PART 1:

UNDERSTANDING
HISTORY








o History is usually regarded as a record of past events that are arranged in some
semblance of order so as to be capable of interpretation.

o Historians select information and arrange it according to their understanding or
their mandate. History is, therefore, never objective.

o In many instances, History is used to maintain the status quo or tell the story of
the conqueror.

o Napolean Bonaparte once said, History is a myth that is agreed upon.

o Euro-Centric thinking has had a profound impact on our perception of ourselves
as Humanity in the 21
st
century.

o Europe is always depicted as up or north and civilized and developed.
Greenwich Mean Time is universally accepted as the basis of all time zones.

o Based on a different vantage point in the cosmos, Cape Town could be the top of
the Northern hemisphere and Timbuktu could be the basis of time. Muslims and
non-European people need to deconstruct history [His-Story] and relate events
from their own perspective.

o Even the size of Africa was distorted on the maps as in the case of the maps of
Gerhard Mercator, the 16
th
century European cartographer.

o The modern map [based on the Mercator Projection] shows North America as
one and a half times the size of Africa. In reality Africa is three and a half times
the size of the United States. Greenland, for Mercator, was almost as large as
Africa but in reality Africa is 30 million square kilometers compared to
Greenlands two million.

o Africa is larger than India and China put together and capable of absorbing many
times over the acreage of all of the colonial powers that have ravished its land
over the centuries.

o In 1967, another German, Arno Peters, produced the Peters Projection Map that
is a more accurate representation of the size of the continents. He still, however,
put Europe at the top of the world. The maps drawn by the famous Muslim
cartographers of the past placed Europe at the bottom of the world. Future
mapmakers may want to return to the original format.

o The name Africa can be traced back to ancient Berber, Roman, Greek and Arabic
sources. It referred to a sunny place and was used by the Muslims to refer to
their western base in present Tunisia, Ifriqiyaa. So Africa in a modern sense was
derived from an Islamic/Arabic word!

o European conquers used the term Africa to mean a dark, backward place. Some
historians tried to separate Ancient Egypt from Black Africa because of the
technological achievements.

o What is Africa and who are Africans? Who is an Arab? These may be some of the
most important questions of the new century.

o Definitions of Africa have been numerous. Here are a few:

The racial definition: This understanding restricts Africa to the
Black populated parts of the continent.

The continental definition: This is the basis of the African Union
and tries to restrict Africa as a continent.

The power definition: This definition excluded parts of Africa that
were under non-African control.

A fourth definition connects Africa with Arabia and does not stop
at the colonial borders. [See Mazrui-The Africans, A Triple
Heritage]

o African people regardless of their color, hair texture or origin will have to come
up with broad, all-inclusive definitions to facilitate a rebirth of culture and
technology.

o Muslims need to benefit from the lessons of those who lived in earlier times.

People who do not know their history will be lost in the present and unable to plan
properly for the future.

Almighty ALLAH has revealed in [Quran: Surat An-Nahl: 36]

And verily, We have sent among every Ummah (community, nation) a
Messenger (proclaiming): "Worship Allah (Alone), and avoid (or keep
away from) Taghut (all false deities, etc. i.e. do not worship Taghut
besides Allah)." Then of them were some whom Allah guided and of
them were some upon whom the straying was justified. So travel
through the land and see what was the end of those who denied (the
truth).

o Muslims should not be Euro-centric, Afro-centric or Indo-centric but
Makkah-centric. History needs to be our story not his story.
























SUGGESTIONS FOR
FURTHER READING

Daniels, Robert V.,
Studying History and
Why, USA, 1966.

Mazrui, Ali, The
Africans, A Triple
Heritage, New York.,
1986.

Thomson, Ahmad,
Making History, London,
1977.

ISLAM IN THE NEAR
WEST


PART 2:
THE FIRST HIJRA TO
AL-HABASHA










o In the early Makkan period, the persecution of Quraish gradually became
intolerable.

o After five years of Prophethood, Prophet Muhammad sent his followers
away to Al-Habasha across the Red Sea, to seek sanctuary from torture and
murder.

o The Prophet encouraged them, saying If you go to Abysinnia [it would
be better for you], for in it there is a King who will not tolerate oppression. It
is a land of truth. Go until such time as ALLAH shall relieve you from your
distress. [Authentic Hadeeth, Reported by Ahmad]

o Twelve men and four women, including Uthman ibn Affan and Ruqayyah
bint Muhammad made the journey. After settling in Al Habasha for a few
months, the Muhaajireen got word that Quraish had embraced Islam so they
returned to Makkah.

o Notables of Quraish has prostated towards the Kabah with the Prophet
Muhammad who had had before them Surah an-Najm. The awe-
inspiring words of ALLAH had captured their imaginations. They were
denounced by they fellow polytheists and the repression continued.

o A larger group of emigrants, subsequently left Makkah and headed towards
Al Habasha. 83 men and 19 women escaped the persecution and sought
refuge with the righteous emperor of Axum, Ashamah.

o Quraish sent delegations, led by Amr ibn Al-aas and Abdullah ibn Abu
Rabeeah to bring the Muhaajireen back to Makkah. The polytheists used
bribery and lies to carry out their plan.

o When the king summoned the Muslims to defend themselves, Jafar ibn Abi
Talib addressed the king and read from Surah Maryam. The Emperor,
Ashamah and his court wept and gave full protection to the Muslims.

o In the year 6 A.H., a letter from Prophet Muhammad was delivered to
An-Najaashi and he secretly embraced Islam. (see a copy of this letter below)
Ashamah sent his son, Armah and 60 riders to announce his Islam in Al-
Madinah, but they perished in the Red Sea during their journey,

o Despite a near revolution in al Habasha, the Muslims lived there for a
number of years until they are called to Madinah to join the Islamic state.

o An-Najaashi, Ashamah, died as a Muslim and the Prophet made Janazah
for an absent person and proof that Muslims had entered Africa not as
conquerors but as humble refugees.

o Almighty ALLAH revealed the following verse in response to criticism of
the Janazah of An-Najaashi:

And there are, certainly, among the people of the Scripture (Jews and
Christians), those who believe in Allah and in that which has been revealed
to you, and in that which has been revealed to them, humbling themselves
before Allah. They do not sell the Verses of Allah for a little price, for them is
a reward with their Lord. Surely, Allah is Swift in account.
[Surat Al-Imran: 99]


o Fifteen Sahabah died during the Hijra to Al Habasha. Many are buried with
An-Najaashi in Negash, Tigray Province.

o Some of the recorded Abyssinian Male Companions of the Prophet are
the following:

Sayyidna Bilal ibn Rabah, Manhaj al Habashi,
Abu Bakrah al Habashi, Shuqran al Habashi,
Dhu Makhmar al Habashi, Khalid ibn al Hawaari,
Khalid ibn Rabah (Brother of Bilal), Aslam, Saar, Yasaar,
Aslam al Habashi, Hilal, Wahshi, Asim, Naail, Laqeet, Jiaal,
Ibrahim, Abraha ibn Sabah, Abraha ibn Fathoom, Ayman and Anjasha
al Habashi


o Some of the female companions are as follows:

Umm Ayman (Barakah), the dry nurse of the Prophet ,
Saeerah,
Barakah, the servant of Umm Habeebah,
Ghafeerah bin Rabah (sister of Bilal),
Nabah Al Habashiyyah

o It is also recorded that 32 Abyssinians migrated to Madinah with Jafar
ibn Abi Taalib. They joined the young Muslim community and dedicated
their lives to the establishment of Islam.


TRANSLATION OF THE LETTER

In the name of ALLAH , the Beneficent the Merciful
From Muhammad the Messenger of ALLAH to An-Najaashu, Ashamah
Emperor of Al-Habasha.

Peace be upon he who follows guidance.

As to what follows

Verily for you I praise ALLAH , the one whom there is no deity except Him, The Sole
King, The Holy, The Source of Peace. The Protector and The Guardian.

I bear witness that Jesus, the son of Maryam is the spirit belonging to ALLAH and His
Word that He cast into the chaste and excellent virgin, Maryam. She thus became
pregnant by means of His spirit and His inspiration with Jesus in the same manner that
He created Adam with His Hands.

Verily I invite you and your armed forces to ALLAH , Most High.

Thus I have delivered the message and given you counsel, therefore accept my counsel.
Peace be upon he who follows the Guidance.

AN-NAJAASHIS RESPONSE

To Muhammad, the Messenger of ALLAH from Ashamah, An-Najaashi

Peace be upon you, Oh Prophet of ALLAH and mercy and blessings from ALLAH .
Surely there is no Deity but ALLAH.

As for what follows

Your message had reached me, Oh Messenger of ALLAH and that which you
mentioned concerning Jesus is exactly as you have stated.

We have understood your message to us and have gotten close to your nephew (Jafar
ibn Abi Talib) and his companions. I bear witness that you are the messenger of ALLAH
and I have confirmed that truth. I have pledged allegiance to you and your nephew.
I have embraced Islam on his hands for ALLAH , Lord of all the worlds.


































SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Ibn Al-Atheer, Al Kamil Fit-Tareekh, Dar ul-Kutub
Al-Ilmiyyah, Beirut, 1987.

Ibn Ishaaq, As-Seerah An-Nabawiyyah Li-Ibn Ishaaq,
Dar-ul-Kutub- Al-Ilmiyyah, Beirut, 2004.

Ibn Jareer, At-Tabari, Tareekh At-Tabari, Dar-ul-
Maaarif, Egypt.

Ibn Hishaam, Seeratun-Nabi LiIbn Hishaam, Dar-us-
Sahaabah Li-Turath, Tanta, Egypt, 1995.

Ibn Katheer, Al-Bidaayah wan-Nihaayah, Dar Hajr,
Egypt.

Mahdi Rizq ALLAH Ahmad, As-Seerah An-
Nabawiyyah Fi Daw Al-Masaadir Al-Asliyyah, King
Saud Univ., 1992.

Sameer Abdul Azeez Mannesi, Islaam Najaashi Al-
Habashi, Dar ul-Fikr Al-Arabi, 2001.

Sayyid ibn Saadiq Al-Wullu, Manhal al-Atshaan Fi
Tareekh Al-Habshaan, Addis Abbaba, 2001.







PART 3: IN DEFENSE
OF MONOTHEISM



























o The true followers of Jesus spread the teachings of Tawheed to the East and
the South of Palestine after his demise. They were known as the Nazarenes for
they maintained the Law of Moses, confirmed the Oneness of ALLAH and the
Prophethood of Jesus, the son of Mary. For this, they were persecuted by the
Roman Empire.

o Another group of the followers of Jesus adopted the teachings of Paul who
had not been a follower of Jesus yet claimed the witnessed Christ on the
Damascus road. Paul claimed that the teachings were not exclusive to Jews and
that is not necessary to follow the Law of Moses. His followers were called
Christians and his doctrine lead to the divinity of Christ and the Crucifixion
concept.

o By 312 A.D, when the power of Rome was centered in Constantinople,
Constantine became Emperor and set out to unify Christianity and extend the
power of the empire. He united the Sabbath of the church with the pagan day of
worship, Sun-Day and adopted the cross, a pagan symbol, as the official
symbol of Christendom.

o The teachings of Jesus as preserved by the Nazarenes had spread far and wide
and by the 4
th
Century were lead by Arius, a Libyan priest. He refused to accept
the innovations of Paul and declared openly that Jesus was a Prophet and a
human being. These views were not acceptable to the official Roman church that
still maintained the divinity of Christ, the Trinity, the original sin and the
Crucifixion.

o Constantine tried to unite the two divisions of Christianity but to no avail. He
called a council of all the Bishops of Christendom in 325 A.D. It resulted in the
acceptance of the doctrine of the Trinity as the true doctrine of orthodox
Christianity. The four gospels of the New Testament, none of them eye-witness
accounts were given official status. All other accounts of Jesus were either
banned or put into hiding.

o After the Council of Nicaea, possession of any other Gospel was officially
considered an offense. The Unitarians were labeled as Heretics and over one
and a half million were killed. Arius, himself, was poisoned and died in
Constantinople in 336 A.D. The official Roman Catholic Church had become
subservient to the Roman Emperor and the imperial designs of the Empire.

o Despite the widespread persecution, the Unitarians (or Arians) were able to
survive and permeate the populations of Syria, Palestine and North Africa.
According to the Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu, there were three types of
Christians in Egypt in the early 7
th
Century: the Roman Catholics, The Egyptians
Coptics and the Arians.

o The Prophets Letter to the Romans:
In the Name of ALLAH , The Beneficent, the Merciful
From Muhammad, the Messenger of ALLAH to Heraclius,
the Emperor of Rome.

Peace be upon he who follows the guidance. As to what follows: Verily I invite you
with the Call of Islam. Accept Islam and you will saved. Accept Islam and ALLAH will
give you two rewards. If you turn away, then yo will be accountable for the sins of the
Areesiyeen (Arians).

Say (O Muhammad SAW): "O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians):
Come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but
Allah, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall
take others as lords besides Allah. Then, if they turn away, say: "Bear
witness that we are Muslims."
[Surat AleImran: 64]


o Islams first northern bridgehead in Africa was Egypt where a comparatively
small Muslim force led by Amr ibn Al Aas was able to overthrow the
unpopular and foreign Byzantine ruler. They were assisted by the local
Christians (Coptic and Arian) who played a critical role in the victory.

o Amr was visited by representatives of the Berber people who wanted to
enter Islam. They were sent to the Khalifah Umar ibn Al-Khattab who
welcomed them and shed tears when they described themselves. Umar
declared that the Prophet had prophesied the opening of the lands of
people of this description.

o Under the Caliphate, Islam spread rapidly among the masses of the people
and soon became the leading religion of the lower Nile.

o The struggle against Roman oppression and domination continued and
Muslim forces continued Westward along the Mediterranean coast. They
met stronger resistance as they advanced. Byzantine armies attacked from
the coast and pagan Berber tribes descended from the mountains.

o Uqbah ibn Nafi, leader of the Muslim forces, established Qayrawaan
(Kairouan) in 670 A.D. as the spiritual and operational capital of Islam iin
North Africa. It was strategically located in the desert in order to prevent
attacks from the mountains or the sea.

o Qayrawaan later became the seat of Islamic authority in the region and the
educational centre of learning.

o Great scholars, especially of the Maliki school of thought, formulated their
ideas in the spacious Masjid Uqbah ibn Nafi. Important decisions were
made by the Western leaders of Islam in these courtyards.

o The spread of Islam in Africa was independent of the military confrontations
and a result of migration, trade, and the wandering of scholars and holy men.

o Non-Arab peoples who adopted or came in contact with Islam became
familiar with Arabic as a language of religion and trade and scholarship.

o In 705, Hassan ibn Numan founded Tunis and the areas became known as
Ifriqiyyah.













SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER
READING

Ibn Khaldun, Tareekh Ibn Khaldun,
Dar ul-Fikr, Beirut, 2001.

Khan, Muhammad Moljum, The
Muslim 100, Kube Publishing Ltd.,
Leicestershire, U.K., 2008.

Sulaiman, Faadil, Ad-Difaa an-Nafs
min Dawaafi Fath Al-Muslimeen
LiMisr, M.A. Thesis, American Open
University, 2008.

Thomson, Ahmad, Ataur Rahman,
Muhammad, For Christs Sake, Taha
Publishers, London, 1989.






















PART 4: AFRICAN/
MUSLIM PRESENCE
IN EUROPE


















o In 708 A.D., Musa ibn Nusair was appointed governor of the Western lands of
Islam (North Africa). He succeeded in consolidating Islamic rule throughout the
region and presented Islam to the Berber people. As a result, the Berbers,
especially the former Arians, entered Islam in droves and the teachings of
monotheism reigned supreme.

o Qayrawaan remained the capital of Western Muslims and the seat of Islamic
educational and spiritual authority.

o In contrast, across the Mediterranean Sea, the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and
Portugal) lay in the darkness of tyranny and oppression. The reigning Visigoth
ruler Roderick subjugated the masses, enriched the elite and spread
Trinitarianism throughout the land,

o King Roderick ruthlessly punished the Jewish population with the approval and
support of the Catholic Church.

o The people of Iberia began to call for land reform and an equal distribution of
wealth. As this call for liberation from the despotic rule of the Trinitarians
intensified, Musa ibn Nusair pondered the idea of launching an assault from the
south.

o Ilyan (Julian), the Christian governor of Ceuta (in Morocco) who had accepted
Islamic sovereignty, met with Musa in Qayrawaan and encouraged him to
liberate the Iberian Peninsula from Visigoth rule. Ilyans daughter had been
violated by King Roderick in the Visigoth capital, Toledo, during her stay in Spain.

o In 711 A.D., Musa sent his general Tariq ibn Ziyaad who used boats provided by
Ilyan and motivated his small force to assault the armies of Roderick, and begin
the liberation of the peninsula with the promises of the help of ALLAH and
paradise.

o Tariq landed at Gibraltar that now takes his name (Jabal Tariq) and succeeded in
defeating Rodericks huge army of over 100,000 men with only 12,000 soldiers.
This victory opened the door for the rest of the peninsula and Tariq swiftly
conquered a large part of Iberia before retiring to Toledo.

o In 712 A.D., Musa crossed the straits with a large army and opened up a number
of major cities. Everywhere, the Muslim armies went; they treated the locals as
equals and ruled with justice and fairness. As a result of their exemplary
behavior, large numbers of people entered into Islam.

o Musa and Tariq stayed in Al-Andalus for three years, liberating the cities and
spreading Islam far and wide. All but the mountainous corner of the northwest
remained out of their reach. They would have continued on to Damascus via
Europe if the Caliph had not halted their march.

o For the next forty years, the people of Al-Andalus enjoyed their new freedom
and lived under leadership chosen by Damascus, Qayrawaan and sometimes
themselves. They needed a force to unite their land and consolidate their
identity.

o In 755 A.D., Abdur-Rahman ibn Muaawiya arrived in Al-Andalus fleeing Abbasid
persecution. The people rallied behind his leadership and appointed him Amir.
The Falcon of Al-Andalus united the country and ruled for 32 years,

o Abdur-Rahman made Cordoba his capitl and throughout his life embellished Al-
Andalus with aqueducts, gardens, hospitals, schools, public baths and a vast
amount of public works. He purchased the cathedral of Cordoba for 100,000
dinars and began the building of the Grand Mosque of Cordoba, the largest
house of worship in Western Europe.

o As its height around 1000 A.D., Cordoba had over 200,000 houses, 600 mosques,
900 public baths, 50 hospitals, and several large markets that catered for all
branches of trade and commerce, including 15,000 weavers! The streets were lit
for 10 miles in any direction, an innovation that took London and Paris 700 years
in achieve!

o Al-Andalus became the most populous, cultured and industrious land of all
Europe and remained so for centuries. Jews and Christians lived side by side with
their Muslim rulers and flourished culturally, economically, and educationally.










SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Adil SAeed Bashtaawi, Al-Andalusiyeen Al-
Mawaarikah, Cairo, 2001.

Isaam-ud Deen AlFaqi, Tareekh Al-Maghrib
wa-Al-Andalus, Cairo, 2001.

Shakir Mustapha, Al-Andalus fi-Tareekh,
Ministry of Culture, Damascus Syria, 1990.

Thomson, Ahmad, Islam in Andalus, Taha
Publishers, London, 1996.










PART 5: RISE AND
FALL OF
CIVILIZATION





o The arrival of Muslims marked, not only a fresh start for Spain but for the
whole of Europe. Through Islamic Spain, Muslims introduced concepts of
tolerance, civil society, arts, sciences, mathematics and philosophy that
Europe had never seen before. It was the start of a new Renaissance in
civilization that we are still benefitting from today.

o In 912 A.D., Abdur-Rahman III took over the leadership of Al-Andalus and
ruled for 50 years. He abolished all of the taxes that were contrary to Islamic
law, encouraged agriculture and trade and laid the foundation of national
prosperity.

o After securing the borders of the country, he began the project of building an
amazing complex of palaces and garden called Madinat-az-Zahra. It was
considered to be one of the wonders of the world at that time.

o In 976 A.D., Muhammad ibn Aamir, known as Al-Mansur, established his
authority as Caliph and built another incredible palace called Az-Zaahira on
ISLAMIC REVIVAL IN AL-ANDALUS AND NORTH AFRICA

the banks of the Guadalquivir river in Cordoba. Both palaces were eventually
destroyed in civil wars.

o The body politic of the Muslims divided and divided again. Within fifteen
years of Al-Mansurs death, the whole of Al-Andalus was carved up into
numerous small kingdoms, each with its own ruler. They fought amongst
themselves, often enlisting the aid of the Trinitarian Christians, who were
only too happy to oblige.

o An over abundance of wealth, squabbling over power, tribalism and
abandonment of the Sunnah lead to internal corruption and an imminent
attack by the forces of the Trinitarian north.

o Around 1039-49, Abdullah Ibn Yasin, a teacher from the Dar-al Murabitun
school of the Souss region of Morocco under the guidance of the scholars of
Qayrawaan, influenced the Berber tribes of the Sanhaja and the Lamtuna to
unite and embrace a strict form of Islamic Practice.

o The Murabitun movement immediately found support from the settled
populations of North and West Africa. They took control of much of the
Sahara region and under the leadership of Abu Bakr ibn Umar made
Marrakesh as their capital.

o Ibn Yasin went south and established Ribats on the rivers of West Africa. He
was killed in battle in the southern Sahara but the movement continued to
expand.

o In 1061, Yusuf ibn Tashfin, a leader of the Lamtuna, was appointed Amir of
Morocco. He was tireless, austere leader who gained the unshakeable
allegiance of his followers.

o In 1086, Yusuf ibn Tashfin, responded to a call for aid from Al-Mutamid, the
ruler of Seville, who had been forced to pay tribute to Trinitarian Christian
rulers. When asked about the danger of bringing the Murabitun to Al-
Andalus, he replied, Better to be a camel driver than a swine-herd.

o In response to Al-Mutamid, Ibn Tashfin sent a huge army to Al-Andalus and
decisively defeated the Christian ruler Alfonso IV at Sagrajas. He returned
with his troops to Africa.

o In 1088, Ibn Tashfin was called again to repulse the Christian advance. The
Murabitun were victorious but after a third landing in 1090, they took control
of the whole of Muslim Andalus themselves. The Muslim rulers become
corrupt, divided and treacherous.

o The Murabitun were meticulous in their practice of the Quran and Sunnah
and based their movement on three aspects: Calling people to righteousness,
repelling injustice and forbidding any taxation not permitted by the Shariah.

o They gained control of Southern Spain, North Africa and across the Sahara
desert. When they established justice and adhered to the Quran and the
Sunnah, they were successful and maintained control over a vast expense of
land. When they succumbed to the enjoyments of the world and became
corrupt, their rule came to an end. The cycle of rule, spoken about by Ibn
Khaldun in his Muqaddimah, came to pass.

o Around 1121, the Muwahhidun movement was formed in the Atlas
Mountains of Morocco by Muhammad ibn Tumart. He was a Berber from the
Masmuda tribe, who later became known as Al Mahdi. He based his
movement on Tawheed and sought to purify Islam in North Africa and Al-
Andalus.

o Ibn Tumart died in 1130, but his successor Abdul Mumin Ali conquered
most of Muslim North Africa and Al Andalus. The dying Murabitun empire
was revived and Islam was able to flourish once more among the population
of Southern Spain and North Africa.

o Al-Muwahhidun ruled all of southern Spain and North Africa until their
decline around 1212 A.D. The south was gradually lost except Granada that
held out as the stronghold of Andalusian Muslims till 1492 A.D.

o Al-Andalus and the Islamic civilization that shone in its lands for over 700
years is one of the clearest examples of the importance of practicing Islam in
all spheres of life. Even Muslims who establish Islamic societies are subjected
to the rise and fall of nations that has plagued society all over the planet.

















































PART 6: ACROSS THE
SAHARA DESERT TO
WEST AFRICA












o In 734 A.D., the Amir of Ifriqiyyah sent out trade mission to cross the Sahara.
They found large amounts of gold originating in well-protected mines below the
Niger River of West Africa.

o Wells were dug along the major traditional trade routes. Trans-Saharan
commerce began to flourish at an unprecedented level.

o The knowledge of early West Africa is almost completely dependant on historical
writings in the Arabic language. In the 8
th
century, Al Fazari indicated the
existence of the state of Ghana, The Land of Gold.

o In 1068, the Andalusina geographer, Al-Bakris book, Books and Routes, gives us
a detailed picture of trade and politics in the Western Sudan. He brought
valuable information about three powerful states: Ghana, Takrur, and Gao.

o The capital of Ghana included a Muslim town and a royal town. The two were
separated. This allowed each group to maintain and practice different religious
LESSONS IN ISLAMIZATION
rites that may have been offensive to the other group. The Muslims served the
King as scribes, accountants, trade advisors and translators. They benefitted
society and the non-Muslim ruler gave them autonomy and protection. This
relationship of tolerance and autonomy is the basis of a mutual co-existence
where Islam can spread peacefully.

o There is no solid evidence of a conquest of Ghana by the Almoravids (Al-
Murabitun) but according to Az-Zuhri and Al-Bakri, Ghana came under the
influence of Al Murabitun when they penetrated the Sahara region. After their
entry into Ghana, the kind remained in place and Al-Murabitun focused on
spreading Islam and calling to righteousness.

o In 1150, Al Idrisi, writing in Sicily, presented a picture of Takrur as a strong
Islamic empire. The ruler had become a Muslim around 1040 A.D.

o Takrur, a Wolof/Berber state was won over completely to Islam by its King War
Jabi (died in 1040). Takrur represented a state that demanded the practice of
Islam in all spheres. There was no compromise with un-Islamic lifestyle and
practices. Non-Muslims could live within the state but Islam had to be dominant.

o The King of Gao, on the other hand, was describes as a Muslim whose royal
emblem was Islamic but whose subjects, for the most part, still worshipped Idols.
In addition to this, pre-Islamic customs abounded and were practiced along side
Islamic lifestyle. This approach not only allowed for the existence of the two
systems, but also integrated their practices into the dominant way of life.

o These three forms of co-existence between Muslims and people of other faiths
became the basis of Islamic movements in West Africa and in some cases, the
foundations of dynastic rule.

o Even today, Muslim minorities are faced with varying circumstances and evolving
societies.












SUGESSTIONS FOR
FURTHER READING

Ali Kettani, Rihlah Ibn
Battuta, Muassassah
Ar-Risaalah, Beirut,
1990.

As-Saadi, Tareekh As-
Sudan, Libraire
DAmerique et DOrient,
Paris 1981.

Clarke, Peter West
Africa and Islam,
London, 1982.


































PART 7: ISLAM IN
ANCIENT MALI
























o Islam reached the Mandinka in the 11
th
century but in the 13
th
century, the King
of Mallel accepted Islam. Al-Bakri wrote about this encounter where a Muslim
cleric succeeded in convincing the King to believe in One God, ALLAH ,
through prayer and a miracle.

o Sunjata Keita (Mari Jata), a hunter, magician and nominal Muslim united the
Mandinka and defeated Sumanguru of the Susu. He became the founder og the
Mali nation that was named after the hippopotamus, the largest creature in the
river.

o Mali transformed from a small Mandinka (Malinke) kingdom into a multi-ethnic
empire with its expansion from the upper Niger eastward and into Sahel.

o Through control of the Saharan trade, Mali kings could also perform pilgrimage
to Makkah and come in contact with the wider Muslim world.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TIMBUKTU
o Mansa Uli made pilgrimage to Makkah and expanded Mali to include Walata,
Gao, and Timbuktu.

o Mansa Sulayman (ruled 1337-1359 A.D.) built mosques and strengthened Islamic
culture throughout the empire. Ibn Battuta visited Mali during his reign and was
impressed by the security, the concern for the study of the Quran and the
elaborate public observance of the Friday prayer (Jumuah).

o Mansa Musa made pilgrimage to Makkah in 1324 A.D. He carried so mch gold
with him that he changed the economy of every country that he entered.

o He was described in Cairo as a pious man who strictly observed his prayers and
recitation of the blessed Quran. He was hosted by the Bahri Mamlukes of Egypt
who escorted his entourage through the Arabian peninsula to the holy sites.

o On his return, Mansa Musa brought back books, scholars, architects, and
missionaries. He built mosques and empowered Muslims wherever he was able
too.

o On arriving in Timbuktu, Mansa Musa found an empire of knowledge called
Timbuktu and paid special attention to develop it.

o Timbuktu was founded by a Tuareg client woman who needed a mosquito-free
base to protect the goods of her nomadic clients. She dug a well, some 12
kilometers (8 miles) north of the Niger River floodplain along the southern edge
of the Sahara. This small, seemingly insignificant campsite, known as Tin-Buktu
or the place (or well) of Buktu became the cornerstone of the thriving, bustling
city.

o It provided a natural meeting place for the Tuareg, the Arabs, the Wangara, the
Songhai, the Soninke, and the Fulani, as well as a central marketplace for the
gold of the south and the salt and goods of the Mediterranean.

o A symbiotic relationship formed between the merchants and the tent dwelling
Tuareg. Soon the mosques and madrasahs appeared as traders and scholars
began to flock to the city.

o Mansa Musa, on his return from Makkah commissioned his chief architect, the
Andalusian Abu Ishaq As-Saheli to build the largest house of worship in the
whole of West Africa and a spacious royal palace. The grand mosque called
Jingarey Ber or Al-Masjid Al-Kabir is still standing and has been the primary site
for Friday prayers in Timbuktu since that time!

o Timbuktu later became a centre of learning and a producer and exporter of rarae
and valuable Islamic books. Famous Muslim travelers like Ibn Battuta and Hassan
al-Wazzan (Leo Africanus) visited Timbuktu and were amazed at the high level of
scholarship and the insatiable love for the study of the Arabic language and the
blessed Quran.

o Hassan al-Wazzan wrote:

Hither are brought diverse manuscripts or written books, which are sold for more
money than any other merchandise.

o At the height of the citys golden age in the 16
th
century, Timbuktu boasted over
150 schools and a major university at the Sankore Mosque that enrolled over
25,000 students.

o Timbuktu also became a principal staging point along the pilgrimage rou to
Makkah and thus, became a central point of scholars and travelers to the
Middle East and a perfect base for the dissemination of Islamic knowledge and
ideas. Thousands of manuscripts were stored in private collections and coped by
local scribes for use in the many institutes of learning.

o Today many of these great works have been unearthed from private collections
and stored documentations center. The most famous is the Ahmad Baba Center
for Documentation which began its collection around 1970 and now become
one of the chief cultural projects of the African Union.

o Timbuktu with its thousands of manuscripts and its deep legacy destroys racist
notions of Black inferiority and educational backwardness. Timbuktu gives solid
proof of a powerful African past and an unbroken chain of African scholarship.

o Timbuktu also brings out Islams great legacy of development in Africa and its
proper place in the annals of African achievement. Its well preserved lessons of
spirituality and peacemaking may very well hold some of the answers to todays
complex problems of war and never ending conflict.










SUGGESTIONS FOR
FURTHER
READING

Kati, Mahmud,
Tareekh al-
Fattash, (Ed. And
Trans.O. Hondas
and M. Delafosse)
Paris 1964.

Levtzion,
Nehemia, Ancient
Ghana and Mali,

































ISLAM IN THE FAR WEST



PART 8: THE GOLDEN
AGE OF ISLAMIC
CIVILIZATION



o The term Black Ages is usually used to describe an era that spanned some 1000
years between 400-1500 A.D. Undoubtedly, Europe had sunken into a state of
ignorance, barbarism and gloom but this territory only constituted a small
portion of the known world.

o The world of Islam experienced a Golden Age of discovery and achievement
between 622-1492 A.D. The message of Tawheed had spread from Arabia to
chine in the east, the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Russian steppers in the
north and the East Africa coast in the south within 100 years! Society after
society Islam without compulsion and remained that way for hundreds of years.
This is a phenomenon unparalleled in history.

o The concept of Tawheed (monotheism and unity) after confirming the unity of
God, united humanity into one single family and considered knowledge as a
blessing wherever it was encountered.

o Muslims possessed something unheard of in the 7
th
century-open minds. They
not only stumbled upon the teachings of the ancient societies as they traveled
throughout the earth but they searched for it! Within a short period of time,
they were able to recover much of the earliest sources of wisdom of human
civilization. They assembled the writings of the ancient Egyptians, Indians,
Syrians, Persians, Greeks and other people.

o Storehouses of knowledge were found in libraries in Alexandria, Constantinople
and in the dust of monasteries and temples.

o These scholarly writings were translated and often assimilated into Islamic
thought. Most of this translation occurred in a 200 year period spanning the 9-
11
th
centuries. In some cases, Muslim rulers paid translators the weight of the
book in gold as an incentive. The most prestigious center of learning was
Baghdads Bayt ul-Hikmah that led the way in the 800s.

o Muslim scientists from all over the world gathered together with scholars from
Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, Jewish and even Zoroastrian background in the halls
of Baghdad, Cordoba, Cairo and other centers of Islam. They developed the
scientific method and perfected it by performing precise experiments based on
their own theories and those of the ancients.

o Most history books entirely omit contributions made by the Muslim scholars
during this period but an objective look at the sources of modern science and
scholarship will show that only did the Muslims preserve ancient knowledge but
they also laid down the foundations of modern thought.

o Some of the sciences originated by Muslims are as follows: Algebra, Anesthesia,
Biology, Botany, Cardiology, Chemistry, Dermatology, Embryology, Emergency
Medicine, Geology, Metallurgy, Modern Surgery, Modern Medicine, Modern
Arithmetic, Optics, Parasitology, Pharmacology, Pulmonary Medicine, Toxicology,
and Urology.

o Sciences advanced by Muslims: Acoustics, Agronomy, Anatomy, Calculus,
Electrochemistry, Engineering, Genetics, Geometry, Geophysics, Meteorology,
Physics, Taxonomy, Thermodynamics and Zoology.

o Latin names of some of the famous Muslim scholars: Averroes (Ibn Rushd),
Avenzoar (Ibn Zuhr), Avincenna (Ibn Sina), Alpetragius (Al-Bitruji), Alhazen (Al-
Haytham), Alkindi (Al-Kindi), Albucasis (Az-Zahrawi), Algorismus (Al-Khwaruzimi),
Albategnius (Al-Battani), Rhases (Ar-Razi), Jabir (Jabir bin Hayyan), Omar
Khayyam (Umar Al-Khayyam).

o Some of substances and devices introduced to Europe by Muslims: Pendulums,
cotton, paper, glass, mirrors, crystal, street lamps, colored glass, satin, pepper,
paper money, postage stamps, book bindings, clocks, soap, astrolabes,
compasses, slide rules, flasks, surgical instruments, windmills, artificial teeth,
spinning wheels (for textiles), globes, citrus, fruits, eye glasses, porcelain, gun
powder, cables (shipping), velvet, almanacs, encyclopedias, saddles, and leather
shoes.

o In the 1930s, Walt Taylor recorded approximately 1,000 English words of Arabic
origin. Some of these words are as follows: admiral (amir-al-bahr) alcohol (al-
quhul), alcove (al-qubba), algebra (al-jabr), algorithm (al-Kawarizimi) almanac (al-
manaakh), amber (anbar), arsenal (dar sinaah), assassin (hashasheen), caliber
(qalib), camphor (kafur), cheque (sakk), chemistry (al-kimiya), cotton (qutn),
lemon (leymun), magazine (makhaazin), mattress (matrah), mansoon (mawsim),
sugar (sukkar), syrup (sharab), typhoon (tufaan), and zero (sifr).

o The scholars of Europe recognized the achievements of the Muslims and began
to frantically translate their works. Thousands of Latin renditions were produced
mainly in the 13
th
-15
th
centuries.

o This massive transfer of knowledge came about because there were European
scholars who stayed in Islamic Spain. Gerard of Cremona (A.D.1187) spent many
years in Toledo and translated over 90 Arabic works in Latin. This included
Ptolemys Almagest and Ibn Sinas Canon of Medicine. In addition to this, paper
manufacturing had been introduced into Europe and Christian armies succeeded
in capturing cities like Toledo by the 11
th
century. They found the works intact
and relied on Spanish Jews to carry out translations.

o European scholars made great contributions to science and literature but to omit
the Islamic achievements of this age is one the greatest deceptions in history
(HIS-STORY!)










SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER
READING

Arjam, K, The Miracles of Islamic
Science, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA,
1992.

Al-Djazairi, S.E., The Hidden Debt to
Islamic Civilisation, Bayt Al-Hikma
Press, Oxford, 2005.

Al-Djazairi, S.E., The Golden Age of
Decline of Islamic Civilsation, Bayt Al-
Hikma Press, Oxford, 2005

Ahmad, Nafis, Muslim Contributions
to Geography, Lahore, Sh.M Ashraf
Publications.



































PART 9: MUSLIM
PRESENCE IN THE
AMERICAS






















o Astronomy was one of the first sciences Muslim scholars were attracted too. The
importance of the direction of Makkah as the Qiblah of prayer and the place of
the Pilgrimage made all Muslims concerned with direction and their relationship
with the heavens.

BEFORE COLOMBUS
o During the Golden Age of Isla, Astronomy became a precise science for the first
rime. Muslim astronomers understood that the spherical shaped earth rotated
on its axis and revolved around the sun.

o In 830 A.D. Caliph Al-Mamun of Baghdad, who established Bayt-ul-Hikmah,
commissioned his astronomers to study the findings of Ptolemy, Greeces
greatest astronomer. On of his staff, Al-Farghani, published a book that became
the main authority for Astronomy in Western Asia and Europe for nearly 700
years!

o Muslim scientists mastered the art of the production of astronomical
instruments such as the astrolabe, quadrants, sextants, and armillaris of various
types. Even European explorers like Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Magellan
used Islamic astrolabes and often had Muslims to operate them.

o Muslim accomplishments in Geography were staggering as geographers of Islam
wrote thousands of pages about the lands and people of the world. They
published the worlds first almanacs, atlases and encyclopedias as well as
producing complex road maps and globes. Perhaps their most astounding
achievement was the development of the magnetic needle that led to the first
true compass.

o During this era, the whole of Europe believed that the earth was flat and those
who tried to prove otherwise were persecuted, tortured, imprisoned and
executed.

o In the 10
th
century, a brilliant scholar and traveler from Baghdad, Abul Hasan Ali
Al-Masudi, travelled throughout the known world reaching southern Africa,
India, China, and Korea. In his famous book, Maruj-adh-Dhahab wa Maadin al-
Jawhar (The Meadows of gold and Quarries of Jewels), he intimately described
the countries that he had seen. He also drew a map of the world in 957 A.D. that
showed an unknown territory that could be the Americas.

o Abu Abdullah Muhammad Al-Idrisi, the top cartographer of the Golden Age
made an accurate globe of the world in the 12
th
century for Roger II, the King of
Sicily. He had also determined the sources of the Nile River and the cause of its
floods. He was the first geographer to apply scientific methods to the study of
the topography of the earth.

o Ibn Battuta, the greatest traveler in history, covered 75,000 miles at a time when
there was no advanced method to travel. In 1325, he left his home in Tangiers,
Morocco and stayed on the road for 30 years, recording societies in the remotest
parts of the world.

o Muslims were also great navigators and controlled the worlds shipping industry
for over five hundred years. They developed the lateen sail, modern rudders,
and made possible deep-water explorations. Yet, almost no mention is made in
European history books of this amazing contribution to human civilization.

o Around 965 A.D., Al-Masudi wrote about the journey of a young man of
Cordoba, named Khashkhash ibn Saeed ibn Aswad. He had sailed into the
Atlantic and made contact with people with on the other side. He returned in the
year 889 A.D.

o Abu Bakr ibn Umar Al-Qutiyya wrote about Ibn Farrukh who visited the Canary
Islands in 888 A.D. and then returned.

o In the 12
th
century, Al-Idrisi described in his extensive work, Kitab al-Mamaalik
wal-masaalik, a group of 8 seafarers who left Lisbon and entered the Atlantic
Ocean. They were caught in turbulence and were eventually captured and
brought to a King who had an Arabic translator who told them the journey home
would take 2 months.

o In 1517 A.D., Piri Reis, a famous Turkish Navigator, presented to the Ottoman
Sultan Selim I, an astonishing map that depicted the accurate latitude and
longitude between Africa and South America. It also had details of the South
American coastline.

o A report in Before Columbus by Cyrus Gordon described coins found in the
southern Caribbean region: off the coast of Venezuela was discovered a hoard
of Mediterranean coins with so many duplicates that it cannot be a
numismatists collection. But rather a supply of cash. Nearly all the coins are
Roman, from the reign of Augustus to the 4
th
century A.D. Two of the coins
however are Arabic of the 8
th
century.

o It is the latter that gives us the terminus a quo (i.e. time after which) of the
collection as a whole (which cannot be earlier than the latest coins in the
collection). Roman coins continued in use as currency into the medieval times.
A Moorish ship, perhaps from Spain or North Africa seems to have crossed the
Atlantic around 800 A.D.

o Muslims were using the current to cross the ocean. Thor Heyerdahl, the
Norwegian scientist crossed the Atlantic from Safi, Morocco and landed in
Barbados in the West Indies in the 1960s, thereby proving that pre-Columbus
crossings were possible.
















































SUGGESTIONS FOR
FURTHER READING

Gordon, Cyrus,
Before Columbus,
Crown Publisher,
N.Y. 1971.

Quick, Abdullah
Hakim, Deeper
Roots, Muslims in
the Americas and
the Caribbean from
before Columbus to
the present, (3
rd

Edition) Cape Town,
South Africa 2007.

Van Sertima, Ivan,
African Presence in
Early America,
Journal of African
Civilization, 1987.

Weiner, Leo, Africa
and the Discovery of
America, Innes and
Sons, Philadelphia,
1920.


PART 10: AFRICAN/
MUSLIM PRESENCE
IN THE AMERICAS



















o In 1324 A.D., when the emperor of Mali, Mansa Musa, made his famous
pilgrimage to Makkah, he was interviewed by the informant of the well k own
geographer, Al-Umari wrote in his work, Masaalik al-Abrar fi Mamaalik al-
Amsar, that Mansa Musas predecessor desired to discover the limits of the
neighboring sea, so he outfitted 2,000 ships, a thousand for his men and a
thousand for his water and supplies and ventured into the Atlantic. He never
returned to Africa.

BEFORE COLOMBUS
o Examination of inscriptions found in Brazil, Peru and the United States, as well as
linguistic, cultural and archaeological finds offer documented evidence of the
presence of African Muslims in the early Americas. (See A.H. Quick, Deeper
Roots).

o Alexander Von Wthenau, professor of Art History at Mexico City College from
1939-1965 put together a series of terracotta figures, masks, pottery and other
items that clearly showed the presence of Western African Muslims before
Columbus.

o The early Mandinka explorers were undoubtedly carrying large amounts of gold
with them. Gold trade with the Americas is established through gold analysis,
linguistic findings and eyewitness reports. In a description given by Christopher
Columbus himself, the Native people of the Caribbean called gold, guanine
(similar to the Mandinka Kanine or Ghanin). The gold was found to be of 32
parts: 18 of gold, 6 of silver and 18 of copper. This was a common West African
alloy dating back to the 13
th
century.

o In The Journal of the Third Voyage, Columbus also noted that the Indians
brought handkerchiefs of cotton, very symmetrically woven and worked in
colours like those brought from Guinea.

o In Panama, the Mandinka had such an impact, that they were classified as part of
the indigenous people of the area (Mandingas and Tule). In 1513 A.D., Balboa
found Black people in Panama that he described as entirely like the Blacks of
Guinea.

o In Honduras and Nicaragua the African Muslims were described as Jaras and
Guabas (West African names). One tribe called themselves Almamys (from
Imam).

o Actually, Spanish conquistadors found African people all over the Caribbean
region. Some were identified as Black Caribs or Garifuna a distinct
indigenous group.

o Some European scholars insisted that these Black Caribs were the result of black
slaves mixed with the local native population but this argument could not
explain their presence before the slavery period.

o The Garifuna people in Central America have maintained a number of Islamic
practices like avoiding the eating of pork and retaining their own African based
language.

o Many more clear proofs would probably have been found among the Native
populations had it not been for the Spanish scorched earth policy of destroying
all writings and remnants of Native culture.

o After surveying a growing number of archaeological, linguistic and historical
proofs for the presence of Muslims in the Americas before Columbus, the
researcher becomes aware of a massive cover-up.

o Vasco da Gama is reported to have consulted Ahmad ibn Majid on the West
coast of Africa. Ibn Majid is regarded as the author of a handbook on navigations
of the Indian Ocean, the Read Sea, the Arabian Gulf, the South China Sea and the
waters around the West Indies.

o Columbus was, therefore, not the discoverer of America but merely a pretender
who mimicked the voyages of earlier explorers and began a dark period of
colonialism and genocide that is still plaguing the world.



























SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Columbus, Ferdinand, The Life of Admiral Christopher Columbus, Trans
and annotated by Benjamin keen, Rutgers University Press, 1959.

Taylor, Douglas M., The Black CArib of British Honduras, Wenner-Gren
Foundation for Anthropological Research Inc., N.Y., 1951.

Von Wuthenau, Alexander, Unexpected Faces in Ancient America, Crown
Publishers, N.Y., 1975.

Williams, Eric, From Columbus to Castro, the History of the Caribbean
1492-1969, Andre-Deutsch Ltd, London, 1970.

PART 11: MUSLIM
PRESENCE IN EARLY
AMERICA






















o During the Catholic conquest of Al-Andalus, the Spanish Inquisition, an organized
genocide began in 1493 A.D.

o In the conquered areas, any sign of Islam could lead to death at a burning stake.
The famous case of Elvira, the Christian, who did not eat pork, changed her
linens on Saturday and was burned at the stake, was a good example.

AFTER COLOMBUS
o Some scholars estimate that 2 million Jews and 3 million Muslims were killed.
Hundreds and thousands were also driven out of their homes and exiled.

o Muslims were labeled Moors, from Maurus or dark-skinned in Latin. Those who
submitted and became slaves and servants were known as Mudejares (sevile,
domesticated or imposters). The Muslims who were baptized were known as
Moriscos (Chrisitan Moors) and the Jews called Morenos.

o Special badges, separate facilities and special clothes were assigned to these
people. Moriscos remained tailors, silversmiths and artisans.

o By 1412 A.D., over 100,000 books were burnt in Spain and over a million were
destroyed by the time of the final conquest.

o The Islamic response to this oppression was based on Jihad and Hijra. Those who
could not leave were encouraged to resist silently.

o A fatwa from the Mufti of Wahran, Ahmad Bu Jumuah Al-Maghraawi in 1504
A.D., allowed Islamic compulsory acts to be done indirectly like Tayammum done
with a tap on the wall, Salah made with the eyes or Zakah given as a gift.

o Refugees from Al-Andalus spread all over the Muslim world, especially North
Africa. Many refugees became Barbary pirates, slaves or artisans on the boats
sent to the new world.

o The colonization of the Americas by the Spanish was an extension of the
Reconquista (so-called reconquest) of the Iberian Peninsula. The early explorers
were in many cases, Spanish soldiers who had fought in Spain and Africa and
sailed the seas to destroy the power of Islam.

o They recognized the influence of Islam wherever they journeyed and did
everything to convert people to Catholicism. When Hernan Cortes (the
conqueror of Mexico) arrived in Yucatan, he named the area El Cairo.

o During the rule of Ferdinand, the Catholic, in spite of excesses against Islam in
Spain, some of the Moriscos, who traveled to the Americas as explorers, soldiers
and laborers, began practicing their true faith and succeeded in propagating
Islam among the Indians.

o On July 31, 1502 A.D., a Spanish ship in the Caribbean reported a strange 40 ft
long Moorish ship with 40 men and women dressed Moorish attire. The woman
covered their faces.

o In 1566 A.D., the Spanish established St Elena, South Carolina. It was captured by
the English in 1567 CE and its inhabitants, many of whom were Moriscos fled
into the mountains of North Carolina.

o In 1586 A.D., Sir Francis Drake with 30 ships raided the Portuguese in Brazil and
freed 300 Moorish galley slaves. He left them on Roanoke Island in America.

o By 1654 A.D., reports of breaded Portuguese silversmiths were appearing. They
were said to drop to their knees many times daily to pray.

o In 1784 A.D., Tennessee Governor John Sevier met with these people. In the
early 1700s, Jonathan Swift, an Englishman, married a Makkah Indian.

o A people called Melungeons (In Turkish, people whose life has been cursed)
were identified in Appalachian region of the USA.

o In 1990 A.D., Dr. James Guthrie found that the blood samples of these people
were the same as the population of North Africa, Turkey, Iraq, and the
Mediterranean region. They also suffered similar illnesses like sarcoidosis.

o The Melungeoins are found today all over the Unites States, especially the east
coast. They were usually classified as a separate category of people, not Black,
White or Indian.

o Based on the study of Brent Kennedy, The Melungeons, any person of any person
of any race with the following names living in the south east of America could be
in this group: Adams, Adkins, Bell, Bennet, Berry, Bowling, Chavis, Coleman,
Collins, Gibson, Goins, Hall, Jackson, Lopes, Moore, Mullins, Nash, Robinson,
Sexton and Williams.

o Famous Melungeons include Nancy Hanks, wife of President Abraham Lincoln
and Elvis Presley.











SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Kettani, Ali, Inbaaath al-Islam Fil- Andalus, Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad,
Pakistan, 1992.

Kennedy, N. Brent, The Melungeons: The Resurrection of a Proud People: An Untold
Story of Ethnic Cleansing in America, Mercer University Press, U.S.A., 1997.


PART 12: AFRICAN/
MUSLIM PRESENCE
IN AMERICAN
SLAVERY






o According to some estimates, as many as 15-30% of the African slaves and
political prisoners taken to the Western Hemisphere by Europeans were
Muslims.

o In the early (American) colonies, the slaves were initially taken from the Native
(Indian) population but they refused to submit to slavery in their own lands.
Then poor White settlers were used as slaves but that was also unsuccessful.
Finally, the European colonists looked to Africa, since the climate was similar to
the Caribbean, Brazil and the American South.

o Millions of African people of almost all West African tribes, languages and
religions found themselves in bondage in the Americas. Ashanti, Wolof,
Coromanti, Ibo, Yoruba, Mandinka, Fulani, Hausa, and Susu, all became victims
of this vicious practice.

o Countless numbers of people died in the Middle Passage between the African
and American coasts. Many people resisted and slave revolts and suicide was
common on the slave ships.

o Muslims resisted European slavery from its inception on the African continent.
Shaykh Nasir al-Din of Mauritania in 1673 stated: God does not allow rulers to
raid, kill or enslave their people. He has to, on the contrary, guard them from
their enemies. The people are not made for the rulers but the rulers are made
from the people.

o The Almamy (Imam) of the Futa Toro threatened the French Governor in Saint-
Louis in a letter dated March 1789:

We are warning that all those who will come to our land to trade (in
slaves) will be killed or massacred if you do not send our children back.
Would not somebody who was very hungry abstain from eating if he had
to eat something cooked with his blood? We absolutely do not want you
to buy Muslims under any circumstances. I repeat that if your intention is
to always buy Muslims you should stay home and not come to our
country anymore. Because all those who will come can be assured that
they will lose their life.

o The first slaves were brought to the Portuguese and Spanish colonies around
1518. Later, the English, French and Dutch joined the trade.

o The Senegambians (ladinos and bozales) were the first Africans to be sold to the
New World. In 1522, the Wolof of Hispaniola led the first African slave revolt in
the history of the Americas. They also rebelled in Puerto Rico and Panama.

o One of the leading forces in the resistance to slavery was the Muslim population
who by the very nature of their faith were independent and unwilling to submit
to oppression.

o Muslims were identified by the slave records as Mandingos, Mahomatens and
infidels and were generally more feared by their masters.

o In 1833, Muslims were identified as Mahomatens by Gertrude Carmichael on the
islands of Trinidad and St. Vincent.

o Robert Madden, a British magistrate discovered a society of Mandingo slaves
who spoke Arabic and wrote letters to the Jamaican countryside. A Wathiqah or
document calling for the rebellion sparked a great slave revolt in 1821-22.

o In 19
th
century Trinidad, a Mandingo free society was formed which freed
Muslim slaves and established its own land in Trinidad.

o One of the leaders of the revolution of Haiti (1753-1757), Makandal, was a
Muslim religious leader.

o A sizeable presence of Muslims was noticed buy a Swedish traveler in Cuba.

o The great rebellion of the Bush Blacks in Surinam was led by Arabi and Zamzam.

o A large population of Muslims was identified on the island of Exuma in the
Bahamas.

o A series of rebellions took place in Brazil around 1835. The resistance was so
intense that some of the slaves were allowed to return to West Africa.

o Despite the large presence of Muslims in the Americas the slave masters
succeeded in converting the next generations to Christianity by prohibiting
Islamic practices and forcing name change. Adultery, pork and alcohol became
essential parts of slave life.















SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Alford, Terry, Prince among slaves, Oxford Univ. Press, N.Y. 1977.

Austin, Allen, African Muslims in Antebellum America, a Sourcebook, Garland Press, N.Y. 1833.

Carmichael,Gertrude, Domestic Manner and Social Conditions of the White, Coloured and Negro Population of the
West Indies, Negro Universities Press, N.Y. 1833.

Diouf, Sylviane A, Servants of ALLAH, African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas, N.Y.U. Press, N.Y., 1998.

Madden, R.R. A Twelve Months Residence in the West Indies during the Transition from Slavery to Apprenticeship,
Carey, Lea.








PART 13: FAMOUS
AFRICAN MUSLIMS
IN SLAVERY





























o A number of eye witness reports, written documents, autobiographies and
records have come to the surface in recent years. This new body of evidence has
enabled historians to reconstruct the lives of a number of Muslim slaves. Some
of them were scholars who wrote the Quran and other important Islamic texts
from memory.

o Ayyub ibn Sulayman (Job Ben Solomon) was born in 1700 in Bundu, Eastern
Senegal, enslaved and taken to Maryland. He was a scholar who prayed 5 times
per day and wrote the whole Quran from memory and eventually returned to
West Africa.

o Abdur Rahman ibn Ibrahim was born in Timbuktu in 1762, enslaved in Mississippi
and returned home in 1829.

o Yarrow Mahmoud was born in the 1700s and died at the age of 128 after 70
years in slavery. Umar ibn Sayyid wrote his own story in Arabic and it still exists.

o Mohamed Kaba from Bouka from the Malinke of Guinea was studying to be a
judge when he was captured 20 and deported to Jamaica.

o Abu Bakr Sadiqa, a cleric from Timbuktu was captured and taken to Jamaica in
1834. He wrote extensively in Arabic about his life and times.

o Francois Makandal born in Guinea, a Marabout, led a slave revolt just before the
great revolution in Haiti.

o Salih Bilali was captured at 14 riding from Jenne to Kianah. He spent over 60
years in slavery on St.Simons island, Georgia.

o Bilali Muhammad, a former cleric, was enslaved on Sapelo Island, Georgia in the
early 1800s.

o Old Lizzy Gray, a Muslim woman, who died in South Carolina was reported to
have said after here so-called conversion to Christianity, Christ built the first
church in Makkah and his grave was there.

o Fatima or Phoebe was the wife of Bilali Muhammad and well known in the
Sapelo Islands.

o African Muslims suffered greatly under the brutal system of European slavery.
They were forced to forget their native languages and Arabic was, for the most
part, outlawed.

o It was forbidden to pray, fast or practice any aspect of Islamic lifestyle. Pork was
forced upon slaves as the main staple meat. Families were broken up and
children were scattered. Islam remained only as a dormant seed in the minds of
African people in the Americas.

o African Muslims left a legacy of Tawheed, Tahaarah (purity) and calling to
righteousness. This legacy still lives on today in the numerous Islamic
movements springing up all over the hemisphere.








































PART 14: LESSONS
FROM THE WESTERN
SUNRISE








o History should be told from all perspectives and not just the perspective of the
conqueror or ruling elite.

o The first contact with Africa in the time of the last Prophet Muhammad (salla
ALLAHu alayhi wa sallam) was the first Hijra where Muslims entered the
continent as refugees.

o The Prophet was concerned with the well being of the monotheists in other
lands and the safety of society from oppression.

o Early Unitarian Christian people stood together with the Muslims in North Africa
against the oppression of the Byzantine Romans.

o Islam entered the Iberian Peninsula as a liberating force and not a manifestation
of Moorish/Arab imperialism.

o Muslims had a profound influence on Europe during its Dark Ages, keeping the
light of knowledge burning and enabling Europeans to experience as Renaissance
of knowledge.

o Islam spread throughout Africa and much of the known world through contact
made by merchants, mystics and pious people.

o Islamic empires in West Africa were highly developed and provide a rich history
of Islamisation.

o Qayrawaan, Marrakesh, Cordoba, Toledo, Seville, Fez, Timbuktu, and other
Islamic cities were great centers of learning during the Golden Age of Islam
(622-1492 A.D.)

o Powerful revivalist movements like Al-Murabitun and Al-Muwahhidun revived
Islamic teachings in Muslim lands at different points in history.

o Muslims entered the Americas long before Christopher Columbus and formed a
distinguishable part of American societies.

o African Muslims in the Americas resisted European slavery from its inception and
are now being recognized as an important part of American history.

o African Muslims in slavery distinguished themselves through piety, literacy and
stubborn refusal to be assimilated into the melting pot of colonial life.

o Muslims in the Americas have left a legacy of Tawheed, Tahaarah (purity) and
calling to the good and forbidding evil. Even today, these concepts are crucial
factors in making Islam the fastest going religion in the Western Hemisphere.