2 (F = 6.42, P = .012 <.05). (See Tables 30 and
31.)
132
Research Hypothesis 7
Findings
Campus Dimension. The significance was found among the different levels of school
years. The seniors showed the lowest of means. The following are the mean scores:
xFreshman = 3.0, xSophomore = 2.9, xJunior = 3.1, xSenior = 2.7 (F = 3.75, P = .011 <.05). No
Research Hypothesis 8
Muslim students, locally and nationally, rank issues of concern and importance
similarly.
Findings
differences among the mean scores of the different issues of concern to Muslim students
locally (3 universities combined) and nationally. Seven out of 19 issues were found to be
-P4q2: Halal meals served on campus, xLocal = 2.4, xNational = 2.6, (t = -2.010,
p= .045 <.05)
136
-P4q9: Islamic Tarbiyyah program/ Halaqa, xLocal = 2.3, xNational = 2.1, (t = 2.289,
p= .023 <.05)
p= .002 <.05)
Although significance exists, all of the above mean scores fall between either 1 =
participants agree on their importance. Furthermore, for the most part, the local
participants attributed more importance to the above issues than the national participants.
Table 34:
Local and National Participants' Mean Scores Comparison Regarding Issues of Concerns and Importance
Issues Groups N
x SD t P
2. Halal meals served on campus Local 228 2.4 1.2
National 218 2.6 1.1 -2.010 .045*
* p < .05
Research Hypothesis 9
Muslim students, both born in North America and not born in North America at
each institution and nationally, rank issues of concern and importance similarly.
Findings
Dimensions that measure the importance of these issues of concern. The significance
was found among the different groups, and in particular with the GRP 2 group. GRP 2
showed lower mean scores than participants in other categories of this study, a fact that
138
Dimensions measured than do other groups in the study. xGRP 1 = 2.1, xGRP 2 = 1.9, xGRP 3
= 2.2, xNAT = 2.1 (F = 2.683, p= .046 <.05) (See Tables 35 and 36.) xGRP 1 = 2.4, xGRP 2 =
2.0, xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 3.113, p= .026 <.05). No pairwise comparison was
Research Hypothesis 10
Muslim students, both males and females at each institution and nationally, rank
Findings
A two-way ANOVA yielded significant results on all of the dimensions. The first
of these dimensions is the Religious Dimension. The significance was between the males
and females, xMale = 2.1 and xFemale = 2.0, (F = 4.247, p = .040 < .05). Female
participants, overall, attached more importance to issues of importance listed under the
The second dimension is the Social Dimension. The significance was among the
groups as well as between the females and males. The groups mean scores, xGRP 1 = 2.3,
141
xGRP 2 = 2.0, xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 3.126, p= .026 <.05), and the gender
mean scores are, xMale = 2.3, xFemale = 2.1, (F = 4.528, p= .034 <.05). No pairwise
dimension was between males and female, a situation in which female participants
having lower mean scores in general. xMale = 2.5, xFemale = 2.3, (F = 4.983, p= .026 <.05).
Research Hypothesis 11
Muslim students, when compared racially at each institution and nationally, rank
Findings
A two way ANOVA yielded significant results on the Social Dimension. The
significance was found among groups. The mean scores are, xGRP 1 = 2.4, xGRP 2 = 2.0,
xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 3.116, p= .024 <.05). The outstanding group was the GRP 2
with a mean score of xGRP 2 = 2.0, which shows that this group attaches more importance
to social needs than the other groups. No pairwise comparison was found. (See Tables
45 and 46.)
146
Research Hypothesis 12
Findings
A two-way ANOVA yielded significant results on the Social Dimension and the
Academic Dimension. The significance in Social Dimension was found among groups.
The mean scores are, xGRP 1 = 2.4, xGRP 2 = 2.1, xGRP 3 = 2.3, xNAT = 2.3 (F = 2.687, p=
.046 <.05). The outstanding group was the GRP 2 with a mean score of xGRP 2 = 2.1,
which means that this group attaches more importance to social needs than the other
interaction between groups and educational level. It is noted that graduate students at
GRP 1, GRP 2, and GRP 3 had a higher mean score than the National. The
undergraduates had a lower mean than the graduates except for the National where the
opposite is true. In another sense, all of the local groups' undergraduates attached more
importance to the Academic Dimension than their graduates except for the National
where the opposite is true. No pairwise comparison was found. (See Table 49 and 50.)
Research Hypothesis 13
Findings
A two-way ANOVA test did not yield any significance on all of the three
importance.
151
Research Hypothesis 14
Findings
The Pearson Correlation test showed a significant relationship on all of the prejudice
and discrimination measures with respect to the satisfaction of students with their
• Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff with respect to Satisfaction with Academic
(p = .000 <.01).
For the first three dimensions a negative correlation was the case, which can be
understood as that the more prejudice students experience, the lower the satisfaction with
their academic experience will be. Moreover, for the last dimension, the opposite is true:
The less the feeling of alienation, the higher is the satisfaction with academic experience
Std.
Mean Deviation N
Racial/Ethnic Climate on
2.9268 .9619 461
Campus
Prejudiced Attitudes of
3.2299 1.0390 461
Faculty and Staff
In-Class Discriminatory
3.9582 1.0574 466
Experiences
Feelings of Alienation 2.2925 .9511 465
Academic Performance 2.2852 .9122 464
Table 52: Correlations Test--Prejudice with respect to Satisfaction with Academic Experience
Prejudiced
Racial/Ethnic Attitudes of In-Class
Climate on Faculty and Discriminatory Feelings of Academic
Campus Staff Experiences Alienation Performance
Racial/Ethnic Climate on Pearson Correlation 1.000 .662** .416** -.297** -.151**
Campus Sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .000 .000 .001
N 461 454 459 458 457
Prejudiced Attitudes of Pearson Correlation .662** 1.000 .502** -.377** -.268**
Faculty and Staff Sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .000 .000 .000
N 454 461 459 458 457
In-Class Discriminatory Pearson Correlation .416** .502** 1.000 -.320** -.282**
Experiences Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 . .000 .000
N 459 459 466 463 462
Feelings of Alienation Pearson Correlation -.297** -.377** -.320** 1.000 .604**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 . .000
N 458 458 463 465 461
Academic Performance Pearson Correlation -.151** -.268** -.282** .604** 1.000
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000 .000 .000 .
N 457 457 462 461 464
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
153
Summary
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings related to each of the
research questions and hypotheses. The data collected for this study was analyzed by
(including one- and two-way ANOVA, independent t-test and Pearson Product Moment
correlation coefficient test) were employed to report demographic data and to answer
Summary of Demographics
The total number of participants was 469 students out of which 51 % were from
local participants. There were 60% males vs. 40% females participating in the study
where 42% were either 20 years old or under and where 70% were undergraduates. And
Moreover, 60% were US citizens (Canadian citizens were close to 10%) out of
which 40% were American born and close to 70% did graduate from high school in
North America.
Indo-Pak and Arabs make up for 80% of the participants of which the remaining
percent of participants were single and only 22% of all participants lived on
1. Muslim students participating in this study feel that they face prejudice and
3. Observance of religious obligations was among the most selected issues of concern
by Muslim students.
4. Muslim students ranked all of the issues of concern as either important, very
1. There was a significant difference among students from the different institutions
2. There was no significant difference between local and national participants regarding
3. There was a significant difference between participants who were born in North
America and those who did not at each institution and nationally regarding their
discrimination.
7. There was a significant difference among the undergraduates at each institution and
8. There was a significant difference between local and national participants in ranking
9. There was a significant difference between participants who were born in North
America and those who did not at each institution and nationally in ranking issues of
10. There was a significant difference between males and females at each institution and
11. There was a significant difference among the ethnicity of participants at each
12. There was a significant difference between undergraduate and graduate participants at
14. There was a significant relationship between feelings of prejudice and discrimination
and implications are based on the findings of the study as outlined in Chapter 4.
education institutions in accommodating and reconciling the hard issues surrounding race
relations. However, if one looks deeper into these issues, the findings show that there is
still a long way to go to attain the desired equal status for all races. Research studies
affirm that "Most administrators and faculty are not trained in an environment that
emphasizes cultural pluralism, and as well intentioned as they may be, they are likely to
scholars that we have a problem when, "Seeing White people only as a norm by which to
measure others is a narrow view that is acquired by living in a society that perpetuates
157
158
White norms and by believing that what differs from these norms is a
deviation" (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). These scholars point out that "Racial
identity and acceptance are important for all races, especially in this increasingly
multicultural society" (Dutton, Singer, & Devlin, 1998, p. 42). Moreover, "Despite
decades of legal and educational reform, racism remains a serious social problem in the
United States. Research findings have demonstrated that in the wake of the civil rights
movement, racism has not declined but has merely changed forms" (Maluso, 1995, p.
50).
According to Loo & Rolison, "despite civil rights legislation, the national goal of
providing ethnic minorities with equal access to quality institutions of higher education
and opportunities for academic success has yet to be realized" (1986, p. 58).
Siggelkow also concurs with Loo & Rolison when he emphasizes the role of
academia by saying that "Perhaps colleges and universities are no less racist than other
societal institutions and the commercial world, but the potential for irreparable harm is
far greater in higher education . . . Serious, unfinished business remains" (1991, p. 104).
The race issue is very serious and one that academia must deal with and resolve to
preserve the democratic values for which America stands. Dean Trueba, Dean of the
School of Education at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, argues that the American
society may lose its democratic values if it ignores the race issue or does not deal with it
properly (1993). Trueba views the university as an institution with a vital role in healing
the society's race and ethnic problems. Moreover, he says that "If the resolution of these
159
conflicts is crucial for the survival of our democracy, the role of universities in
goes on to say, "Universities are the main instrument that democratic societies use to
generate and transmit new knowledge, and to inculcate democratic values and respect for
Trueba poses a critical question to educators and administrators a like, "What can
modern universities do to heal America's racial and educational crises?" (1993, p. 52).
He follows up his question with a reply that sums up the university's role. He says,
"academia has the potential, and the responsibility, to create a better understanding of the
nature of race and ethnicity, to help solve racial and ethnic problems, and to develop the
necessary knowledge and strategies to heal ethnic and racial hatred in democratic
societies" (Trueba, 1993, p. 5). And because one of the goals of higher education
academically, it is vital for these institutions to design environments that will provide
opportunities, incentives, and reassurances for growth and development (Arnold & King,
1997; Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989; Huebner & Lawson, 1990;
Komives, Woodard, & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston, 1991; Pascarella &
It is with these concerns of Trueba and other scholars in mind, that this study was
Castaneda, Nora & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera & Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991;
Harris, 1995; Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996;
Prieto, 1995). Therefore, this study is an attempt to enrich scholarly research in the area
of the study of Muslim students as a minority group within this truly diverse society--a
society where every member should be respected for who he/she is, where every member
longer is foreign to this society or academia, in spite of all the prevalent prejudice and
discrimination found in the media and elsewhere (Haddad & Esposito, 1998; Kamalipour,
and discrimination while attending colleges and universities and an exploration of their
satisfaction with their academic experience. Parallel to that, through the study the
researcher sought to determine the main concerns and issues of Muslim students and the
importance of such issues to them as they make their way through academia. This study
was also intended to provide educators and administrators with insights and guidelines to
metropolitan area as the sites from which the sample population of the local participants
was drawn. Another sample was selected from among the participants of the MSA in
The instrumentation of this study consists of four parts. The first part
consists of basic demographics. The questionnaire's Part II was adopted from previous
academic experience. Parts III and IV, highlighting issues of concern and importance to
Muslim students, were developed by the researcher, utilizing information collected from
independent t-test, and Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient test) were
employed to report demographic data and to answer research questions and hypotheses.
162
Conclusions
Research Questions
Findings
• Muslim students participating in this study feel that they face prejudice and
Discussion
"Muslims in America are best defined as the type of minority that wants to
maintain its group identity based on religion but that also wants to give full allegiance to
society" (Lovell, 1983, p. 97). Thus, when one speaks about Muslim students, one is
referring to a group of students with a similar cultural and moral heritage, and diverse
ethnic backgrounds.
prejudice and discrimination based on race and ethnicity. It is concerned with whether
163
designated are: (a) I have observed discriminatory words, behaviors or gestures directed
at minority students at this institution, (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of prejudice
among students, (c) I have encountered racism while attending this institution, and (d) I
have heard negative words about people of my own race or ethnicity while attending
Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff Dimension. This dimension deals with
students’ perception that faculty and staff harbors feelings of prejudice towards minority
students. The two indicators designated are: (a) I feel there is a general atmosphere of
prejudice among faculty at this institution, and (b) I feel there is a general atmosphere of
prejudice among academic staff at this institution (Cabrera & Nora, 1994).
experiences and accounts of prejudice and discrimination inside the classroom. The two
indicators designated are: (a) I have been discouraged from participating in class
discussions, and (b) I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other
alienation are: (a) Being a student at this institution is a pleasant experience, and (b) I feel
prejudice while attending universities and colleges. This is consistent with research
studies that minority students are prone to face prejudice and discrimination when they
attend predominately white institutions (Cabrera & Nora, 1994 & 1996). It is also
consistent with reports that highlight rising number of incidents of discrimination and
harassment against Arabs and Muslims in general (ADC, 1997; CAIR, 1997).
Moreover, research indicates that the American people know very little about the
religion of Muslims and about Islam, and have been victimized by media driven
propaganda, creating images of terror, desires, and conspiracies for world conquest, and
sly and sophisticated monetary schemes that will cripple America like the oil crisis (Al-
Tareb, 1997; El-Refaei, 1993; Luna, 1993; Mehden, 1983; Siam, 1993; Speck, 1997).
The above research findings should bring to the attention of educators and
university officials the dilemma of Muslim students in American academia. On the one
hand, the majority of Muslim students are citizens of this country, and this goes
unnoticed by educators and university officials. And on the other hand, there is a void in
research when it comes to studies regarding Muslim students as a minority group with its
academic experience?
Findings
Discussion
academic experience was measured with three items on the questionnaire. These items
are: (a) I am satisfied with the extent of my intellectual development since attending this
growth and interest in ideas, and (c) I am satisfied with my academic experience at this
The fact that a majority of Muslim students feel satisfied with their academic
experience is consistent with the findings that minority students tend to adjust to campus
environments more than white students and tend to develop their own subcultures where
they find their own tolerant environments (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Loo
& Rolison, 1986; Cabrera & Nora, 1996). Satisfaction with their academic experience
166
can also be seen in the fact that Muslim students are encouraged by their
majority of these students come from families in which both parents have at least a
college education and are well-to-do for the most part (Haddad, 1986 & 1991). In
participating in this study have high GPA scores. Seventy-seven percent of students
attending college?
Findings
• Observance of religious obligations was among the most selected issues of concern
by Muslim students.
Discussion
concerns of international Muslim students. Research found that there are four areas of
concern to international Muslim students. These areas are: religious services, social
adjustment, academic achievement, and financial aid (Addou, 1989; El-Refaei, 1993;
Moreover, another study appeared in New Directions for Teaching and Learning,
titled "Respect for Religious Differences: The Case of Muslim Students." In this article
167
the author identifies four areas of importance to Muslim students. The article
is based on an interview of four Muslim students--two males and two females of whom
two were undergraduates and the other two were graduates. These areas of concern were
offensive to Muslim students, 3) lack of respect to their own religion and/or religions in
general, and 4) the failure on the part of the professors to accommodate students'
religious practices. (Speck, 1997). These concerns for the international Muslim students
were never addressed in light of a comprehensive approach where both international and
In addition to the review of the literature and feedback by a panel of experts, the
researcher conducting a survey of more than 200 college students across the United
States and Canada. These students were asked to list the 3 most important
issues/concerns that they consider important while attending college. Sixty-one (31 %)
students replied to the above request. These issues of concern/importance (not ranked in
1. Place for observance of daily/Friday prayer(s) on campus. All Muslims are required
conducted at noontime).
2. Halal meals served on campus. Muslims are required by their faith to eat meals that
are free of pork, ham, lard or any related substance. In addition, some may choose to
168
eat meat or poultry that are killed in a specific way in accordance to the
3. Availability of scholarship fund. As with any other student group, Muslim students
are concerned with the availability of scholarship funds to make their way through
college.
4. Interest-free loans. Although, this issue was grouped under the Academic Dimension,
it is important for a Muslim not to engage in any financial transaction that bears any
5. No classes on Eid Holidays. Muslims celebrate two main holidays where they are
requested to perform special congregational prayers on those days. The first of these
holidays is Eid al-Fitr, commemorating the end of the fasting of the month of
Ramadhan, and the second is Eid al-Adha, commemorating the end of the pilgrimage
season.
Muslim students may feel bothered with the fact that they have to interact with the
opposite sex. Once reaching the age of puberty, Muslims are encouraged to minimize
interaction with the opposite sex of unrelated individuals. They are also encouraged
to minimize eye contact with the opposite sex. Such behavior is based on a sense of
of a peer group makes the strange environment of a college campus a more friendly
who plays the role of a chaplain can enhance and cater to the religious needs of
students. For Muslim students, the availability of such opportunity helps them
organize for their religious services and represent them in campus ministry.
about their faith while attending college. The availability of such study circles
10. Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus. Research shows that the
Muslim image is mutilated and denigrated by the media and by ignorant individuals
faculty member, a text book that is sold in the book store, or a book on library shelf.
12. Academic achievement. Muslims are encouraged by their Islamic teachings to excel
13. Having a Muslim student association on campus. Muslim students, for the
most part, are used to having MSA chapters on campuses. The MSA plays an
important role in providing for religious and social needs of the Muslim student.
Researchers found that "cohesive and satisfying social environments are more likely
14. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity. Muslim students are very much concerned
Muslims want to be part of the society in which they live. At the same time,
however, they want to observe their Islamic duties without either compromise or
15. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims. The process of inviting others to know about Islam
and its teachings is a noble act for a Muslim. Muslims believe in the right of
everyone to choose his or her own faith. They also believe that there is no
compulsion in religion.
16. Muslim roommate. Muslim students, who choose to live on campus, prefer to have a
Muslim roommate who understands their own background. Such a choice makes it
easy for a Muslim student to observe religious duties, such as the daily prayer and the
fast of the month of Ramadhan. Muslims also are required to refrain from any
faith to cooperate and work together for the overall good of society. Muslim students
on campus perceive this issue as an important way to presenting Islam to others and
18. Observing Islamic dress code. Muslim students may choose to dress in a manner that
fulfills their religious obligation. This is more visible when it comes to female
students who are required to cover their hair and dress modestly.
college life depends on a number of factors, among which are social climate, existing
These issues then were grouped and combined by the researcher as follows: Religious
Dimension items (1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, and 18), Social Dimension items (7, 8, 13,
and 16), and Academic Dimension items (3, 4, 6, 12, and 19). Students participating in
this study were then asked to select the 5 most important issues in their opinion. The
Continued,
Religious Dimension
1. Place for observance of daily/Friday Prayer (s) on campus (1) 75.0 % 178
Social Dimension
Academic Dimension
It should be noted that four of the top five issues chosen by participants fall under
the Religious Dimension. This is consistent with research findings that concluded that
Muslim students value their religious commitment highly (El-Refaie, 1993; Luna, 1993;
Moreover, as noted earlier in the study, universities for the most part are secular
institutions, a fact that do affects the religiosity of the individual. If they have to deal
with an environment that is challenging them all the time, Muslim students will be placed
under unnecessary stress and hardship. Research indicates that a "certain amount of
challenge is deemed necessary for growth and development. Environments that are too
Findings:
Muslim students ranked all of the issues of concern as important, very important
or extremely important.
Discussion
The scale used to rank the above issues, are as follows: "extremely important" as
It also should be noted that for a Muslim, the division between what is secular and
what is religious might be mixed. Muslims view their existence as a continuous act of
worship that encompasses all forms of societal and individual needs. In other words, a
Muslim is requested by his/her faith to have in mind that all actions are done to fulfill
his/her mission in life. This is also consistent with research studies that outlined Muslim
students' needs and concerns (Addou, 1989; El-Refaie, 1993; Halaweh, 1996; Luna,
Research Hypotheses
Findings
• There was a significant difference among students from the different institutions
Discussion
prejudice and discrimination except the first dimension. Students from GRP 2 felt a
greater sense of prejudice and discrimination than did students at GRP 1 and GRP 3. It is
not known if this sentiment by GRP 2 students can be explained by the type of institution
Prior research focused on single institutions as sites for conducting studies of the
same nature rather than multiple institutions at the same time. There will be a need to do
Findings
• There was no significant difference between local and national participants regarding
Discussion
The local sample (the combination of the three local schools) was compared with
the national sample (the combination of students from different types of institutions)
regarding their feelings of prejudice and discrimination. The researcher did not find any
significant difference. The fact that both samples had similar results validates the theory
that minority students are prone to face prejudice and discrimination if they attend
predominately white institutions (Cabrera, Castaneda, Nora, & Hengstler, 1992; Cabrera
& Nora, 1994; Jacoby, 1991; Harris, 1995; Loo & Rolison, 1986; Miller & Winston,
1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Prieto, 1995). It is also consistent with the researcher's
assumption that both samples are similar in their perceptions, since both samples come
Findings
• There was a significant difference between participants who were born in North
America and those who were not, among participants from different ethnic
and discrimination.
• There was no significant difference between males and females at each institution and
Discussion
Students who were not born in North America felt overall a greater sense of
prejudice and discrimination than students born in North America. Students from GRP 1
and GRP 2, however, who were born in North America felt a greater sense of prejudice
and discrimination on the Prejudiced Attitudes of Faculty and Staff Dimension than their
counter part.
179
are more prone to experience prejudice and discrimination due to a number of factors,
such as language barriers and different cultural expectations (Jacoby, 1991; Miller &
Winston, 1990; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Stabb, Harris, Talley, & 1995).
It should also be noted that research indicates that formal and informal student-
faculty interaction strongly correlates with the academic success of students. The
atmosphere established by faculty, and peer group attitudes and interaction establish the
1996).
Moreover, comparing Muslim students ethnically, findings show that except for
white America Muslim students, Muslim groups were similar in their perceptions. White
slightly higher, although not significant, level of feelings of alienation than did students
at GRP 1 and GRP 2. This finding is also consistent with other research supporting that
white American students, due to their lack of experience with issues related to prejudice
discrimination directed against them (Nora & Cabrera, 1996). It is also important to note
that in-class discriminatory experiences by students, minorities and whites, are believed
to "contribute the most to students alienation" (Cabrera & Nora, 1994, p. 406).
180
Dimension. The study found that undergraduate students from GRP 2 showed a higher
Climate Dimension than did students from GRP 1 and GRP 3. Research indicates that
because undergraduates are usually less experienced and new to campus environments
than graduate students, they are more vulnerable to incidents involving prejudice and
discrimination than are graduate students (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998;
It was also found that among the undergraduate students, seniors had the highest
Climate Dimension. Prior research was concerned mainly with freshmen perceptions,
It was also found that GRP 3 graduate students reported a higher level of
Experience Dimension than did students at GRP 1 and GRP 2. The reasons, may be, for
graduate students to feel that they are the object of prejudice or discrimination could be
attributed to the fact that graduate instruction usually takes place on a more personal level
where faculty members are in direct or close contact with students due to small class
of faculty's actions on the part of graduate students also the lack of faculty's
orientation in understanding the needs of the diverse student body could be seen as a
And when perceptions of both males and females were compared, the study found
importance similarly.
Findings
• There was a significant difference between local and national participants in ranking
Discussion
issues of concern to Muslim students. However, the disagreements are not on whether
these issues are important but, rather, on how important these issues are for them.
Therefore, whatever is the out come of the disagreement, both groups agree on the
importance of these issues and this is consistent with research findings (El-Refaie, 1993;
Students from the national sample attributed more importance to the following
As stated above, both groups agreed on the importance of these issues. Therefore, the
extent of the difference dedicated is not attributed to any particular findings or research
studies.
importance similarly.
Findings
• There was a significant difference between males and females, and between
North America and those who were not, among participants from different ethnic
Discussion
demographic lines in the way they attributed importance to these issues. Gender is one
example. Female Muslim students attributed more importance than males to issues
falling under all of the dimensions: Religious, Social, and Academic Dimensions.
However, the disagreements between female Muslim students and male Muslim students
are not on whether these issues are important or not but rather, on how important these
One explanation of such a finding could, first, be related to the fact the females
mature earlier than males. Second, such a view is consistent with realities on campuses
where, according to MSA, more female students than males are assuming campus
leadership positions across the country. And third, female Muslim students have to
commit to the wearing of the headscarf at an early age, a practice that makes them aware
issues falling under the Academic Dimension than did graduate students. It was also
observed the students from GRP 2 attributed more importance overall to issues falling
184
under the Academic Dimension than did students from GRP 1 and GRP 3.
However, both graduate and undergraduate students had similar ranking for issues falling
under the Religious Dimension as well as issues falling under the Social Dimension.
displayed similar patterns in ranking these issues of concern and importance. It should be
also noted that students from GRP 2 attributed more importance to issues falling under
the Social Dimension than did students from GRP 1 and GRP 3.
Despite the fact that the researcher found that there were a number of occasions in
which students' preferences differed on how important are those issues, the main and
important point remains that all of the students are in agreement on the importance of
such issues. Such agreement raises an important question: How can institutions of
higher education provide a climate for Muslim students by which they can practice their
beliefs and attain their educational goals without hardship and strain? Research indicates
disorder (Arnold & King, 1997; Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998; Huebner, 1989;
Huebner & Lawson, 1990; Komives, Woodard, & Associates, 1996; Miller & Winston,
experience.
Findings
Discussion
The three dimensions that make up the scale for measuring perceptions of
prejudice and discrimination are: (a) Racial/Ethnic Climate on Campus, (b) Prejudiced
Attitudes of Faculty and Staff, and (c) In-Class Discriminatory Experiences. (Items
academic experience was measured with three items on the questionnaire. These items
are: (a) I am satisfied with the extent of my intellectual development since attending this
growth and interest in ideas, and (c) I am satisfied with my academic experience at this
The study found that there exists a reciprocal relationship, in spite of its
weakness, between feelings of prejudice and discrimination and satisfaction with the
academic experience. This finding is consistent with research findings that "minority
186
classrooms were less likely to experience academic and intellectual development" (Nora
& Cabrera, 1996, p. 133). Therefore, it is important for institutions of higher education to
work to reduce or minimize levels of prejudice and discrimination and in so doing, allow
Summary of Conclusions
1. A majority of Muslim students, locally and nationally, perceive that they experience
United States.
3. In their selection of issues of concern and importance, Muslim students chose mostly
4. In their ranking of issues of concern and importance, Muslim students tend to either
5. Muslim students, not born in North America, had overall a higher level of perceptions
6. Muslim students, born in North America and attending GRP 1 and GRP 2,
perceive that faculty and academic staff harbored feelings of prejudice and
7. White American Muslim students attending GRP 3 felt that they either were
discouraged from participating in class discussions or singled out in class and treated
9. Graduate Muslim students at GRP 3 felt that they either were discouraged from
participating in class discussions or singled out in class and treated differently from
other students.
10. Muslim students who were seniors had a higher level of perception of prejudice and
undergraduate students.
11. Muslim students, locally and nationally, agree on the importance of issues of concern
12. Female Muslim students attributed more importance to all of the issues of concern
14. Place of birth, ethnicity, and undergraduate level did not affect the ranking
15. The higher the level of prejudice and discrimination experienced by Muslim students,
the lower was the satisfaction of Muslim students with their academic and intellectual
development.
Implications
The study is the first to examine directly Muslim student perceptions of prejudice
and discrimination as Muslim students make their way through academia. The finding
that majority of Muslim students perceive that prejudice and discrimination are well and
alive in institutions of higher education is in concurrence with other research findings that
predominantly white colleges and universities. The fact that Muslim students were
Moreover, Islam and Muslims are not and should not be considered as foreign
many respects, Muslims have religious beliefs and practices that have much in common
with the religious beliefs and practices of other Americans. In this regards, for Muslim
students issues related to religious aspects and practices are central to their day-to-day
life and should not be separated from other activities and events.
189
needs and concerns. It is also note worthy that, unlike other studies, this study has
Recommendations
In light of the findings and implications of this study, the following are
particular. This assessment should consider the status of Muslim students and the
need to devise orientation programs for students, faculty members, and academic staff
regarding Muslim faith and cultures. Institutions should make it a requirement for
and advise faculty and academic staff to make special efforts to accommodate
students who need to observe these holidays or any other religious services.
dietary needs in university/college services. Muslim students’ need for privacy and
are compatible with Islamic injunctions and students are accommodated for during
6. Institutions of higher education should involve top officials, including the university
president, in overseen the process of inclusion of Muslims student, faculty and staff in
7. Institutions of higher education should include in their recruitment efforts faculty and
university officials from Muslim background. Institutions should allow for a certain
campus.
organizations, evaluate courses and textbooks that provide information about Islam
that contents are not defamatory, stereotyping, or misrepresenting Muslims and Islam.
191
university officials, faculty and students from the different cultural backgrounds as
the campus environment team to develop strategies that prevent instances of racial,
Based on the results of this study, several recommendations for further research
are suggested:
students
192
accommodation for Muslim students in public, liberal and religious colleges and
universities.
groups (Muslim, Christian, and Jewish) on campus with respect to their experiences
Survey Questionnaire
193
194
Bism Allah al-Rahman al-Raheem
Fill & Win a Free copy of the Alim Software (retails @ $99)
Fall 1997
Assalamu Alaykum
The study also deals with the important issues and concerns that face the Muslim
student while pursuing his/her higher education.
Your participation is very important to the success of this research. I hope that
the findings will find its way to university officials and administrators. This will
definitely help all of us improve the status of the Muslim student.
In appreciation for your time and concern, a drawing will take place to award one
of you a copy of Alim Software (retailed at $99) donated by TransCom International
(developers of Discover Islam Posters).
If you are a winner, I will notify you as soon as the drawing takes place. Please
provide me with your contact information in the optional section (page 4).
Thank you for your time and concern. To obtain a copy of the results, please
contact researcher at (703) 820-7900 or via e-mail, mohameds@gwis2.circ.gwu.edu.
Yours truly,
M. Salem
Mohamed Salem Omeish
Year in School: Undergraduate: Freshman _____ Sophomore _____ Junior ______ Senior ______
Graduate: Masters _____ Doctoral _____
Do you live on campus? YES __ NO __ Did you graduate from high school in North America? Yes __ NO __
GPA Below 2.0 ____ 2.0 - 2.5 _____ 2.6 - 3.0 _____ 3.1 - 3.5 _____ Above 3.5 _____
Scale
Part II 1=Strongly Agree
2=Agree
3=undecided
There is no right or wrong answer 4=disagree
Please circle number corresponding to your answer using scale above 5=Strongly disagree
8. I have been singled out in class and treated differently than other students. 1 2 3 4 5
Part III
There is no right or wrong answer;
If there are other issues that are not listed above that you feel are important,
Please list any ones below, keeping the combined total of circled and listed items to five (5).
• _______________________________________ ‚ _______________________________________
ƒ _______________________________________ „ _______________________________________
… _______________________________________
197
Part IV Scale
1=Extremly Important
2=Very Important
3=Important
4=Less Important
There is no right or wrong answer 5=Not Important
Please read first and then rank all of the following issues using scale above
Please Circle
Issues Rank (1 to 5)
1. Place for observance of daily/Friday Prayer(s) on campus 1 2 3 4 5
2. Halal meals served on campus 1 2 3 4 5
3. Availability of scholarship fund 1 2 3 4 5
4. Interest free loans 1 2 3 4 5
5. No classes on Eid Holidays 1 2 3 4 5
6. Concerned/bothered with interaction with the opposite sex in class/campus 1 2 3 4 5
7. Social/peer support group on campus 1 2 3 4 5
8. Advisor/Imam/chaplain on campus 1 2 3 4 5
9. Islamic Tarbiyyah program/Halaqa 1 2 3 4 5
10. Dealing with prejudice and discrimination on campus 1 2 3 4 5
11. Clarifying misinformation about Islam to peers/campus community 1 2 3 4 5
12. Academic achievement 1 2 3 4 5
13. Having a Muslim student association on campus 1 2 3 4 5
14. Preserving one’s own Islamic identity 1 2 3 4 5
15. Making Da’wah to non-Muslims 1 2 3 4 5
16. Muslim room-mate 1 2 3 4 5
17. Unity of Muslim students on campus 1 2 3 4 5
18. Observing Islamic dress code 1 2 3 4 5
19. Adjustment to college/university life 1 2 3 4 5
If you wrote-in any issue(s) in Part III, please re-write them below and rank them as well
• ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5 ‚ ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
ƒ ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5 „ ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
… ____________________________ 1 2 3 4 5
Name: ________________________________________________________________________________
E-Mail:______________________________________ Phone(_______)____________________________
Address : ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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