Metal Casting

Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the
shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify
Figure 1: Metal Cast parts
Advantages
1) Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate
shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other operations,
such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized or
eliminated.
2) It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non
ferrous.
!) As the metal can be placed e"actly where it is re#uired, large saving
in weight can be achieved.
$) %he necessary tools re#uired for casting molds are very simple and
ine"pensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the
idealprocess.

') %here are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be
processed this way.
() )ize and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting
process.
Limitations
1)*imensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made
by sand casting processes are a limitation to this techni#ue.
Many newcasting processes have been developed which
can ta+e into consideration the aspects of dimensional
accuracy and surface finish. )ome of these processes are die
casting process, investment casting process, vacuumsealed
molding process, and shell molding process.
2) %he metal casting process is a labor intensive process
$
,asting Methods
Sand Casting
High Temperature Alloy,
Complex Geometry,
ough Surface !inish
"nvestment Casting
High Temperature Alloy,
Complex Geometry,
#oderately Smooth Surface
!inish
$ie Casting
High Temperature Alloy,
#oderate Geometry,
Smooth Surface
Casting Terms
1.Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed%
$epending upon the position of the flas& in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names
such as drag lower molding flas&, cope upper molding flas&, chee& intermediate molding flas& used
in three piece molding%
2.Pattern: "t is the replica of the final ob'ect to be made% The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern%
3.Parting line( This is the dividing line between the two molding flas&s that ma&es up the mold%
4.Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases% "t is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions%
5.Facing sand( The small amount of carbonaceous material sprin&led on the inner surface of the
mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings%
6.Core( A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally ba&ed, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings%
7.Pouring basin( A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is
poured%
.!"rue( The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity% "n many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold%
#.$unner( The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate%
1%.&ate( A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity%
11.C'a"lets( Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to ta&e care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force%
12.$iser( A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrin&s and
solidifies% Also &nown as feed head.
13.(ent( Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases%
Steps in Making Sand
Castings

-atternma+ing

,ore ma+ing

Molding

Melting and pouring

,leaning
Pattern making
%he pattern is a physical model of the casting used to ma+e
the mold. %he mold is made by pac+ing some readily formed
aggregate material, such as molding sand, around the
pattern. .hen the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides
the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled with metal to
become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the
case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores,
are used to form these cavities.
Core making
,ores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into
a mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. %hus
the void space between the core and moldcavity surface is
what eventually becomes the casting.
Molding
Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a
mold for receiving molten metal. Molding usually involves
placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a
supporting frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the
mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and
finishing and closing the mold.
Melting and Pouring
%he preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to
simply as melting. Melting is usually done in a specifically
designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is
transferred to the pouring area where the molds are filled.
Cleaning
,leaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal
of sand, scale, and e"cess metal from the casting. /urned
on sand and scale are removed to improved the surface
appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the orm o
ins, !ires, parting line ins, and gates, is removed"
Inspection of the casting for defects and general #uality is
performed.
Pattern
%he pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. #t is
the replica o the o$%ect to $e made $& the casting process,
!ith some modiications. %he main modifications are the
addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If
the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used
to create these cavities in the finished product. %he #uality of the
casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its
design, and construction. %he costs of the pattern and the related
e#uipment are reflected in the cost of the casting. %he use of an
e"pensive pattern is 0ustified when the #uantity of castings re#uired
is substantial.
Functions o the Pattern
A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of ma+ing a
casting.
A pattern may contain pro0ections +nown as core prints if the
casting re#uires a core and need to be made hollow.
1unner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold
cavity may form a part of the pattern.
-atterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces
reduce casting defects.
A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the
castings.
Pattern Material
)ome materials used for ma+ing patterns are2 wood, metals
and alloys, plastic, plaster of -aris, plastic and rubbers,
wa", and resins.
%o be suitable for use, the pattern material should be2
3asily wor+ed, shaped and 0oined

4ight in weight
)trong, hard and durable
1esistant to wear and abrasion
1esistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

*imensionally stable and unaffected by variations in

temperature and humidity

Available at low cost

%he usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics.
%he most commonly used pattern material is wood, since it
is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily
shaped and is relatively cheap. 'he main disadvantage
o !ood is its a$sorption o moisture, !hich can
cause distortion and dimensional changes" 5ence,
proper seasoning and up+eep of wood is almost a pre
re#uisite for largescale use of wood as a pattern material.
A t&pical pattern attached !ith gating and
risering s&stem
Pattern Allo!ances

-attern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the

dimensional characteristics of the casting. %hus,
when the pattern is produced, certain allowances
must be given on the sizes specified in the finished
component drawing so that a casting with the
particular speciication can be made. %he
selection of correct allowances greatly helps to
reduce machining costs and avoid re%ections"
%he allowances usually considered on patterns and
core bo"es are as follows2

)hrin+age or contraction allowance

*raft or taper allowance

Machining or finish allowance

*istortion or camber allowance

1apping allowance
Shrinkage or Contraction Allo!ance
All most all cast metals shrin+ or contract volumetrically on
cooling. %he metal shrin+age is of two types2
Li(uid Shrinkage2 it refers to the reduction in volume
!hen the metal changes rom li(uid state to solid
state at the solidus temperature. %o account for this
shrin+age6 riser, which feed the li#uid metal to the casting,
are provided in the mold.

Solid Shrinkage: it reers to the reduction in volume

caused !hen metal loses temperature in solid state.
%o account for this, shrin+age allowance is provided on the
patterns.
%he rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on
the material. 7or e"ample steel contracts to a higher
degree compared to aluminum. %o compensate the solid
shrin+age, a shrin+ rule must be used in laying out the
measurements for the pattern. A shrin+ rule for cast iron is
189 inch longer per foot than a standard rule. If a gear blan+
of $ inch in diameter was planned to produce out of cast
iron, the shrin+ rule in measuring it $ inch would actually
measure $ 182$ inch, thus compensating for the shrin+age
)ate o Contraction o *arious
Metals
Material +imension !'rinkage allo)ance
*inc'+,t-
:rey ,ast Iron )p to * feet
* feet to + feet
over + feet
,%-*.
,%-,.
,%,/0
,ast )teel )p to * feet
* feet to 1 feet
over 1 feet
,%*.-
,%-2-
,%-..
Aluminum )p to + feet
+ feet to 1 feet
over 1 feet
,%-..
,%-+0
,%-*.
Magnesium )p to + feet
3ver + feet
,%-40
,%-..
Exercise1
%he casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a
wooden pattern. Assuming only shrin+age allowance,
calculate the dimension of the pattern. All
*imensions are in Inches
Solution 1
%he shrin+age allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.12' inch
per feet
7or dimension 19 inch, allowance ; 19 X <.12' 8 12 ; <.19=' inch >
<.2 inch
7or dimension 1$ inch, allowance ; 1$ X <.12' 8 12 ; <.1$( inch >
<.1' inch
7or dimension 9 inch, allowance ; 9 ? <.12' 8 12 ; <.<9!! inch >
<. <@ inch
7or dimension ( inch, allowance ; ( ? <.12' 8 12 ; <.<(2' inch >
<. <= inch
%he pattern drawing with re#uired dimension is shown below2
+rat or 'aper Allo!ance
/y draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern
ma+er on all vertical suraces o the pattern so that
it can be removed from the sand without tearing away
the sides of the sand mold and without e"cessive
rapping by the molder.
7igure ! Aa) shows a pattern having no draft allowance
being removed from the pattern. In this case, till the
pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in
contact with the walls of the mold, thus tending to
brea+ it.
7igure ! Ab) is an illustration of a pattern having proper
draft allowance. 5ere, the moment the pattern lifting
commences, all of its surfaces are well away from the
sand surface. %hus the pattern can be removed without
damaging the mold cavity.
*raft allowance varies with the comple"ity of the sand 0ob. /ut in
general inner details of the pattern re#uire higher draft than outer
surfaces. %he amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical
side of the pattern to be e"tracted6 the intricacy of the pattern6 the
method of molding6 and pattern material.
%able 2 provides a general guide lines for the draft allowance.
Pattern material Height of the given
surface (inch)
+rat angle
,External
surace-
+rat angle
,#nternal
surace-
5ood -
- to *
* to +
+ to /
/ to 0*
0%,,
-%.,
-%,,
,%4.
,%.,
0%,,
*%.,
-%.,
-%,,
-%,,
#etal and plastic -
- to *
* to +
+ to /
/ to 0*
-%.,
-%,,
,%4.
,%.,
,%.,
0%,,
*%,,
-%,,
-%,,
,%4.
Machining or Finish Allo!ance
%he finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are
generally poor and therefore when the casting is
functionally re#uired to be of good surface finish or
dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by
subse#uent machining. Machining or finish allowances are
therefore added in the pattern dimension. 'he amount o
machining allo!ance to $e provided or is aected
$& the method o molding and casting used vi." hand
molding or machine molding, sand casting or metal
mold casting"
%he amount of machining allowance is also affected by the
size and shape of the casting6 the casting orientation6 the
metal6 and the degree of accuracy and finish re#uired.
Allo!ances o Machining *arious
Metals
Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)
Cast iron Up to 12
12 to 20
20 to 40
0.12
0.20
0.25
Cast steel Up to 6
6 to 20
20 to 40
0.12
0.25
0.30
Non ferrous Up to 8
8 to 12
12 to 40
0.09
0.12
0.16
+istortion or Cam$er Allo!ance
)ometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. 7or
e"ample, if the casting has the form of the letter B, C, %, or 4 etc. it will tend to
contract at the closed end causing the vertical legs to loo+ slightly inclined. %his can
be prevented by ma+ing the legs of the B, C, %, or 4 shaped pattern converge slightly
Ainward) so that the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical A A7igure $).
'he distortion in casting ma& occur due to internal stresses" )tresses are
caused on account of une#ual cooling of different section of the casting and hindered
contraction. Measure ta+en to prevent the distortion in casting include2
Modification of casting design.
-roviding sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect.
-roviding suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance
Ainverse reflection)
Figure /: +istortions in Casting

Shake or )apping allo!ance
7or the easy withdrawal of the pattern from the moulding
sand , the pattern is slightly rapped or shoo+ around the
vertical faces , which leads to a slight enlargement in the
mould cavity. )o the final casting will be slightly over sized .
%he sha+e allowance is given to overcome this problem , by
ma+ing the pattern slightly smaller in size.
Core and Core Prints
Castings are oten re(uired to have holes, recesses,
etc" o various si.es and shapes. %hese impressions can
be obtained by using cores" )o where coring is re#uired,
provision should be made to support the core inside the
mold cavity. ,ore prints are used to serve this purpose.
%he core print is an added pro0ection on the pattern and it
forms a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests
during pouring of the mold. %he core print must be of
ade#uate size and shape so that it can support the weight
of the core during the casting operation. *epending upon
the re#uirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical
and can be hanged inside the mold cavity. A typical 0ob, its
pattern and the mold cavity with core and core print is
shown in 7igure '.
A '&pical 0o$, its Pattern and the Mold Cavit&
'&pes o Pattern
-atterns are of various types, each
satisfying certain casting
re#uirements.

)ingle piece pattern

)plit or two piece pattern

Match plate pattern

Single Piece Pattern
%he one piece or single pattern is the most ine"pensive of
all types of patterns. %his type of pattern is used only in
cases where the 0ob is very simple and does not create any
withdrawal problems. It is also used for application in very
smallscale production or in prototype development. %his
type of pattern is e"pected to be entirely in the drag and
one of the surface is is e"pected to be flat which is used as
the parting plane. A gating system is made in the mold by
cutting sand with the help of sand tools. If no such flat
surface e"ists, the molding becomes complicated.
Split or '!o Piece Pattern
)plit or two piece pattern is most widely used type of pattern for
intricate castings. It is split along the parting surface, the position of
which is determined by the shape of the casting. Dne half of the
pattern is molded in drag and the other half in cope. %he two halves
of the pattern must be aligned properly by ma+ing use of the dowel
pins, which are fitted, to the cope half of the pattern. %hese dowel
pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the
pattern.
A typical split pattern of a cast iron wheel 7igure = Aa) is shown in
7igure = Ab).
!!
S67"T C38 93:
!$
,haplets
Classiication o casting Processes
1" Conventional Molding Processes
:reen )and Molding
*ry )and Molding
7las+ less Molding
1" Chemical Sand Molding Processes
)hell Molding
)odium )ilicate Molding
Eo/a+e Molding
2" Permanent Mold Processes
:ravity *ie casting
4ow and 5igh -ressure *ie ,asting
/" Special Casting Processes
4ost .a"
,eramics )hell Molding
3vaporative -attern ,asting
Cacuum )ealed Molding
,entrifugal ,asting
3reen Sand Molding
:reen sand is the most diversified molding method used in
metal casting operations. %he process utilizes a mold made
of compressed or compacted moist sand. %he term FgreenF
denotes the presence of moisture in the molding sand. %he
mold material consists of silica sand mi"ed with a suitable
bonding agent Ausually clay) and moisture.
Advantages
Most metals can be cast by this method.
-attern costs and material costs are relatively low.
Eo 4imitation with respect to size of casting and type of
metal or alloy used
+isadvantages
)urface 7inish of the castings obtained by this process is
not good and machining is often re#uired to achieve the
finished product.
Sand Mold Making Procedure
%he first step in ma+ing mold is to place the pattern on the molding board.
%he drag is placed on the board AA7igure 9Aa)).
*ry facing sand is sprin+led over the board and pattern to provide a non stic+y
layer.
Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers6 then the drag
is completely filled.
%he sand is then firmly pac+ed in the drag by means of hand rammers. %he
ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft.
After the ramming is over, the e"cess sand is leveled off with a straight bar +nown
as a stri+e rod.
.ith the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the
flas+ as well as to the pattern tofacilitate the removal of gases during pouring and
solidification.
%he finished drag flas+ is now rolled over to the bottom board e"posing the pattern.
,ope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the help of
locating pins. %he cope flas+ on thedrag islocated aligning again with the help of
pins A A7igure 9 Ab)).
%he dry parting sand is sprin+led all over the drag and on the pattern.
A sprue pin for ma+ing the sprue passage is located at a small distance from the
pattern. Also, riser pin, if re#uired, isplaced at an appropriate place.
%he operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same
manner as performed in the drag.
%he sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is scooped out at the
top to pour the li#uid metal.
%hen pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in the form of
paste is applied all over the mold cavity and runners which would give the finished
casting a good surface finish.
%he mold is now assembled. %he mold now is ready for pouring Asee AA7igure 9 Ac) )
Molding Material and Properties
A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for
manufacturing molds and cores. %hey include molding sand, system
sand or bac+ing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. %he
choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties.
%he properties that are generally re#uired in molding materials are2
)eractoriness
It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature
o the li(uid metal to $e poured so that it does not get used
!ith the metal" %he refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.
Permea$ilit&
*uring pouring and subse#uent solidification of a casting, a large
amount of gases and steam is generated. %hese gases are those
that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed
from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and
core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold,
they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting
defects. %o overcome this pro$lem the molding material must
$e porous" -roper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the
gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
+r& Sand Molding

.hen it is desired that the gas forming materials are

lowered in the molds, air4dried molds are sometimes
preerred to green sand molds" %wo types of drying of
molds are often re#uired.
)+in drying and
,omplete mold drying.
In s+in drying a firm mold face is produced. )ha+eout of the
mold is almost as good as that obtained with green sand
molding. %he most common method of drying the refractory
mold coating uses hot air, gas or oil flame. )+in drying of
the mold can be accomplished with the aid of torches,
directed at the mold surface.
3reen Strength
%he molding sand that contains moisture is termed as
green sand. %he green sand particles must have the ability
to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the
mold. %he green sand must have enough strength so that
the constructed mold retains its shape.
+r& Strength
.hen the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand
around the mold cavity is #uic+ly converted into dry sand
as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of
the molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must
posses the suicient strength to retain the exact
shape o the mold cavit& and at the same time it
must $e a$le to !ithstand the metallostatic pressure
o the li(uid material"
5ot Strength
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach
at a high temperature when the metal in the mold is still in
li#uid state. 'he strength o the sand that is re(uired
to hold the shape o the cavit& is called hot strength"
Collapsi$ilit&
%he molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the
contraction o the solidiied casting it does not provide an&
resistance, !hich ma& result in cracks in the castings"
6esides these specific properties the molding material should be
cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.
Molding Sand Composition
%he main ingredients of any molding sand are2
/ase sand,
/inder, and
Moisture
6ase Sand
)ilica sand is most commonly used base sand. Dther base sands
that are also used for ma+ing mold are zircon sand, ,hromite sand,
and olivine sand. )ilica sand is cheapest among all types of base
sand and it is easily available.
6inder
/inders are of many types such as2
,lay binders,
Drganic binders and
Inorganic binders
,lay binders are most commonly used binding agents mi"ed with
the molding sands to provide the strength. %he most popular clay
types are2
Gaolinite or fire clay AAl
2
D
!
2 )iD
2
2 5
2
D) and /entonite AAl
2
D
!
$ )iD
2

n5
2
D)
Df the two the /entonite can absorb more water which increases its
bonding power.
Moisture
,lay ac#uires its bonding action only in the presence of the re#uired
amount of moisture. .hen water is added to clay, it penetrates the
mi"ture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each
fla+e of the clay. %he amount of water used should be properly
controlled. %his is because a part of the water, which coats the
surface of the clay fla+es, helps in bonding, while the remainder
helps in improving the plasticity. A typical composition of molding
sand is given in A%able $).
A '&pical Composition o Molding Sand
Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent
Silica sand 92
Clay (Sodiu !entonite" 8
#ater 4
Shell Molding Process
It is a process in which, the sand mi"ed with a
thermosetting resin is allowed to come in contact with a
heated pattern plate A2<<
o
,), this causes a s+in A)hell) of
about !.' mm of sand8plastic mi"ture to adhere to the
pattern.. %hen the shell is removed from the pattern. %he
cope and drag shells are +ept in a flas+ with necessary
bac+up material and the molten metal is poured into the
mold.

%his process can produce comple" parts with good surface

finish 1.2' Hm to !.=' Hm, and dimensional tolerance of <.'
I. A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the
need for machining. %he process overall is #uite cost
effective due to reduced machining and cleanup costs. %he
materials that can be used with this process are cast irons,
and aluminum and copper alloys.
Shell Molding Process
Molding Sand in Shell Molding Process
%he molding sand is a mi"ture of fine grained #uartz sand and
powdered ba+elite. %here are two methods of coating the sand
grains with ba+elite. 7irst method is ,old coating method and
another one is the hot method of coating.
In the method of cold coating, #uartz sand is poured into the mi"er
and then the solution of powdered ba+elite in acetone and ethyl
aldehyde are added. %he typical mi"ture is @2I #uartz sand, 'I
ba+elite, !I ethyl aldehyde. *uring mi"ing of the ingredients, the
resin envelops the sand grains and the solvent evaporates, leaving
a thin film that uniformly coats the surface of sand grains, thereby
imparting fluidity to the sand mi"tures.
In the method of hot coating, the mi"ture is heated to 1'<19< o ,
prior to loading the sand. In the course of sand mi"ing, the soluble
phenol formaldehyde resin is added. %he mi"er is allowed to cool up
to 9< to @< o ,. %his method gives better properties to the mi"tures
than cold method.
Sodium Silicate Molding Process
In this process, the refractory material is coated with a sodium
silicatebased binder. 7or molds, the sand mi"ture can be
compacted manually, 0olted or s#ueezed around the pattern in the
flas+. After compaction, ,D 2 gas is passed through the core or
mold. %he ,D 2 chemically reacts with the sodium silicate to cure,
or harden, the binder. %his cured binder then holds the refractory in
place around the pattern. After curing, the pattern is withdrawn
from the mold.
%he sodium silicate process is one of the most environmentally
acceptable of the chemical processes available. %he ma0or
disadvantage of the process is that the binder is very hygroscopic
and readily absorbs water, which causes a porosity in the castings..
Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid mold wall,
sha+eout and collapsibility characteristics can slow down
production. )ome of the advantages of the process are2
A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which gives
the casting good dimensional tolerances6
good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable6
Permanent Mold Process
In all the above processes, a mold need to $e prepared or each o the
casting produced. 7or largescale production, ma+ing a mold, for every
casting to be produced, may be difficult and e"pensive. %herefore, a
permanent mold, called the die may be made from which a large number of
castings can be produced. , the molds are usually made of cast iron or steel,
although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as mold materials.
%he process in which we use a die to ma+e the castings is called permanent
mold casting or gravity die casting, since the metal enters the mold under
gravity. )ome time in diecasting we in0ect the molten metal with a high
pressure. .hen we apply pressure in in0ecting the metal it is called pressure
die casting process.
Advantages
-ermanent Molding produces a sound dense casting with superior
mechanical properties.
%he castings produced are #uite uniform in shape have a higher degree of
dimensional accuracy than castings produced insand
%he permanent mold process is also capable of producing a consistent
#uality of finish on castings
+isadvantages
%he cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings
%he process is generally limited to the production of small castings of simple
e"terior design, although comple" castingssuch as aluminum engine bloc+s
and heads are now commonplace.
Centriugal Casting

In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central

a"is as the metal is poured into it. /ecause of the
centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on
the metal as it solidifies. %he slag, o"ides and other
inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and
segregate towards the center. %his process is normally used
for the ma+ing of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc.,
which are a"isymmetric with a concentric hole. )ince the
metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal
force, no core needs to be used for ma+ing the concentric
hole. %he mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or
an inclined a"is or about its horizontal and vertical a"es
simultaneously. %he length and outside diameter are fi"ed
by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is
determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the
mold.7igure @ACertical ,entrifugal ,asting), 7igure 1<
A 5orizontal ,entrifugal ,asting)
5orizontal ,entrifugal *ie
,asting
)emi ,entrifugal ,asting
Advantages
7ormation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores
4ess material re#uired for gate
7ine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting
free of gas and shrin+age cavities and porosity
+isadvantages
More segregation of alloy component during pouring under
the forces of rotation
,ontamination of internal surface of castings with non
metallic inclusions
Inaccurate internal diameter
#nvestment Casting Process
%he root of the investment casting process, the cire perdue or lost ?
wa" method dates bac+ to at least the fourth millennium /.,. %he ?
artists and sculptors of ancient 3gypt and Mesopotamia used the
rudiments of the investment casting process to create intricately
detailed 0ewelry, pectorals and idols. %he investment casting
process alos called lost wa" process begins with the production of
wa" replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the castings. A
pattern is needed for every casting to be produced. %he patterns
are prepared by in0ecting wa" or polystyrene in a metal dies. A
number of patterns are attached to a central wa" sprue to form a
assembly. %he mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern with
refractory slurry that can set at room temperature. %he mold is then
heated so that pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean cavity
behind. %he mould is further hardened by heating and the molten
metal is poured while it is still hot. .hen the casting is solidified,
the mold is bro+en and the casting ta+en out.
'he $asic steps o the investment casting process are ,
Figure 11 - :
-roduction of heatdisposable wa", plastic, or polystyrene patterns
Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
Investing, or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry
Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
7iring the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material
-ouring
Gnoc+out, cutoff and finishing.
'he 6asic Steps o the #nvestment Casting
Process
Advantages

7ormation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

4ess material re#uired for gate

7ine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting

free of gas and shrin+age cavities and porosity
+isadvantages
More segregation of alloy component during pouring under
the forces of rotation
,ontamination of internal surface of castings with non
metallic inclusions
Inaccurate internal diameter
Ceramic Shell #nvestment Casting Process

%he basic difference in investment casting is that in the

investment casting the wa" pattern is immersed in a
refractory aggregate before dewa"ing whereas, in ceramic
shell investment casting a ceramic shell is built around a
tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a pattern into a slurry
Arefractory material such as zircon with binder). After each
dipping and stuccoing is completed, the assembly is
allowed to thoroughly dry before the ne"t coating is
applied. %hus, a shell is built up around the assembly. %he
thic+ness of this shell is dependent on the size of the
castings and temperature of the metal to be poured.

After the ceramic shell is completed, the entire assembly is

placed into an autoclave or flash fire furnace at a high
temperature. %he shell is heated to about @92 o , to burn
out any residual wa" and to develop a hightemperature
bond in the shell. %he shell molds can then be stored for
future use or molten metal can be poured into them
immediately. If the shell molds are stored, they have to be
preheated before molten metal is poured into them.
Advantages

e"cellent surface finish

tight dimensional tolerances

machining can be reduced or completely

eliminated

Casting +eects
%he following are the ma0or defects,
which are li+ely to occur in sand
castings

:as defects

)hrin+age cavities

Molding material defects

-ouring metal defects

Mold shift
3as +eects
A condition e"isting in a casting caused by the trapping of
gas in the molten metal or by mold gases evolved during
the pouring of the casting. %he defects in this category can
be classified into $lo!holes and pinhole porosit&" 6lo!
holes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the
casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole
porosit& occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas,
which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.
Causes
%he lower gaspassing tendency of the mold, which may be
due to lo!er venting, lo!er permea$ilit& o the mold
or improper design o the casting" %he lower
permeability is caused by finer grain size of the sand, high
percentage of clay in mold mi"ture, and e"cessive moisture
present in the mold.
Metal contains gas
Mold is too hot
-oor mold burnout
Shrinkage Cavities

%hese are caused by li#uid shrin+age occurring during the

solidification of the casting. %o compensate for this, proper
feeding of li#uid metal is re#uired. 7or this reason risers are
placed at the appropriate places in the mold. )prues may
be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper location,
causing shrin+age cavities. It is recommended to use thic+
sprues to avoid shrin+age cavities.
Molding Material +eects
%he defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal
penetration, fusion, and swell.
Cut and !ashes
%hese appear as rough spots and areas of e"cess metal,
and are caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing
metal. 'his is caused $& the molding sand not having
enough strength and the molten metal lo!ing at
high velocit&" %he former can be ta+en care of by the
proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be
overcome by the proper design of the gating system.

Metal penetration
.hen molten metal enters into the gaps between sand
grains, the result is a rough casting surface. %his occurs
because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied on
the surface of the mold. %he coarser the sand grains more
the metal penetration.
Fusion
%his is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the
molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the
casting surface. %he main reason for this is that the clay or
the sand particles are of lower refractoriness or that the
pouring temperature is too high.
S!ell
Bnder the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall
may move bac+ causing a swell in the dimension of the
casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this
defect.

#nclusions
-articles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deo"idation
products are trapped in the casting during pouring
solidification. %he provision of cho+e in the gating system
and the pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent
this defect.
Pouring Metal +eects
%he li+ely defects in this category are
Misruns and
,old shuts.
A misrun is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity
completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A misrun results
!hen the metal is too cold to lo! to the e"tremities of the
mold cavity before freezing. 4ong, thin sections are sub0ect to this
defect and should be avoided in casting design.
A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold
cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in
the casting. .hen the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity
through morethanone gate, multiple li#uid fronts will have to flow
together and become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too
cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the part.
)uch a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring
sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thic+ enough walls in
the casting design.
%he misrun and cold shut defects are caused either by a lo!er
luidit& o the mold or when the section thic+ness of the casting
is very small. 7luidity can be improved by changing the composition
of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the
metal.
Mold Shit
%he mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding bo"es
have not been properly aligned.
3ating S&stem
%he assembly of channels which facilitates the molten
metal to enter into the mold cavity is called the gating
system A7igure1=). Alternatively, the gating system refers
to all passage ways through which molten metal passes to
enter into the mold cavity. %he nomenclature of gating
system depends upon the function of different channels
which they perform.

*own gates or sprue

,ross gates or runners

Ingates or gates

%he metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring

cup into the down gate or sprue and passes through the
cross gate or channels and ingates or gates before entering
into the mold cavity.
Schematic o 3ating S&stem
3oals o 3ating S&stem
%he goals for the gating system are

%o minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the

mold

%o get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal
starts to solidify
%o avoid shrin+age
3stablish the best possible temperature gradient in the
solidifying casting so that the shrin+age if occurs must be in
the gating system not in the re#uired cast part.
Incorporates a system for trapping the nonmetallic
inclusions
5&draulic Principles used in the 3ating S&stem
)e&nold7s 8um$er
Eature of flow in the gating system can be established by
calculating 1eynoldJs number

1
E
; 1eynoldJs number

C ; Mean Celocity of flow

* ; diameter of tubular flow

m ; Ginematics Ciscosity ;
*ynamic viscosity 8 *ensity

r ; 7luid density
.hen the 1eynoldJs number is less than 2<<< stream line
flow results and when the number is more than 2<<<
turbulent flow prevails. As far as possible the turbulent flow
must be avoided in the sand mold as because of the
turbulence sand particles gets dislodged from the mold or
the gating system and may enter into the mould cavity
leading to the production of defective casting. 3"cess
turbulence causes
Inclusion of dross or slag
Air aspiration into the mold
3rosion of the mold walls

6ernoulli7s E(uation
h ; height of li<uid
6 ; Static 6ressure
v ; metal velocity
g ; Acceleration due to gravity
r ; !luid density

%urbulence can be avoided by incorporating small

changes in the design of gating system. %he sharp changes in the flow
should be avoided to smooth changes. %he gating system must be
designed in such a way that the system always runs full with the li#uid
metal. 'he most important things to remem$er in designing
runners and gates are to avoid sharp corners" Any changes in
direction or cross sectional area should ma+e use of rounded corners.
%o avoid the aspiration the tapered sprues are designed in the gating
systems" A sprue tapered to a smaller si.e at its $ottom !ill
create a choke !hich !ill help keep the sprue ull o molten
metal"

'&pes o 3ating S&stems ,Figure1:a, 19b-

%he gating systems are of two types2

-ressurized gating system

Bnpressurized gating system

Pressuri.ed 3ating S&stem

%he total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold

cavity

/ac+ pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal

flow

7low of li#uid Avolume) is almost e#ual from all gates

/ac+ pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue

always runs full
/ecause of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity
leading to more turbulence and chances of mold erosion
;n4Pressuri.ed 3ating S&stem
%he total cross sectional area increases towards the mold
cavity
1estriction only at the bottom of sprue
7low of li#uid Avolume) is different from all gates
aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full
4ess turbulence
'&pes o 3ating S&stems )iser

1iser is a source of e"tra metal which flows from riser to

mold cavity to compensate for shrin+age which ta+es place
in the casting when it starts solidifying. .ithout a riser
heavier parts of the casting will have shrin+age defects,
either on the surface or internally.
1isers are +nown by different names as metal reservoir,
feeders, or headers.
)hrin+age in a mold, from the time of pouring to final
casting, occurs in three stages.
during the li#uid state
during the transformation from li#uid to solid
during the solid state
7irst type of shrin+age is being compensated by the feeders
or the gating system. 7or the second type of shrin+age
risers are re#uired. 1isers are normally placed at that
portion of the casting which is last to freeze. A riser must
stay in li#uid state at least as long as the casting and must
be able to feed the casting during this time.
Functions o )isers

-rovide e"tra metal to compensate for the volumetric

shrin+age

Allow mold gases to escape

-rovide e"tra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to

reproduce mold details more e"act
+esign )e(uirements o )isers
1")iser si.e: 7or a sound casting riser must be last to
freeze. %he ratio of Avolume 8 surface area)
2
of the riser
must be greater than that of the casting. 5owever, when
this condition does not meet the metal in the riser can be
+ept in li#uid state by heating it e"ternally or using
e"othermic materials in the risers.
1")iser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting
must be considered by effectively calculating the feeding
distance of the risers.
2")iser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for
most of the castings as spherical risers, although considers
as best, are difficult to cast. %o increasevolume8surface
area ratio the bottom of the riser can be shaped as
hemisphere.