Advanced Particle Processes -

Fire and Explosion Hazards

Chunyan Fan
Department of Chemical Engineering
Semester 1, 2014
2
OUTLINE
Intiouuction
Combustion Funuamentals
Combustion in Bust Clouus
Contiol of the Bazaius
3
Introduction - History of Industrial Explosions
National Fire
Protection
Assoc. formed
(NFPA)
First recorded mill
explosion, flour
dust, Italy
1785 late 1800s
Studies of flour
mill explosions
begin in US
1896
4
Introduction Early timelines of events
Occupational Safety
& Health Adm.
formed (OSHA)
Coal dust mine
explosion, UT
1900
1922
NFPA creates
Explosive Dust
Committee
1970
246 dead
early 1900s
Studies of coal
dust explosions
begin in US
5
Introduction Combustible Dust Explosions History
January 29, 2003 - West
Pharmaceutical Services,
Kinston, NC
Six deaths, dozens of
injuries
Facility produced
rubber stoppers and
other products for
medical use
Plastic powder
accumulated above
suspended ceiling
ignited
6
Introduction Combustible Dust Explosions History
West Pharmaceutical facility destroyed by polyethylene dust
7
Introduction Combustible Dust Explosions History
February 20, 2003 CTA
Acoustics, Corbin, KY
Seven Workers died
Facility produced
fiberglass insulation
for automotive
industry
Resin accumulated
in production area
that got ignited
8
Introduction Combustible Dust Explosions History
October 29, 2003 - Hayes
Lemmerz Manufacturing
Plant
Two severely burned
(one of the victims
died)
Facility
manufactured cast
aluminium
automotive wheels
Accumulated
aluminium dust
9
Introduction Combustible Dust Explosions History
Malden Mills
Methuen, MA
December 11, 1995
37 Injured
Nylon Fibre
J ahn Foundry
Springfield, MA
February 26, 1999
3 dead 9 Injured
Phenolic resin dust
10
Introduction Combustible Dust Explosions History
Ford River Rouge:
Secondary
February 1, 1999
6 dead, 36 injured
Coal Dust Explosion
Rouse Polymerics
Vicksburg, MS
May 16, 2002
5 dead, 7 injured
Rubber Dust
11
Introduction Combustible Dust
What Combustible Dusts are explosible?
Metal dust such as aluminium
and magnesium
Wood dust
Coal and other carbon dusts
Plastic dust
Biosolids
Organic dust such as sugar,
paper, soap, and dried blood
Certain textile materials
Flour Dust;
Sawdust;
Dust Explosion at Imperial Sugar
12
Introduction
Which Industries have Potential Dust Explosion Hazards?
Food products
24%
Lumber & wood products
15%
Chemical manufacturing
12%
Primary metal industries
8%
Rubber & Plastic products
8%
Electric services
8%
Other
7%
Fabricated metal products
7%
Furniture & Fixtures
4%
Equipment manufacturing
7%
13
Introduction
Finely divided combustible solids, or dusts, dispersed
in air can give rise to explosions in much the same
way as flammable gases.
In the case of flammable gases, fuel concentration,
local heat transfer conditions, oxygen concentration
and initial temperature all affect ignition and resulting
explosion characteristics.
In the case of dusts, however, more variables are
involved (e.g. particle size distribution, moisture
content) and so the analysis and prediction of dust
explosion characteristics is more complex than for the
flammable gases.
14
OUTLINE
Intiouuction
Combustion Funuamentals
Combustion in Bust Clouus
Contiol of the Bazaius
15
Combustion Fundamentals - 1
Classic Fire Triangle
Remove any element
eliminates the
possibility of fire
16
Combustion Fundamentals - 2
Dust Explosion Pentagon
Remove any element
prevents explosion,
but not necessarily
fire!
17
Combustion Fundamentals - 3
Flames
Stationary flame (for example a candle flame or gas
stove flame)
unburned fuel and air flowinto the flame
front as combustion products flowaway
fromthe flame front.
A stationary flame may be fromeither premixed fuel and air,
or by diffusion of air into the combustion zone.
Explosion flame
the flame front passes through a homogeneous premixed
fuel air mixture.
The heat released and gases generated result in either an
uncontrolled expansion effect or, if the expansion is
restricted, a rapid build-up of pressure.
Bunsen
burner
18
Combustion Fundamentals - 4
Explosions and Detonations-1
Explosion flames travel through the fuelair mixture at velocities
ranging from a few metres/second to several hundreds of metres/
second and this type of explosion is called a deflagration.
Flame speeds are governed by many factors including the heat of
combustion of the fuel, the degree of turbulence in the mixture and the
amount of energy supplied to cause ignition.
It is possible for flames to reach supersonic velocities under some
circumstances. Such explosions are accompanied by pressure shock
waves, are far more destructive and called detonations.
The increased velocities result fromincreased gas densities generated
by pressure waves. It is not yet understood what conditions give rise to
detonations.
However, in practice it is likely that all detonations begin as
deflagrations.
19
Combustion Fundamentals - 5
Explosions and Detonations-2
Deflagration. Propagation of a combustion zone at a speed
that is less than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium.
Detonation. Propagation of a combustion zone at a velocity
that is greater than the speed of sound in the unreacted
medium.
Explosion. The bursting or rupture of an enclosure or a
container due to the development of internal pressure from
deflagration.
20
Combustion Fundamentals - 6
The Typical Explosion Event- 1
21
Combustion Fundamentals - 7
The Typical Explosion Event- 2
22
Combustion Fundamentals - 8
The Typical Explosion Event- 3
23
Combustion Fundamentals - 9
The Typical Explosion Event- 4
24
Combustion Fundamentals - 10
The Typical Explosion Event- 5
25
Combustion Fundamentals - 11
The Typical Explosion Event- 6
26
Combustion Fundamentals - 12
The Typical Explosion Event- 7
27
Combustion Fundamentals - 13
The Typical Explosion Event- 8
28
Combustion Fundamentals - 14
The Typical Explosion Event- 9
29
Combustion Fundamentals - 15
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-1
Ignition is the self-propagation of a combustion reaction
through a fuel air mixture after the initial supply of energy.
Ignition of a fuel-air mixture can be analysed in a manner
similar to that used for thermal explosions.
Volume - I
Surface area - A
Volumetric concentration of fuel - C
Heat transfer coefficient - b
Fuel air mixture
T
|
T
x
The rate of heat loss to surroundings,
s
is:
s s
30
Combustion Fundamentals - 16
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-2
The rate of heat loss to surroundings,
s
is:

s
= bA(I

-I
s
)
The variation of the combustion reaction rate
with temperature will be governed by the
Arrhenius equation. For a reaction which is
first order in fuel concentration:
-Ip
m
]ucl
JC
Jt
= ICp
m
]ucl
Zcxp -
E
RI
Z- pre-exponential coefficient
E the reaction activation energy
R ideal gas constant
p
m
]ucl
- molar density of the fuel
(Eq. 1)
(Eq. 2)
31
Combustion Fundamentals - 17
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-3
The rate
u
at which heat is adsorbed by the fuel-air mixture in
the element is:

u
= I
JI
Jt
Cp
m
]ucl
C
P
]ulc
+ (1 - C)p
m
cir
C
P
cir
C
P
]ulc
, C
P
cir
- molar specific heat capacities of fuel and air
p
m
]ucl
, p
m
cir
- molar densities of the fuel and air
(Eq. 3)
If
nput
is the rate at which heat energy is fed into the
element from outside, then the heat balance for the element
becomes:

nput
+ -E ICp
m
]ucl
Zexp
L
R1
R
= I
d1
R
dt
Cp
m
]ucl
C
P
]ulc
+ (1 - C)p
m
cir
C
P
cir
+ bA(I
R
- I
s
)
(Eq. 4)
32
Combustion Fundamentals - 18
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-4
Heat balance for the element:

nput
+ -E ICp
m
]ucl
Zexp
L
R1
R
(1) (2)
= I
d1
R
dt
Cp
m
]ucl
C
P
]ulc
+ (1 - C)p
m
cir
C
P
cir
+ bA I
R
- I
s
(S) (4)
For steady state: term(3) = 0
Analyse the heat balance graphically
Plot the rates of heat loss to the surroundings (term 4) and the
rate of heat generation by the combustion reaction (term 2) as
a function of temperature.
33
Combustion Fundamentals - 19
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-5
At an initial element temperature Ti the rate of heat loss from the
element is greater than the rate of heat generation and so the
temperature of the element will decrease until point A is reached.
Any initial temperature between TB and TA will result in the element
cooling to TA . This is a stable condition.
Q
|nput
=
34
Combustion Fundamentals - 20
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-6
If the initial temperature is greater than TB , the rate of heat
generation will be always greater than the rate of heat loss to the
surroundings and so the element temperature will rise,
exponentially. Thus initial temperatures beyond TB give rise to an
unstable condition. TB is the ignition temperature, Tig , for the fuel
air mixture in the element.
Ignition energy is the energy that we must supply from the
outside in order to raise the mixture fromits initial temperature Ti
to the ignition temperature Tig. Since the element is continuously
losing energy to the surroundings, the ignition energy will actually
be a rate of energy input, Q input .
35
Combustion Fundamentals - 21
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-7
This raises the heat generation curve by an amount Qinput ,
reducing the value of Tig. The conditions for heat transfer from
the element to the surroundings are obviously important in
determining temperature and energy.
36
Combustion Fundamentals - 22
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-8
There are cases where the heat loss curve will be always lower
than the heat generation curve. Under such circumstances the
mixture may self-ignite; this is referred to as auto-ignition or
spontaneous ignition.
37
Combustion Fundamentals - 23
Ignition, Ignition Energy, Ignition Temperature-9
In many combustion systems there is an appreciable interval
(from milliseconds to several minutes) between arrival at the
ignition temperature and the apparent onset of ignition. This is
known as the ignition delay.
Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT). The lowest temperature at
which ignition occurs.
Lower the particle size Lower the MIT
Lower the moisture content - Lower the MIT
Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE). The lowest electrostatic spark
energy that is capable of igniting a dust cloud.
Energy Units (millijoules)
Decrease in particle size and moisture content decreases MIE
An increase in temperature in dust cloud atmosphere - decreases
MIE
38
Combustion Fundamentals - 24
Flammability Limits-1
From the analysis it can be seen that below a certain fuel
concentration ignition will not occur, since the rate of heat
generation within the element is insufficient to match the rate of
heat loss to the surroundings (T
ig
is never reached).
This concentration is known as the lower flammability limit C
fL
of
the fuel air mixture.
At C
fL
the oxygen is in excess.
Lower Flammable Limit (C
FL
). The lowest concentration of a
combustible substance in an oxidizing medium.
39
Combustion Fundamentals - 25
Flammability Limits-2
For fuel concentration increase beyond the stoichiometric ratio,
the oxygen is limiting and so the amount of fuel reacting per unit
volume of mixture and the quantity of heat released per unit
volume decrease with fuel concentration.
A point is reached when the heat release per unit volume of
mixture is too lowto sustain a flame.
This is the upper flammability limit, C
fU
. This is the concentration
of fuel in the fuel air mixture above which a flame cannot be
propagated.
Upper Flammable Limit (C
fu
). The highest concentration of a
combustible substance in an oxidizing medium that will propagate a
flame.
Within the range of fromC
fL
to C
fU
, a flame can be propagated, this
range will widen (C
fL
will decrease and C
fU
will increase) as the initial
temperature of the mixture is increased. In practice, flammability limits
are measured and quoted at standard temperatures (usually 20C).
40
Combustion Fundamentals - 26
Minimum oxygen for combustion-1
At the lower limit of flammability there is more oxygen available than is
required for stoichiometric combustion of the fuel.
For example, the lower flammability limit for propane in air at 20C is
2.2%by volume.
For complete combustion of propane according to the reaction:
five volumes of oxygen are required per volume of fuel propane.
C
3
E
8
+S0
2
SC0
2
+4 E
2
0
In a fuel air mixture with 2.2%propane the ratio of air to propane is:
1uu - 2.2
2.2
= 44.4S
and since air is approximately 21%oxygen, the ratio of oxygen to propane
is 9.33. Thus in the case of propane at the lower flammability limit oxygen
is in excess by approximately 87%.
41
Combustion Fundamentals - 27
Minimum oxygen for combustion-2
It is therefore possible to reduce the concentration of oxygen in
the fuel air mixture whilst still maintaining the ability to
propagate a flame.
When the effect on the ability of the mixture to maintain a flame is
minimal until the stoichiometric ratio of oxygen to fuel is reached,
the oxygen concentration in the mixture under these conditions is
known as the minimum oxygen for combustion (MOC).
Minimum oxygen for combustion is therefore the stoichiometric
oxygen equivalent to the lower flammability limit. Thus
H0C = C
]L

mol 0
2
mol ucl
stoch
For example, for propane, since under stoichiometric conditions five
volumes of oxygen are required per volume of fuel propane,
H0C = 2.2% S = 11% oxygcn by :olumc
42
OUTLINE
Intiouuction
Combustion Funuamentals
Combustion in Bust Clouus
Contiol of the Bazaius
43
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 1
Fundamental Specific to Dust Cloud Explosions-1
The combustion rate of solid in air will in most cases be limited by
the surface area of solid presented to the air.
If the particles of solids are small enough to be dispersed in air
without too much propensity to settle, the reaction rate will be
great enough to permit an explosion flame to propagate.
For a dust explosion to occur the solid materials of which the
particles are composed must be combustible, i.e. it must react
exothermically with the oxygen in air.
To make the combustion fundamentals applicable to dust
explosions, need to add in the influence of particle size on
reaction rate.
44
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 2
Fundamental Specific to Dust Cloud Explosions-2
Assuming the combustion reaction rate is determined by the surface
area of the solid fuel particles (assumed spherical) exposed to the air,
the heat release term(2) in Eq. (4) becomes:
-E IC
6
x
p
m
]ucl
Z
i
cxp -
E
RI
R
x- particle size; p
m
]ucl
- molar density of the solids fuel
The rate of heat generated by the combustion reaction is inversely
proportional to the dust particle size. Thus the likelihood of flame
propagation and explosion will increase with decreasing particle size.
Qualitatively, this is because finer fuel particles:
More readily forma dispersion in air;
Have larger surface area per unit mass of fuel;
Offer greater surface area for reaction;
Consequently generate more heat per unit mass of fuel;
Have greater heat-up rate.
45
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 3
Characteristics of Dust Explosions -1
Design engineers need to know the potential fire and explosion
hazards associated with a particulate solid made or used in a
plant.
property data of particulate solids; unlike liquids and gases there
are few published data, and what is available is unlikely to be
relevant.
The particle size distribution, surface properties and moisture
content all influence the potential fire hazard of the powder, so
unless the engineers can be sure that their powder is identical in
every way to the powder used for the published data, they must
have the explosion characteristics of the powder tested.
Having made the decision, the engineers must ensure that the
sample given to the test laboratory is truly representative of the
material to be produced or used in the final plant.
46
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 4
Characteristics of Dust Explosions -2
Most test include an assessment of the following
explosion characteristics:
Minimumdust concentration for explosion;
Minimumenergy for ignition;
Minimumignition temperature;
Maximumexplosion pressure;
Maximumrate of pressure rise during explosion;
Minimumoxygen for combustion.
Classification test A test for explosibility in the test apparatus,
classifying the dust as able or unable to ignite and propagate a flame in
air at roomtemperature under test conditions.
47
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 5
Apparatus for Determination of Dust Explosion Characteristics-1
All devices include:
Avessel (open or closed);
An ignition source (electrical spark or electrically heated wire coil);
Asupply of air for dispersion of the dust.
Vertical Tube apparatus:
The simplest
Classification test
Minimum dust concentration
for explosion
Minimum energy for ignition
Minimum oxygen for combustion
48
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 6
Apparatus for Determination of Dust Explosion Characteristics-2
20 Litre Sphere:
Maximumexplosion pressure
Maximum rate of pressure rise during explosion
These give an indication of the severity of explosion and enable the design
of explosion protect equipment.
49
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 7
Apparatus for Determination of Dust Explosion Characteristics-3
The vessel pressure is reduced to about 0.4 bar before the test so that
upon injection of the dust, the pressure rises to atmospheric.
Ignition is by a pyrotechnical device with a standard total energy
(typically 10 kJ ) positioned at the centre of the sphere. The delay
between dispersion of the dust and initiation of the ignition source has
been found to affect the results. Turbulence caused by the air injection
influences the rate of the combustion reaction
50
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 8
Apparatus for Determination of Dust Explosion Characteristics-4
Godbert-Greenwald furnace
Godbert-Greenwald furnace
apparatus:
Determine the minimum ignition
temperature
It includes a vertical electrically
heated furnace tube which can
be raised to controlled
temperatures up to 1000C.
When ignition occurs, the
furnace temperature is lowered
in 10C steps until ignition does
not occur.
51
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 9
Applications of the Test Results-1
The minimum dust concentration for explosion is used to give an
indication of the quantities of air to be used in extraction systems for
combustible dusts.
The minimum energy for ignition is measured primarily to determine
whether the dust cloud could be ignited by an electrostatic spark.
The minimumignition temperature indicates the maximumtemperature
for equipment surfaces in contact with the powder.
The maximum explosion pressure is usually in the range of 8-13 bar
and is used mainly to determine the design pressure for equipment
when explosion containment or protection is opted for as the method of
dust explosion control.
52
Combustion in Dust Clouds - 10
Applications of the Test Results-2
The maximum rate of pressure rise during explosion is used in the
design of explosion relief.
It has been demonstrated that the maximum rate of pressure rise in a dust explosion is
inverselyproportional to the cube root of the vessel volume, i.e.
JP
Jt
mux
= I
1 3
K
st
The value of K
st
is found to be constant for a given powder. The severity of dust explosion
is classifiedaccordingto the St class basedon the K
st
value.
The minimum oxygen for combustion (MOC) is used to determine the
maximum permissible oxygen concentration when inerting is selected
as the means of controlling the dust explosion.
Dust explosion classes based on 1m
3
test apparatus
53
OUTLINE
Intiouuction
Combustion Funuamentals
Combustion in Bust Clouus
Contiol of the Bazaius
54
Control of the Hazards - 1
Dust Control
Ignition Source Control
Damage Control
55
Control of the Hazards - 2
The main approaches in approximate order of decreasing strategic
component:
Change the process to eliminate the dust;
Design the plant to withstand the pressure generated by any explosion;
Remove the oxygen by complete inerting;
Reduce oxygen to below MOC;
Add moisture to the dust;
Add diluent powder to the dust;
Detect start of explosion and inject suppressant;
Vent the vessel to relive pressure generated by the explosion;
Control dust concentration to be outside flammability limits;
Minimize dust cloud formation;
Exclude ignition sources.
56
Control of the Hazards - 3
Ignition Sources Control
Electrical equipment
Static electricity control
Mechanical sparks & friction
Open flame control
Design of heating systems & heated surfaces
Use of tools & vehicles
Maintenance
57
Control of the Hazards - 4
Explosion Relief Venting
Explosion Relief venting is the process of relieving the explosion
products (pressure and flame) fromthe plant to a safe location.
The principle of explosion venting is to discharge the vessel contents
through an opening or vent to prevent the pressure rising above the
vessel design pressure.
Advantage: relatively simple and inexpensive
Limits:
Cannot be used when the dust, gas or combustion products are toxic.
Very strong explosible dust with rate of pressure rise is greater than 600bar
m/s would be very difficult to vent (Lunn, 1992).
Venting of explosions to inside a building is not usually acceptable.
58
Control of the Hazards - 5
Explosion Suppression
Explosion suppression is detecting an explosion at an early stage and
suppressing it with a suitable suppressant (inert gas or powder).
The suppression systems triggered by the pressure rise accompanying
the start of the explosion have response times of the order of a fewms,
and are able to effectively extinguish the explosion (within 0.08sec).
Advantage:
Extinguishingthe flame
Reducingthe risk of ejecting toxic/or corrosive materials to the atmosphere
Process equipment does not need to be located in an area suitable for
explosionrelief venting
Disadvantage:
More expensive to install and maintain than explosionrelief venting.
Some suppression systems are not suitable for powders with high
explosionseverity (above 300 bar m/sec).
59
Control of the Hazards - 6
Containment
Where plant vessels are of small dimensions it may be
economic to design themto withstand the maximumpressure
generated by the dust explosion.
All interconnected pipes, flanges, covers, etc. should
withstand the maximumexplosion pressure of the dust being
handled.
If an explosion-resistant vessel fails, the pressure effects will
be more severe than if an extremely weak vessel fails as a
result of dust explosion.
Inerting
Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are commonly used to reduce
the oxygen concentration of air to belowthe MOC.
60
Control of the Hazards - 6
Minimize Dust Cloud Formation
Use of dense phase conveying as an alternative to dilute phase
Use of cyclone separators and filters instead of settling vessels for
separation of conveyed powder fromair
Avoiding situations where a powder stream is allowed to fall freely
through air
Good housekeeping practice should be ensure.
61
Example-1
A fine flammable dust is leaking froma pressurized container at a
rate of 2 litre/min into a room of volume 6m
3
and forming a
suspension in the air. The minimumexplosible concentration of the
dust in air at roomtemperature is 2.22% by volume. Assuming that
the dust is fine enough to settle only very slowly fromsuspension,
(a)what will be the time fromthe start of the leak before explosion
occurs in the roomif the air ventilation rate in the roomis 4m
3
/h,
and
(b)What would be the minimum safe ventilation rate under these
circumstances?
62
Example-2
Solution:
(a) Mass balance on the dust in the room:
rotc o
occumulotion
=
rotc o low
into tbc room
-
rotc o low out
o room witb oir
assuming constant gas density,
I
JC
Jt
= u.12 -4C
where 0.12 is the leak rate in m
3
/h, I is the volume of the roomand C
is the dust concentration in the roomat time t.
Rearrangingthe integrating with the initial condition, C = u at t = u,
t = -1.Sln
u.12 - 4C
u.12
b
Assuming the explosion occurs when the dust concentration reaches
the lower flammability limit, 2.22%
timc rcquircJ = 2.u2b
63
Example-3
Solution-continue:
(b) To ensure safety, the limiting ventilation rate is that which gives a room
dust concentration of 2.22% at steady stage (i.e. when JC Jt = u).
Under this condition,
u = u.12 -FC
]L
hence, the minimumventilation rate, F = S.4 m
3
b .