INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY NOTES

DATA AND INFORMATION

Data processing cycle
Validation Checks
Input device
Storage devices ho! updating is done on direct access and se"uential #grand $ather
%ri&ary Storage
Storage hierarchy pyra&id
'ey to disk and key to diskette
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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY NOTES
Information Technology
Definition ( It is an organi)ed co&*ination and use o$ hard!are+ so$t!are+
teleco&&unications+ data*ase &anage&ent and other in$or&ation processing
technologies used in a co&puter*ased in$or&ation syste&,
In$or&ation technology trans$or&s data into a variety o$ use$ul in$or&ation products
speci$ically *y the use o$ a co&puter,
Com!ter " It is a device that has the a*ility to accept data+ internally store and
e-ecute a progra& o$ instructions+ per$or& &athe&atical+ logical and
&anipulative operations on the data and reports on the results, %ut si&ply+ it is a
&achine that accepts data #input. and processes it into use$ul in$or&ation
#output.,
Com!ter Sy#tem
It i# an interrelate$ #y#tem of in!t% roce##ing% o!t!t% #torage an$ control
comonent#
Thus a co&puter syste& consist o$ input and output devices+ pri&ary and storage
devices+ the central processing unit+ the control unit !ithin the C%/ and other
peripherals
Data an$ Information concet#
The ter&s data and in$or&ation are loosely used interchangea*ly in ordinary
discussions, The ter&s+ ho!ever+ are di$$erent in their usage in the $ield o$
in$or&ation syste&s,
Data & it is the co&plete range o$ $acts+ events+ transactions+ and opinions+
0udg&ents that e-ist *oth !ithin and outside the organi)ation, Data are ra! $acts
$ro& !hich in$or&ation is produced,
Information ( it is part o$ the total data availa*le !hich is appropriate to the
re"uire&ents o$ a particular user or group o$ users, It is processed data upon !hich a
user &ay rely $or decision,
A co&puter per$or&s the $ollo!ing *asic $unctions1
#a. Input ( co&puter accepts and captures data $ro& outside $or processing
#*. %rocessing ( a co&puter per$or&s operations on data it holds
#c. Storage ( a co&puter holds data *e$ore+ during and a$ter processing
#d. Output ( a co&puter produces data $or use #in$or&ation.
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COM'ONENTS AND CONFIG(RATION OF A COM'(TER

Com!ter Har$)are re$ers to the physical co&ponents o$ a co&puter *oth
&echanical and electronic,
A co&puter is &ade up o$ the $ollo!ing co&ponents,
Input devices
Central %rocessing /nit
Me&ory
Secondary Storage unit
Output devices
The con$iguration o$ a *asic co&puter syste&
IN'(T DE*ICES+METHODS
These $acilitate co&&unication *et!een the user and the co&puter, They $acilitate
the insertion o$ data into the co&puter $or processing,
#a. ,ey-oar$
A key*oard is laid out like a type!riter
It allo!s data to *e typed in *y the pressing o$ the relevant keys
The pressed key or instruction is displayed or e-ecuted
This is the &ost co&&only used input device
#Study 'eytodisk syste&s+ 'eytodiskette syste&s (Re$er to Cli$ton.
#*. Mo!#e
It is a hand held pointing device electronically connected to the co&puter !hich is
used to control the cursor or a pointer on the screen through the rolling &otion o$ a
*all on a $lat sur$ace, The cursor or pointer on the video screen &oves in the sa&e
direction as the &ove&ent o$ the &ouse, 2hen the pointer is on the re"uired &enu
ite& #icon. a *utton is clicked to select that ite&,
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#c. Light 'en
It is a penshaped device that uses photoelectric circuitry to enter data into the
co&puter through a special video screen, A user can !rite on the video display
The high sensitive pen ena*les the co&puter to calculate the
coordinates o$ the points on the screen touched *y the light pen
The hand!riting or graphic is digitali)ed+ accepted as input and
displayed on the VD/
Input there$ore is directly onto the screen
#d. To!ch Screen#
/se an inlaid screen to accept input through the act o$ physically touching the screen
The co&puter senses the selected position and e-ecute the instruction accordingly
This device !orks &ore suita*ly !ith &enu driven applications
#e. Otical Character Rea$er#
These use photoelectric cells to &easure the a&ount o$ light
re$lected $ro& a particular set o$ characters in a particular $ont
It then trans$ers the details to a co&puter
The reader incorporates a light *ea& !hich $ollo!s the outline o$ the
characters *eing read
It co&pares these !ith stored re$erence characters
The &ost co&&on $onts are OCRA #A&erican.and OCR3 #4uropean.
#$. Otical Mar. Rea$er# /OMR#0
These are si&ilar to OCRs *ut can detect &arks+ lines+ per$orations
rather than characters
They !ork !ith speci$ic progra&s to read and interpret a particular
docu&ent #so are less $le-i*le than OCRs.
OMRs are used to e-tract data $ro& surveys+ "uestionnaire $or&s or
&ark &ultiple choice e-a&s
OMRs are also used in the processing o$ orders+ processing o$ ti&e
sheets $or !orkers+ inputting diagra&s into the co&puter,
#g. Magnetic In. Character Rea$er# /MICR0
They use preprinted hu&an reada*le characters
The characters are printed in a special ink &i-ed !ith iron o-ide
3e$ore reading the docu&ent passes through a &agnetic $ield and the
characters get &agneti)ed
The &achine reader recogni)es the character *y its &agnetic $ield
pattern+ codes it and provides input into the co&puter,
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This &ethod is not in general use *ecause the print has got to *e
&ade in a special !ay to *e reada*le
This &ethod o$ input is !idely used in the *anking sector to process
docu&ents like che"ues,
#h. 'age Scanner#
These devices read docu&ents+ digitalise the& and sent the& $or
processing *y the co&puter
These are like photocopying &achines that can read a !ide variety o$
te-t and graphics including photographs,
#i. 1ar Co$e Rea$er#
3ar coding is the representation o$ code nu&*ers or other data in the
$or& o$ optical or &agnetic *ars on a data carrier #*adge. !hich &ay
*e tag+ la*el+ ticket+ plastic card
A *ar code reader reads the *ar coding and allo!s the processing o$
in$or&ation relating to the data
The *ar code reader is usually hand held and uses a laser *ea& to
read,
2hen a *ar code is read and recogni)ed+ the scanner e&its a short
sound,
These are !idely used on *ank credit cards and in li*raries to
identi$y *ooks and users
#0. 'oint of Sale /'OS0+Electronic 'oint of Sale /E'OS0
These are used in super&arkets
A %OS or 4%OS incorporates a scanner #*ar code reader.+ a printer
and a key*oard *uilt into a service point
An ite& is passed through a !indo! through !hich the scanner can
see the *ar code and there*y identi$ies the ite&5 alternatively a hand
held scanner is used to do the sa&e thing,
2hen a *ar code is read and recogni)ed+ the scanner e&its a short
sound,
The linked central co&puter then auto&atically looks up details
relating to the ite&,
The details are then printed on the custo&er6s receipt
#k. *oice Data Entry /*DE0
Can also *e called voice input or speech recognition
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A voice recogni)ing device analyses and classi$ies speech or vocal
tract patterns
The device converts the speech into digital codes $or entry into the
co&puter
These are suita*le !here users do not !ish to use their hands to
input data e,g, sorting o$ luggage at an airport+ recording o$ !eight in
a slaughterhouse or *utchery,
7o!ever+ their use is li&ited *y the li&ited nature o$ recogni)a*le
voca*ulary
The co&puter needs to *e 8trained9 to recogni)e an individual6s voice,
There are *ound to *e in accuracies in the data input so there is need
$or a care$ul proo$ reading *y the user,
#l. *i$eo In!t
Video i&ages can *e entered into the co&puter $ro& sources such as
a TV receiver+ VCR or ca&corder,
The data is digitali)ed and co&pressed $or storage on the co&puter6s
&e&ory sites,
This &ethod is used to input and store in$or&ation $or a *roadcaster
o$ producer o$ optical disks
Selection of the $ata collection metho$ /In!t $e2ice 3 metho$0
The $ollo!ing are the &ain $actors to *e considered !hen deciding on the data
capture syste&s1
#a. Costs o$ the syste& ( costs &ust *e kept lo!
#*. Accuracy ( should have detection and correction procedures $or errors
#c. Ti&e ( turnaround ti&e in capturing data should *e short
#d. Relia*ility ( The syste& o$ capture should *e $ree $ro& *reakdo!n
#e. Fle-i*ility ( the syste& &ust cater $or di$$erent types o$ data
#$. Volu&e ( a syste& should suit the volu&e o$ data to *e captured
#g. 4-isting e"uip&ent ( a syste& that uses e-isting e"uip&ent !ould *e &ost
pre$erred,
#h. /ser $riendliness ( a syste& should render itsel$ easily to the user
THE CENTRAL 'ROCESSING (NIT /C'(0
It is the unit o$ the co&puter syste& that includes the circuits that control the
interpretation and e-ecution o$ instructions, It is the &ost i&portant co&ponent o$ a
co&puter syste&,
F!nction# of the roce##or
To control the use o$ the &e&ory to store data and instructions
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To control the se"uence o$ operations
To give instructions to all parts o$ the co&puter to carry out processing
The C%/ can *e su*divided into t!o &a0or su*units5 the control unit #C/. and the
arith&etic logic unit #A:/., The pri&ary #&ain. &e&ory is an e-tension o$ the C%/
and assists the C%/ in its operations,
The Control (nit /C(0
It is the nerve center o$ the co&puter !hich controls and coordinates all
hard!are operations i,e, those o$ peripheral units+ &ain &e&ory and the
processor itsel$,
It also controls the se"uence o$ the operations,
The unit $etches #o*tains. the instruction $ro& the &ain &e&ory
It then interprets it
It then e-ecutes the instruction *y sending a co&&and signal to the
appropriate hard!are device in the co&puter syste&+ ordering it to per$or&
re"uired operations,
The control unit is driven *y a ;clock pulse;5 the rate o$ the clock is called the
speed,
The Arithmetic"Logic (nit /AL(0
This has t!o &a0or $unctions
Carries out arith&etic tasks e,g, division+ addition etc
%er$or&s logical operations e,g, co&paring data ite&s
Ho) the AL( oerate#4
Data ite&s to *e processed are $etched $ro& the &ain &e&ory as directed *y the C/
into registers or accu&ulators !here they are stored, The A:/ then per$or&s the
operations as directed *y the C/, The A:/ leaves the result in a data register $ro&
!here they are placed into the &ain &e&ory again under the direction o$ the C/,

The Main Memory
It is an e-tension o$ the C%/ !hich gives i&&ediate access to data and progra&s,
It is also called I&&ediate Access Me&ory #IAS., The &ain &e&ory holds three
types o$ contents !hich are1
progra& instructions to *e e-ecuted or *eing e-ecuted
Data to *e processed
Results o$ processing
Operational $eatures
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The &e&ory has uni"uely a$$re##a-le #torage location# that are easily
accessi*le to the C/,
Rando& Access it is possi*le to $etch data $ro& the locations in &ain storage
in any order and ti&e taken to access the location does not depend on the
position o$ the location,
Volatility the &ain &e&ory can *e volatile or nonvolatile depending on the its
physical characteristics
Details o$ single location 4ach location consists o$ tiny devices that can take
t!o states #on<o$$., The t!o states o$ each device are used to represent
*inary #= o$$+ > on., 4ach location in the &ain &e&ory holds a unit o$ data
called a !ord, So&e co&puters had locations holding ? *inary digits and !ere
there$ore said to have an ?*it !ord, Other co&puters have >@ *it storage
locations+ !hile others tend to have AB *it locations,
The Ran$om Acce## Memory /RAM0
This $or&s the largest part o$ the Main Me&ory and is o$ten used to &easure the
po!er o$ a co&puter, It is used $or te&porary storage o$ data and progra&s during
processing, RAM contains user data and application progra&s *eing processed, Data
&ay *e rea$ $ro& RAM and data can also *e )ritten onto and stored on RAM, RAM
contents are volatile i,e, stored data is lost and the contents disappear i$ the po!er is
interrupted or !hen co&puter is s!itched o$$,
Storage caacity on RAM
The nu&*er o$ storage locations in RAM dictates the storage capacity or si)e o$ the
co&puter, Storage on co&puter is "uoted in kilo*ytes #'*. or &ega*ytes #M*.
? *its C > *yte
>=BD *ytes C > kilo*yte
>=BD E >=BD *ytes C > &ega*yte
>=BD E >=BD E >=BD *ytes C > giga*yte
The Rea$ Only Memory /ROM0
It is used $or per&anent storage it holds the so$t!are progra&s such as operating
syste&s+ interpreters and co&pilers, The progra&s are !ritten as part o$ the
&anu$acturing process and the user cannot alter the&, ROM cannot *e !ritten on it
only allo!s its contents to *e read, ROM contains data and instructions that the
co&puter needs all the ti&e $ro& the &o&ent it is s!itched on, ROM contents are
said to *e nonvolatile i,e, they do not disappear or get lost !hen the co&puter is
s!itched o$$ or !hen po!er to the co&puter has *een interrupted,
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O(T'(T DE*ICES
There are t!o $or&s o$ output devices+ those that produce hardcopy #per&anent. and
those that produce so$tcopy,
%rinters are hardcopy devices !hile the VD/ is a so$tcopy device,
7ardcopies are needed !hen copies are to *e taken a!ay $ro& the co&puter to *e
sent to a user o$ the in$or&ation thereon+ or to *e $iled a!ay or even as legal
docu&entation,
Co&puters+ there$ore can produce a nu&*er o$ di$$erent docu&ent e,g, reports+ sales
invoices+ payrolls+ or graphics,
Tye# of 'rinter#
%rinters can *e classi$ied in a nu&*er o$ !ays,
#>. 3y print operation #a. Character printers
#*. :ine printers
#c. %age printers
#B. 3y &ethod o$ producing print1 #a. I&pact printers
#*. NonI&pact printers
#A. 3y speed o$ printing #a. :o! speed printers #>=cps to A==lp&.
#*. 7igh speed printers #over A==lp&.
The $ollo!ing is an illustration sho!ing the types o$ printers and their su* types and
e-a&ples o$ these,
Co&puter %rinters
:ine %rinters Character %rinters %age %rinters
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Dru& Chain 4lectrostatic :aser
4lectrostatic Magnetic Ion Deposition
#3arrel. #Train 3and.

I&pact NonI&pact
Dot Matri- Daisy 2heel #%etal. Thi&*le Ther&al
Ink 0et
/a0 Line 'rinter#
These produce a co&plete line o$ te-t in a single printing operation, These are
suita*le $or *ulk printing,
i, Dru& %rinters,
They e&ploy colu&ns o$ co&plete characters e&*ossed around the
circu&$erence o$ a rapidly rotating dru&,
4very print position is capa*le o$ *eing occupied *y any character
A print ha&&er situated at each print position $orces the paper against the
dru& through the ri**on #interposed *et!een the paper and the ri**on. !hen
the appropriate character is in position,
These are e-pensive to *uy and &aintain
The print "uality is poor #especially i$ there are &isti&ing o$ print ha&&ers.
They do not allo! $or change o$ $onts,
They are also very noisy
ii, Chain #Train. %rinters
They consist o$ a chain o$ characters &ounted on a chain that rotates in a
hori)ontal plane,
There is a ha&&er at each print position that strikes the appropriate
character once it is in position,
Character sets can *e easily changed *y replacing the chain,
The principle o$ operation is si&ilar to that o$ dru& printers
They are cheaper and $aster that dru& printers
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They produce *etter print "uality than dru& printers,
/-0 Character rinter#
These are also kno!n as serial printers, These print one character at a ti&e across,
The &ethod o$ printing necessitates one #or t!o. print head#s.,
There are t!o categories o$ character printers1 imact and non"imact printers,
Imact rinter# ( they $or& characters and graphics on the paper *y pressing a
printing ele&ent #such as print !heel or cylinder. and an inked ri**on against paper
e,g, a dot &atri- printer, Multiple copies can *e used through the use o$ a car*oni)ed
paper,
Non"imact rinter# do not use $orce and are "uieter than i&pact printers, They
use specially treated paper and can $or& characters *y laser+ ther&al #heat. or
electroche&ical processes, They produce higher "uality o$ print than i&pact printers,
They+ ho!ever+ cannot produce &ultiple copies, They can print graphics and can
support &any $onts,
Tye# of Imact rinter#
#i. Dot Matri5 ( it consists o$ &atri- tiny tu*es containing
needles in the print head, 4ach character in $or&ed $ro& the s"uare or rectangle
array o$ dots, The needles are $ired onto the printer ri**on in a pattern
corresponding to the shape o$ the character re"uired, 4ach character is printed *y
the repeated hori)ontal &ove&ent o$ the print head, The "uality o$ the print
depends on the dots in the &atri- #&ost co&&on are the F ro!s *y G colu&ns
&atrices., These printers are cheap to purchase and &aintain *ut do not produce
good print "uality,
#ii. Dai#y 6heel ( /ses a rotata*le !heel consisting a nu&*er o$ $le-i*le &etal or
plastic spokes #usually G@. at the end o$ !hich is a &irror i&age o$ a character,
During printing the !heel is rotated until the re"uired character co&es into line !ith
the print ha&&er !hich then hits the character and the ri**on onto the paper and
the paper is printed, They are cheap and o$$er *etter print "uality than Dot Matri-
%rinters, 7o!ever+ they are slo!er and &uch noisier,
Tye# of Non"Imact 'rinter#
#i. Thermal rinter
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The print head o$ a ther&al printer contains an array o$ heating ele&ents that have
electric currents s!itched through the& so as to $or& the re"uired character, 2hen
the print head co&es into contact !ith a special paper+ it *urns a!ay an alu&inu&
coating to reveal a *lack core, They can produce colour printing and can produce high
"uality prints, 7o!ever+ they use only a special type o$ paper,
#ii. In. & 7et 'rinter#
These spray dots o$ ink to $or& characters under electronic control, These are
"uieter and produce higher print "uality even graphics5 they can print in colour and
can print &any $ont types and si)es, 7o!ever they are &ore e-pensive to purchase
and &aintain,

#c. 'age 'rinter#
They print one co&plete page at any given ti&e, Although they appear to produce a
co&plete page+ they actually produce the docu&ent *y printing a line at a ti&e *ut
their speed o$ operation is such that the $ull e$$ect is that o$ creating the !hole
page,


Tye# of age rinter#
#i. La#er 'rinter#
They $or& characters *y $lashing a lo!po!ered *ea& onto a rotating dru&, A special
ink #toner. is then attracted to the lasere-posed areas o$ the dru&, The docu&ent;s
outline are created *y $lashing a photographic negative o$ the docu&ent onto the
photoconductive dru&, The co&plete photoconductive dru& sur$ace stores the
resulting i&age, 2hen the paper co&es into contact !ith the dru& the i&age is then
trans$erred and then $used per&anently onto it, The photo conductive dru& is erased
*e$ore receiving the ne-t i&age these operation occur !hile printing is in progress,

They can print an in$inite nu&*er o$ $onts and can even &i- di$$erent $onts in the
sa&e line, They can produce high "uality print+ and can *e used to print logos+
illustrations and graphics, They are very "uiet during printing, 7o!ever+ they are very
e-pensive to purchase and &aintain,
#ii. Magnetic 'rinter#
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They use a rotating dru& or *elt onto !hich tiny &agnetic dots are recorded, The
i&age $or&ed is coated !ith toner against !hich heated paper is pressed to $or& the
re"uired i&age on paper,
Typical printer speeds
%rinter Type Fonts Speed
Daisy 2heel I&pact Many B===cp&
Dot &atri- I&pact Many >H===cp&
Ink 0et Noni&pact Any >H===cp&
Dru& I&pact Fi-ed BH==lp&
Chain I&pact Many B===lp&
Magnetic Noni&pact Any H===lp&
:aser #s&all. NonI&pact Any >=pp&
:aser #large. Noni&pact Any H==pp&

Factors in$luencing the choice o$ a printer
The cost o$ the printer
%urpose o$ the output
The volu&e o$ !ork to *e printed
The environ&ent in !hich the printer !ill !ork
Nature and desired "uality o$ the docu&ent#s. to *e produced
Other Form# of Com!ter O!t!t
Seech O!t!t /So!n$ O!t!t0
So&e co&puters are capa*le o$ producing speech, The co&puter can actually speak
out $ro& a stored digital representation o$ either !ords or other sounds, A person;s
voice can *e stored and reproduced later, This &ethod o$ output is o$ great use to
the *lind+ or in poor light, Advanced $or&s o$ speech output are *eing used to ans!er
telephones+ ans!er so&e in"uiries $ro& an organi)ation;s callers etc,
SECONDARY STORAGE DE*ICES
This is also called *acking storage or au-iliary storage, It is used to supple&ent the
co&puter;s &ain &e&ory, Main &e&ory is volatile and e-pensive+ there$ore *acking
storage is used to hold progra&s and data $iles !hen they are not re"uired in the
&ain &e&ory, The speed o$ accessing *acking store is &uch slo!er than that $or
accessing in IAS,
1ac.ing Store De2ice#
Floy Di#. Dri2e These !ork in con0unction !ith $loppy or &agnetic diskettes,
They have a narro! slot !here the diskette is inserted, The slot has a push *utton or
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lever !hich &ust *e closed !hen the diskette has *een inserted, The process o$
closing engages a turn ta*le !hich rotates the disk and so *rings the read<!rite head
into contact !ith the disk,
Feat!re# of floy $i#.ette#
Consist o$ a polyester $il& !ith iron o-ide co&pound
The disk is &ounted and rotates $reely inside a protective plastic 0acket
The 0acket has access openings to allo! reading and !riting to occur $ro&
the read<!rite head on the disk drive unit,
The disk is divided into sectors and data is stored on the tracks as
&agneti)ed *its #=+>.
Most disks are A,Hinch and capacities o$ >,DDM*

Caring for $i#.ette#
/se !rite protect security tag to prevent accidental erasure o$ data
%rotect the disk $ro& dust+ rain+ hu&idity+ store in an envelop
Do not *end the disk
Do not touch the recording sur$ace
Store diskette in a te&perature o$ >= C to HB C
Do not place the diskette in a &agnetic $ield

Har$ Di#.
They are per&anent $i-ed hard disks !ith lu*ricated sur$aces to allo!
read<!rite heads to &ove close to the disk as it rotates,
They are *uilt into the personal co&puter #%C. in an air tight enclosure
They are nonre&ova*le
They have greater storage capacity #$ro& B=M* to >I*.
They have $aster data trans$er rate and are relia*le,
7o!ever+ they need very care$ul security procedures
Modern co&puters #note *ooks. have re&ova*le disk cartridge versions,
Magnetic Tae
This is si&ilar to the kind $ound $or audio or video tapes
It is a $il& coated !ith iron o-ide
%ortions o$ the tape are &agneti)ed to represent *its
It uses separate read !rite heads to trans$er data $ro& the tape to the &ain
&e&ory and to record,
Vacuu& colu&ns in the unit a*sor* the $orce o$ sudden starts and stops to
prevent tape snatches,
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They store data in a se"uence so data has to *e &oved over se"uentially in
order to read the re"uired+ this &eans access is slo!er,

Feat!re# of the Magnetic Tae

- Co&&on !idth o$ >,BFc& and length o$ >==& to >>==&
- Data is stored on tracks !hich run along the tape
- The *eginning and end o$ the tape are &arked *y an alu&inu& strip
- Recording densities range $ro& B== to @=== *ytes per inch #*pi.
- 7as storage capacity o$ B=M* to >@=M*
- The tape is reusa*le to prevent accidental erasure+ a !rite per&it ring
is attached !hen !riting is re"uired,
The E5changea-le Di#. (nit /Magnetic Di#.0
They are coated !ith iron o-ide
They can *e steel platters #hard disks. or plastic #Floppy.
4ach disk is divided into B== concentric tracks or rings
Data is recorded on the track *y &oving a read<!rite head until it is over the
re"uired track,
Data is recorded in *its represented *y &agneti)ed areas
Disks are &ounted into a unit in the $or& o$ an e-changea*le pack o$ @ to >>
disks that are insepara*le,
The disk pack is $itted into a unit or drive !hich has a co&*type asse&*ly
containing one read<!rite head $or each recording sur$ace,
2hen reading or !riting+ the R<2 head goes directly to the re"uired piece o$
data+ are also called a direct access storage &ediu&,
Disk storage can also *e operated in se"uential &ode,
Storage is costly and they are less porta*le
They have greater storage capacity #@=M* to HI*.
They have &uch "uicker access ti&e
Otical Di#. Dri2e#
These are si&ilar the audio co&pact discs #CDs.
It is rigid plastic disk onto !hich data is recorded *y special lasers that
physically create &icro crevices in the disk,
Data is directly accessed $ro& the disk *y the use o$ a laser *ea&
The laser *ea& &easures the di$$erence in re$lected light caused *y the
crevice #or lack there$ore. on disk,
4ach crevice represents *inary digit =+ representing the lack o$ a crevice+ or
*inary digit >+ representing the presence o$ a crevice,
So the presence or lack o$ a crevice deter&ines the *it,
The disk cannot *e erased or over!ritten+ this $eature is kno!n as 2ORM
#!rite once read &any ti&es.
15
Thus the disk is called CDROM #Co&pact disk read only Me&ory.,
They have great storage capacities o$ H=M* to >=I*,
Access to stored data is very $ast
They can *e used to store te-t+ graphical+ audio or video data
They are suita*le $or storing large a&ounts o$ data,
7o!ever+ they can not *e edited
COM'(TER SYSTEMS
Co&puters can *e classi$ied as general purpose or special purpose, Ieneralpurpose
co&puters are used to per$or& a variety o$ applications and the &ost co&&on in
*usiness !hile special purpose co&puters are used $or speci$ic or li&ited applications
e,g, &ilitary or scienti$ic research,
Co&puters can *e classi$ied *y #i8e or *y !#e
Categories o$ Co&puter Syste&s #*y si)e.
#i. Microco&puters
#ii. Minico&puters
#iii. Main$ra&e co&puters
#iv. Super co&puters
Microcom!ter#
They are also called %ersonal Co&puters #%Cs. or Desktop Co&puters,
These are relatively s&all and ine-pensive,
They consist o$ a single processor or a chip
The syste& is nor&ally &ade up o$ the &icroprocessor+ key*oard+ VD/ one or
t!o $loppy disk drives+ a printer and a hard disk drive,
It has a hard disk capacity o$ B=M* to HB=M*
May use a colour or &onochro&e cathode ray tu*e #CRT.
7ave capa*ilities $or net!orking,
They are single user,
They occupy little space,
They are capa*le o$ &ultiprogra&&ing,
They are co&pati*le !ith a !ide range o$ so$t!are,
%Cs co&e in a variety o$ si)es1 note*ooks #handheld.+ laptops+ desktops and
$loor standing,

Minicom!ter Sy#tem /Mi$"range Com!ter#0

They are syste&s the si)e o$ a s&all ta*le that can acco&&odate a nu&*er o$
users at a ti&e,
They have storage capa*ility larger than personal co&puters,
They can support a variety o$ transaction processing activities
16
Har$)are feat!re#
- Support &agnetic tape storage
- They are &ultiuser &ore than >== users at ti&e $or super &inis
- 7ave &ultiple hard disks+ *oth $i-ed and e-changea*le
- Can *e upgraded !hen necessary
- They do not re"uire a special environ&ent to !ork so can allo! $or
decentralisation,
- They are less e-pensive than the &ain$ra&e syste&s
- They have *igger capacities than &icroprocessors+ so&e have AB *it
&icroprocessors,
Mainframe com!ter#
These are large+ po!er$ul co&puters !ith a lot o$ processing capa*ilities,
They are suita*le $or &ediu&si)e to large corporations,
They can also *e linked together to $or& a po!er$ul and $le-i*le syste&,
Har$)are Feat!re#
- Si&ilar to &inico&puters *ut have several large processors and high
processing speeds o$ up to B== &illion instructions per second #&ips.
- They have &assive a&ounts o$ storage po!er,
- They can use high speed line printers
- They have a large nu&*er o$ &agnetic disks and tape units !ith large
capa*ilities
- They are &ultiuser and &ulti processing
- They have i&proved relia*ility
- Their per$or&ance &ay *e enhanced *y slotting a s&aller syste&+ like a
&inico&puter *et!een the ter&inal and the &ain processor the $ront end
processor #F4%.
- 3oth processors run concurrently !ith the F4% passing on partially
processed data to the &ain $ra&e $or $urther processing,
- They+ ho!ever+ are e-pensive to *uy and &aintain+ they need special and
very e-pensive so$t!are and they also re"uire a special environ&ent,
- They can *e used $or large corporations #such as large international *anks.
and govern&ent depart&ents
S!ercom!ter Sy#tem#
These are e-tre&ely po!er$ul &ain$ra&e co&puter syste&s, They are speci$ically
designed $or highspeed nu&eric calculations, These an process hundreds o$ &illions
instructions per second #&ips.
They can *e used *y govern&ent research agencies+ national !eather $orecasting+
spacecra$t construction and navigation,
17
Con#i$eration# on cla##ification# -a#e$ on #i8e
The classi$ication o$ co&puters *ased on the physical si)e o$ the co&puter has
*eco&e *lurred and a *it &isleading, So&e see&ingly s&all syste&s can per$or& &ore
po!er$ully than the larger ones, The po!er o$ the co&puter syste& depends on the
&icroprocessor,
A &icroprocessor is a type o$ an integrated circuit #ic., It has t!o distinct
characteristics !ord si)e and speed o$ operation,
2ord si)e the nu&*er o$ *its dealt !ith at the sa&e ti&e+ so&e processors are ?
*it+ others even AB *it, The larger the !ord si)e the &ore po!er$ul a co&puter
syste& is, So so&e physically *igger syste&s &ay have s&aller !ord si)es and hence
less po!er,
Speed o$ the &icroprocessor it is the clock rate or rate o$ data trans$er+ it is the
rate at !hich data *its are &oved around inside at *its per second #&egahert). this
is also called the *aud rate, Syste&s !ith higher speeds tend to *e &ore po!er$ul
though they tend to *e physically s&all,
Com!ter cla##ification -y !#e
>, The 6or$ 'roce##or " it is a co&puter used to produce o$$ice docu&ents
usually in te-t, It has very li&ited &e&ory and processing capa*ilities, They are
cheap to *uy
B, Home Com!ter " it is a cheap co&puter that is used $or do&estic purposes
e,g, progra&&es $or ga&es and controlling ho&e $inances,
A, 'er#onal Com!ter " it is a &icroco&puter that is usually $or use *y one
person in an o$$ice or at ho&e,
D, De#.to " any co&puter designed to *e used on a desk in an o$$ice
environ&ent
H, 6or.#tation " a co&puter ter&inal #%C or desktop. designed to support the
!ork o$ one person, It can *e highpo!ered or have other superior capa*ilities
to %Cs or ordinary desktops e,g, capacity to do calculations+ graphics and other
advanced logical operations,
@, La " to " it is a s&all co&puter !ith a $lat screen that a user can place on
his lap, It is porta*le and has an in*uilt rechargea*le *attery that can support
it !hen there is no po!er $ro& the &ains, It can *e carried in a *rie$case,
F, Em-e$$e$ Com!ter# " These are co&puters in other devices that cannot *e
accessed directly e,g, those in petrol pu&ps+ ATMs+ vending &achines+
cellphones and elevators,
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SOFT6ARE
Soft)are re$ers to co&puter progra&s that control the !orkings o$ the co&puter
hard!are+ along !ith the progra& docu&entation used to e-plain the progra&s to the
user,
Com!ter rogram# are sets o$ instructions or state&ents to the co&puter that
direct the circuitry !ithin the hard!are to operate in a certain $ashion,
So$t!are can *e classi$ied into
Three di$$erent categories are
>, Syste&s So$t!are
B, Application So$t!are
A, Develop&ent So$t!are
SYSTEMS SOFT6ARE
It is a collection o$ progra&s that interact !ith the co&puter hard!are and
application so$t!are progra&s creating a layer o$ insulation *et!een the t!o,
Syste&s So$t!are contains instructions !hich1
#a. Manage a co&puter syste&6s hard!are co&ponents to coordinate the& so that
they !ork e$$iciently
#*. Schedule the co&puter6s ti&e to &ake the *est use o$ that ti&e,
Syste&s So$t!are includes a variety o$ progra&&es such as1
#i. Operating Syste&s
#ii. Data*ase Manage&ent Syste&s
#iii. Co&&unications Control %rogra&s
#iv. Service and /tility %rogra&s
#v. %rogra&&ing :anguage Translators
Oerating Sy#tem#
This $or&s the largest co&ponent o$ Syste&s So$t!are,
It is a syste& o$ progra&s that run or control the e-ecution o$ co&puter
progra&s and act as an inter$ace !ith application progra&s,
It is an integrated syste& o$ progra&s that &anages the operations o$ the C%/+
controls the input, Output and storage resources and activities o$ a co&puter
syste&,
The pri&ary purpose o$ the operating syste& is to &a-i&ise the productivity o$ a
co&puter syste&, It &ini&ises the a&ount o$ user intervention re"uired during
data entry and processing, It helps application progra&s per$or& co&&on
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operations such as entering data+ saving+ retrieving $iles+ printing and displaying
output,
F!nction# of an Oerating Sy#tem
Ienerally the operating syste& is e-pected to per$or& $ive *asic $unctions

#a. (#er Interfacing ( an Operating Syste& allo!s a user to co&&unicate !ith the
co&puter in loading progra&s+ accessing $iles and acco&plishing tasks through
co&&and driven+ &enu driven or graphical user inter$aces, In co&&and driven
inter$aces+ the user uses *rie$ end co&&ands+ in &enu driven inter$aces the
user selects choices $ro& &enus o$ options+ in graphical user inter$ace #I/I.
the user selects icons+ *ars+ *uttons+ *o-es or other i&ages to hi& get things
done *y the syste&,
#*. Oerating En2ironment Management ( /se o$ I/I ena*les the user to connect
to other separate application packages so that they can co&&unicate and !ork
together and share data $iles, Operating environ&ent packages provide icon
displays and support the use o$ so&e input devices to allo! the running and
output o$ several progra&s to *e displayed at the sa&e ti&e, The Operating
Syste& allo!s $or &ultitasking ( i,e, !here several progra&s or tasks can *e
processed at the sa&e ti&e,
#c. Re#o!rce Management ( Resource &anage&ent progra&s o$ the operating
syste& &anage the hard!are resources o$ a co&puter syste& including the
C%/+ &e&ory+ secondary storage devices and input<output peripherals, For
e-a&ple a &e&ory progra& keeps track o$ !here data and progra&s are
stored, They su*divide &e&ory into sections and s!ap parts o$ progra&s and
data *et!een &ain &e&ory and secondary storage devices, This operation then
can provide 2irt!al memory capa*ility i,e, the real &e&ory capacity in &ain
&e&ory is larger than the capacity o$ its nor&al &e&ory circuits,
#d. File Management ( The $ile &anage&ent progra&s in the operating syste&
control the creation+ deletion and access o$ data and progra&s, The progra&s
also keep track o$ the physical location o$ $iles on secondary storage units,
They &aintain directories o$ in$or&ation a*out the location characteristics o$
$iles stored on a co&puter syste&6 s secondary storage devices,
#e. Ta#. Management ( The task &anage&ent progra&s o$ an operating syste&
&anage the acco&plish&ent o$ co&puting tasks as needed *y the user, They
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give each task a slice o$ the C%/6s ti&e and interrupt the C%/ operations to
su*stitute other tasks, Task &anage&ent &ay involve m!ltita#.ing ( !here
several co&puting tasks can occur at the sa&e ti&e, Multitasking &ay *e in the
$or& o$ m!ltirogramming #several progra&s are running at the sa&e ti&e.,
The operating syste& allo!s $or ti&e sharing ( !here the co&puting tasks o$
several users can *e processed at the sa&e ti&e, Multitasking depends on the
co&puting po!er o$ the C%/ i$ too &any progra&s are running concurrently the
syste& &ay *e overloaded or processing slo!ed do!n, 4-a&ple o$ &ultitasking1
printing and typing at the sa&e ti&e+ !ord processing and $inancial analysis+
*ro!sing the internet and !ord processing,
'o!lar Oerating Sy#tem#
MS"DOS /Micro#oft Di#. Oerating Sy#tem0
It has *een !idely in use especially *e$ore >GGH !hen the ne! 2indo!s GH took
over,
It is a single user operating syste& ( only one user can *e using the syste& at a
given ti&e,
It is a single tasking operating syste& ( It allo!s $or the processing o$ only one
task at a ti&e
/se o$ short pro&pt co&&ands ( the user inter$aces !ith the co&puter syste&
through the use o$ co&&ands that are $ed into the co&puter usually a$ter the
pro&pt sign #J. e,g, C1KJcls #Co&&and to clear the screen.
Instructions are put in only through the key*oard
Once a $ile is deleted it can never *e recalled
The operating syste& is not user$riendly
6in$o)#
A !ido!s *ased operating syste& is &ore advanced than the MSDOS *ased
operating syste&,
It $eatures graphical user inter$aces #I/Is. ( /ser can $eed co&&ands into the
co&puter through the selection o$ relevant icons+ *ars+ *uttons+ *o-es or other
$or&s o$ i&ages #&ostly rese&*ling the intended device or operation.,
True &ultitasking ( the operating syste& allo!s $or nu&erous tasks to *e done at
the sa&e ti&e,
Net!orking ( the operating syste& is &ultiusa*le ( &any users can use it at the
sa&e ti&e, It is capa*le o$ holding a nu&*er o$ co&puter syste&s net!orked
together,
Multi&edia %resentations the operating syste& allo!s $or the presentation o$
in$or&ation in a variety o$ &edia including te-t+ graphic displays+ voice and other
audio+ photographs and video,
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Virtual Me&ory ( It allo!s $or the use o$ storage devices as e-tension o$ the &ain
&e&ory thus giving the appearance o$ a larger &ain &e&ory than actually e-ists,
Deleted $ile go to recycle *in
Makes use o$ easier input &ethods e,g, &ouse+ 0oystick
2indo!s operating syste&s has MSDOS option
4-a&ples o$ 2indo!s Operating Syste&s packages+ 2indo!s NT #ne! technology.
#>GGA. and 2indo!s GH,
In co&puter ter&s+ a !indo! is one section o$ a co&puter6s &ultiple section display
screen that can have a di$$erent display,
OS<B
It is called the Operating Syste& <B
It is an operating syste& developed *y I3M and !as introduced in >GGD !ith the
OS<B 2arp version as the latest one,
It provides graphical user inter$aces #I/Is.+ &ultitasking+ virtual &e&ory and
teleco&&unications,
/NIE
It !as originally developed *y ATLT *ut no! *eing o$$ered *y &any other
vendors,
It is a &ultitasking+ &ultiuser and net!ork &anaging operating syste&
3ecause o$ its porta*ility+ it can *e used on &ain$ra&es+ &idrange co&puters and
&icroco&puters,
It is a popular choice $or net!ork servers,
The Macinto#h Sy#tem
It is an operating syste& $or Apple $ro& Macintosh &icroco&puters
It is a popular I/I as !ell as &ultitasking and virtual &e&ory operating syste&,
It is &ade up o$ the $ollo!ing progra&s1
:anguage translators
/tility progra&s
Control progra&s
Co&&unication progra&s
Lang!age tran#lator# an$ (tility rogram#
Non&achine languages &ust *e converted into &achine language to *e e-ecuted *y
the C%/, This is one *y syste&s so$t!are called language translators,
A lang!age tran#lator converts a state&ent $ro& a highlevel progra&&ing language
into &achine language called source code !hereas the &achine language code is
re$ereed to as the o*0ect code, The translator converts the co&&and given in hu&an
language into the $or& the co&puter has *een progra&&ed to understand *e$ore
e-ecuting the instruction,
There are t!o types o$ language translators ( Interpreter L Co&piler
22
Interreter
This is a language translator that converts each #tatement in a progra& into &achine
language and e-ecutes the progra&&e state&ent at a ti&e
Comiler
This language translator translates a comlete rogram into a co&plete &achine
language progra&, The result is a progra& in &achine language that can *e run in its
entirety+ !ith a co&piler+ progra& e-ecution is a t!ostage process, First+ the
co&piler translates the progra& into a &achine language5 second the &achine language
progra& is e-ecuted,
Co&pilers run $aster than interpreters so are &ore pre$erred,
(tility rogram#
It is a standard set o$ routines that assist the operation o$ the co&puter syste& *y
per$or&ing so&e $re"uently re"uired processes such as to sort and &erge sets o$
data+ copy and keep track o$ co&puter 0o*s *eing run,
Control rogram#
These are designed to &anage the general $unctions o$ the processor+ &e&ory and
ter&inal inter$ace, The progra&s are arranged in a hierarchy at the top o$ !hich is a
.ernel or e5ec!ti2e rogram that controls the running o$ the other progra&s, In
&icroco&puters the supervisor is held in ROM !hile on larger co&puter syste&s it is
held on *acking store, 2hen the co&puter is s!itched on the supervisor is loaded into
&ain &e&ory+ the other progra&s are kept on disk and are trans$erred to &ain
&e&ory !hen they are needed,
The kernel assists the $ollo!ing1
The 9o- #che$!ler selects+ initiates+ ter&inates+ "ueues and se"uences the 0o*s that
de&and the use o$ the processor and &ain &e&ory,
The file manager has the responsi*ility o$ achieving the interleaving e$$ect o$
Multiprogra&&ing,
The In!t+O!t!t manager has the responsi*ility o$ &anaging the inter$ace !ith
ter&inals and *acking store in response to the re"uire&ents o$ any applications
progra& *eing e-ecuted,
Comm!nication# 'rogram#
23
These support net!ork co&puter syste&s *y allo!ing di$$erent types o$ hard!are to
*e linked and to co&&unicate !ith each other, The progra&s &ay help to select the
*est trans&ission &ediu& $or the &essage+ coding and sending the data,
*irt!al Storage Oerating Sy#tem
This re$ers to a syste& $or e-tending the capacity o$ &ain &e&ory $or running large
application or utility progra&s, The operating syste& separates progra&s into
sections so&e o$ !hich are put into *acking store, The locations o$ these sections
#addresses. and the part o$ the progra& *eing e-ecuted are held in &ain &e&ory5 the
sections are called in and processed
2hen re"uired and then returned to *acking storage, The sections o$ the progra&s
are called pages and are said to page in $ro& *acking store and page out !hen *eing
replaced *y other pages, The e-ecution o$ virtual storage is there$ore called paging,
A''LICATION SOFT6ARE
Applications are progra&s designed to help the user carry out speci$ic tasks $or
e-a&ple to &anipulate $igures or !rite te-ts,
This also consists o$ progra&s !ritten to solve artic!lar !#er"oriente$
ro-lem#: It applies the po!er o$ the co&puter to give individuals+ groups and
organisations the a*ility to solve pro*le&s and per$or& speci$ic activities or tasks
e,g, Accounts receiva*le+ accounts paya*le+ auto&atic teller &achines+ inventory
control+ li*rary operations and Control+ invoicing etc
Categories o$ generic applications1
6or$ 'roce##ing
A !ord processing package is designed to ena*le te-t to *e typed and &anipulated,
It has &any advantages over the type !riter+
- the a*ility to edit parts o$ the te-t !ithout re!riting the !hole
docu&ent
- allo!s $or spell checking $or& the co&puter;s Dictionary File+ i$ it
assu&es a !ord is &isspelt i$ not $ound in the dictionary. it highlights it
or so&eti&es even correct it auto&atically,
- allo!s $or centering te-t+ -ol$% underline and use o$ variety o$ $onts
#type$aces.
- allo!s $or the production o$ &ultiple original copies $ro& one so$tcopy,
%opular 2ordprocessing packages are Microso$t 2ord+ :otus 2ord+
2ord%er$ect+ Muattro 2ord,
Srea$ #heet#
24
- A spreadsheet package is used to per$or& calculations that have *een entered
onto a grid,
- For&ulae are entered into the grid using the $igures+ i$ the $igures change5 the
results o$ the $or&ulae are updated auto&atically,
- It is also possi*le to $ilter #select only the re"uired data.+ sort or per$or& other
$or&s o$ data &anipulations,
- It is possi*le to produce graphs+ charts and other $or&s o$ co&parison using the
entered $igures $ro& the spreadsheet,
- %opular e-a&ples o$ spreadsheet packages are1 Microso$t 4-cel+ :otus >BA+
Muattro %ro
Data-a#e#
- A data*ase is an organised store o$ in$or&ation+ $or e-a&ple an address *ook+ list
o$ e&ployees+ list o$ students+ custo&ers or ite&s o$ assets,
- A data*ase package is used to store records,
- Data can *e sorted+ $iltered $or separate vie!ing,
- Calculations and co&parisons *et!een data ite&s can *e done,
- %opular data*ase packages are1 Microso$t 4-cel+ lotus Approach+ %arado-+ d3ase
IV+ Data 4ase,
Grahic#
- These are applications designed solely $or designing graphs and te-t
charts<posters,
- They are o$ten used to produce slides $or use on overhead pro0ectors+ or
presentations on co&puterpro0ectors,
- Various types o$ charts are also produced
- 4-a&ples o$ graphics packages are1 Microso$t %o!er%oint+ :otus Freelance+
7arvard Iraphics+ Corel Dra!
De#.to '!-li#hing
- Desktop %u*lishing #DT%. applications give users po!er$ul and versatile page
design capa*ilities,
- The user can incorporate te-t and graphics on very e-act page layouts,
- These applications produce &aga)ines+ catalogues+ invitation cards+ *usiness cards
and other sophisticated docu&ents,
- The application links up !ell !ith other applications as the user can i&port te-t
and graphics $ro& the other applications,
- 4-a&ples o$ DT% packages are1 Microso$t %u*lisher+ %ageMaker+ Ventura and
Fra&e &aker,
25
S!ite# " Many applications are grouped together into suites !hich users can
purchase as one product containing+ $or e-a&ple+ 2ord%rocessing+ a Spreadsheet+
Iraphics application+ Desktop %u*lishing+ Data*ase application,
The follo)ing i# the criteria for #electing alication# #oft)are4
Accuracy it &ust *e $ree $ro& errors
Fle-i*ility &ust *e a*le to adapt to changing environ&ent,
Co&pati*ility it &ust *e co&pati*le !ith availa*le hard!are
Recency it &ust *e current
Cost it &ust have reasona*le cost
Originality It &ust *e original
Support consider continued support $ro& the supplier,
4ase o$ use it &ust *e user $riendly,
%er$or&ance it &ust have e$$iciency in *oth response ti&e and run ti&e,
So!rce# of Alication# Soft)are
There are three sources o$ applications so$t!are5
Inhouse
O$$the shel$
Fro& a contractor,

In"ho!#e De2eloe$ Soft)are
This approach re"uires a develop&ent tea& $ro& !ithin the organisation, The tea& is
usually co&prised o$ progra&&ers and analysts, The tea& &e&*ers should *e high
cali*re+ highly trained and relia*le
A$2antage#
Internal pro$essionals understand operations *etter and there$ore can produce an
accurate solution,
The So$t!are usually &eets user re"uire&ents,
Manage&ent are in total control o$ the develop&ent process
More $le-i*ility there is &ore $le-i*ility in &aking &odi$ications,
%ro*le& speci$icity inhouse developed so$t!are can give an organisation
so$t!are progra&s that are easily tailored to a uni"ue pro*le& or task,
Di#a$2antage#
Ti&e and costs o$ developing the progra& &ay *e greater than other options
Inhouse sta$$ &ay lack the e-pertise needed $or the pro0ect
Relia*ility o$ the resultant so$t!are is highly "uestiona*le,
In so&e cases the developers &ay atte&pt to gain $raudulently $ro& the syste&
26
Off"the Shelf
This is so$t!are that can *e purchased+ leased+ or rented $ro& a so$t!are co&pany
that develops progra&s and sells the& to &any co&puter users and organisations,
Applications such as $inancial accounting+ *usiness graphics and pay roll &ay *e
*ought,
A$2antage#
Cheaper the so$t!are co&pany is a*le to spread the so$t!are develop&ent cost
over a large nu&*er o$ custo&ers+ hence reducing the cost any one custo&er &ust
pay,
:ess risky the so$t!are is e-isting+ hence you can analyse the $eatures and
per$or&ance o$ the package,
The progra& is a !elltried and tested product !ith $e! errors,
:ess ti&e O$$the shel$ so$t!are is o$ten installed "uickly and easily,
The package is !ell docu&ented
The packages re"uire little &aintenance
There is continued support $ro& the supplier through upgrades,
Di#a$2antage#
The organisation &ight need to pay $or the $eatures that are not re"uired and
never used,
Tie package &ay *e $or general needs and there$ore not ideal $or the user,
The user has no direct control over the package+
So$t!are $ro& a Contractor
This involves contracting out so$t!are develop&ent to a so$t!are house *etter
kno!n as outsourcing especially !here o$$theshel$ packages are not availa*le,
A$2antage#
So$t!are houses e&ploy pro$essionals and this &ay *ene$it the organisation
Trans$er o$ skills to the e-isting pro$essionals in an organisation
Organisation can get support $ro& the contractor,
Di#a$2antage#
There could *e *reach o$ con$identiality,
Contractor &ay go *ankrupt and cease trading leaving the user !ith no support,
Contractor &ight not have su$$icient e-perience or understanding o$ the pro*le&
thus the solution &ight not *e satis$actory,
It takes ti&e $or the contractor to understand the user;s *usiness and operations
this &akes the approach e-pensive,
DATA COMM(NICATION
27
Re$ers to the &eans and &ethods !here*y data is trans$erred *et!een processing
locations through the use o$ co&&unication syste&s,
Comm!nication #y#tem# are de$ined as syste&s $or creating+ delivering+ and receiving
electronic &essages, The co&&unication syste& co&prises o$ the $ollo!ing1 a device
to send the &essage
- The channel or co&&unication &ediu&
- A device to receive the &essage
- A device to send the &essage
Mo$e# of Comm!nication an$ Co$e#
There are various &odes and codes o$ data trans&ission signals $ro& the sending to
the receiving device,
Analog!e tran#mi##ion
Analogue signals are continuous sine !aves that send a continuous Hvolt signal on a
channel *ut the signal !ill vary continuously *et!een NH to H volts, The nu&*er o$
cycles per second is the $re"uency o$ the signal and is e-pressed in units called hert)
#7)., The hu&an voice $or&s oscillating patterns o$ changes in air pressure, The
vi*rations act on the telephone &icrophone and are converted to electrical voltage
patterns that re$lect the characteristics o$ the speech pattern, Analogue
trans&ission is used to trans&it voice or data in analogue signals, It is used in
telephone syste&s and radio trans&ission,
Voltage
Analogue Signal

NH
H Ti&e
Digital Tran#mi##ion
This is the sending o$ data !ith digital sy&*ols o$ = and > representing the s!itching
on #>. and s!itching o$$ #=. pulses o$ electricity, Most co&puter syste&s use this to
create *its that &ake up *ytes, One cycle is &ade up o$ t!o pulses, The nu&*er o$
pulses per second is called the *aud rate,
Digital Signal
1
0
1
0
1
0
28
Time
Digital Trans&ission Versus Analogue Trans&ission
Digital trans&ission o$$ers less errors and noise in trans&ission especially over long
distances, There is little data $atigue as the data *eing send does not lose po!er over
the trans&ission so &uch that the signal is !eakened *y the length o$ the
trans&ission &edia, Digital trans&ission is co&pati*le !ith digital co&puters so there
is no need to convert the data &essages $ro& analogue to digital !hen co&puter
syste&s are using digital trans&ission lines, 7o!ever+ the setting up o$ digital
trans&ission lines especially over long distances is considera*ly e-pensive,
Data Tran#mi##ion Mo$e#
These are !ays through !hich organisations can co&&unicate via the channel or
trans&ission &edia,
Simle5 tran#mi##ion
Trans&ission takes place only in one direction, These are not suita*le $or long
distance trans&ission *ecause there is need $or ackno!ledge&ent or error &essages,
It is used in the co&puter printer co&&unication, This is also used in radio and
television trans&ission,
Half D!le5
Messages can *e sent *oth !ays *ut only one !ay at a ti&e, The channel alternately
sends and receives data *ut these are not done at the sa&e ti&e, The sa&e device is
used $or *oth sending and receiving, This is used in t!o!ay radio co&&unication,
F!ll D!le5
This per&its si&ultaneous trans&ission o$ &essages in *oth directions, Sending and
receiving can *e done at the sa&e ti&e using the sa&e devices, This is the &ode used
in &odern telephone<cellular trans&ission,
Sender Receiver
Sender Receiver
Sender Receiver
29
6ay# of Tran#mitting Data
a, A#ynchrono!# Tran#mi##ion 4ach character is sent do!n the channel
separately that each trans&ission unit is one unit in length, The characters are
sent character *y character at irregular intervals, The character is headed *y
a start *it and ended *y a stop *it, These *its tell the receiving device that a
character is co&ing and that the character has *een sent, There &ay *e a
parity *it to veri$y correctness o$ trans&ission, 4ven parity is used !here the
nu&*er o$ *its in the character is even and an odd parity syste& $or the
character !ith an odd nu&*er o$ *its,
This $or& is suita*le conversational interactions and used in standard
telephone lines using lo! trans&ission rates,

Synchrono!# tran#mi##ion %repared sets o$ characters are trans&itted together
as *locks at $i-ed rates, The &essage is preceded *y the parity *its to veri$y !hat
has *een received,
The *eginning and end *its represent s&all percentages o$ the total *its sent thus
reducing overhead costs o$ co&&unication,
Synchronous Trans&ission is $aster and less e-pensive as given in that character are
*locked and sent do!n as one &essage allo!ing $or the trans&ission o$ a $uller
&essage,
'rotocol# There is need $or there to *e a !ay o$ signalling the start and end o$ the
&essage *y the use o$ data trans&ission protocols, The use o$ the parity *its is one
&ethod+ use o$ OrogerO+ OoverO are protocols in t!o!ay radio co&&unication,
S)itching Alternati2e#
Circuit S!itching
2hen a call is &ade the co&&unication channel is opened and kept open until the
co&&unication session is co&plete,
Message S!itching
4ach &essage is sent to the receiver i$ a route is availa*le, The &essages are sent in
*locks one at a ti&e, The &essage &ay *e stored $or later trans&ission i$ the route
is not availa*le+ so&eti&es this is called storeand$or!ard trans&ission, The
&essage is delivered !hen the route *eco&es availa*le or upon de&and $ro& the
receiver,
30
%acket S!itching
This involves su*dividing the &essage into groups called packets, 4ach packet is then
sent to the destination separately via the $astest route, At the destination the
packets are put in se"uential order and delivered to the receiver, So&eti&es !hen
there is no route open+ the packets are stored and then $or!arded once the route is
open+ so these are also storeand$or!ard syste&s, These $ully put the net!ork to
*etter utilisation,
Comm!nication Channel# So!rce# an$ Me$ia
a, Telehone Sy#tem# telephone lines are used !ith online syste&s, The lines
can *e divided into leased and dial service lines,
#i. :eased :ines These are telephone lines that are dedicated to the
sole use *y the user to support online syste&s !ithin the
organisation, The telephone service provider #e,g Tel One. then
charges a $lat &onthly rate $or the service, In calculating the rate
the length o$ the line &ay *e considered,
#ii. Dial service 2ith this telephone line the user is charged each ti&e
the line is used $or online processing, 2hen all the lines connecting
the syste& are *usy a user has to !ait and an appropriate &essage is
given *y the syste&, The rate charged depends on the distance+ ti&e
o$ use #peak or o$$ peak.+ ti&e spent during trans&ission, This is
usually used $or long distance co&&unication *et!een syste&s e,g,
the Internet
A leased line service provides $or highlevel online activities, It is &uch cheaper to
use and provides *etter "uality trans&ission, The leased lines are &uch &ore $le-i*le
than dial service lines, /sers in the syste& have greater access through the &any
lines provided *y the co&&on carrier, 7o!ever+ leased lines are suita*le $or use in
one organisation or in one *uilding<locality,
The a&ount o$ data trans&itted depends on the capa*ilities o$ the co&&unication
channel, The capa*ilities &ay *e classi$ied as *and!idth,
3and!idth is the $re"uency range o$ the channel+ representing the &a-i&u&
trans&ission rate o$ the channel, The *and!idth can *e &easured in *its per second
#*ps.
A narro! *and the channel o$$ers the lo!est trans$er rate and supports
trans&ission through telegraph lines,
Voice *and this is a lo!speed analogue #o$$ering a rate *et!een A== and G@== *ps.
31
2ide*and these o$$er the highest trans$er rates !ith data co&&unication through
coa-ial ca*les,
*, Integrate$ Ser2ice# Digital Net)or. /ISDN0 it is an international e$$ort to
replace the analogue technology !ith digital technology through a single set o$
standard inter$aces,
c, Micro)a2e Satellite Tran#mi##ion These trans&issions are sent through the
air, The trans&ission uses a line o$ light that &ust *e uno*scured, /sually
these trans&issions are $ro& space satellites placed in stationary or*it and
earth satellites and are co&&unicated $ro& and to satellite dishes,
This $or& o$ trans&ission can trans&it large a&ounts o$ data over !ider areas, This
is in &uch use in !ide area television *roadcasting, Although trans&ission is o$ high
"uality+ setting up the syste& is very e-pensive,
d, Ra$io Tran#mi##ion This $or& o$ trans&ission uses radio !aves+
transportation and ta-i co&panies $or easier co&&unication use it, The police
and ar&y to co&&unicate also use this,
e,
$, Cell!lar Tran#mi##ion The local area under the trans&ission is divided into
cells, As the cellular trans&ission user &oves $ro& one cell to the other the
connection is passed $ro& one cell to the other, The signals $ro& individual
cells are integrated into one regular telephone syste&,
g, 'hy#ical Ca-le# Trans&ission uses physical ca*les !hich are connected to the
co&&unication points, There are three types o$ these ca*les1
#i. T)i#te$"'air 6ire ca-le this consists o$ a pair o$ t!isted !ires, The
!ires are insulated and t!isted to avoid the *leeding o$ signals $ro&
or into the each other, There are shielded !ires #!ith a special
conducting !ire. and unshielded t!istedpair #/T%. that has no
Source
Destination
Earth
Satellite
32
insulation, It is the type used in ho&e telephone connections, The
t!isted pair !ire ca*le is ine-pensive, 7o!ever+ it does not allo! high
rates o$ data trans$er+ and is prone to inter$erence and too *ulky,
#ii. Coa5ial ca-le Consists o$ an inner conductor coated !ith insulation
called a dielectric #a layer o$ $oil. that is covered *y nonconductive
insulation called a 0acket, This o$$ers a cleaner and crisper
trans&ission than the t!isted pair !ire ca*le and has a higher data
trans$er rate, 7o!ever+ it is &ore e-pensive,
#iii. Fi-re otic ca-le This is &ade up o$ a glass or plastic core
surrounded *y a cladding &aterial #paper+ polyethylene+ t!ine or
other sheathing., They use light !hich is turned on and o$$ rapidly
creating the on o$$ *it, The sheathing o$ the ca*le prevents loss o$
re$lection,
Advantages
>, 7igh trans&ission capacities
B, S&aller ca*le si)e and lighter !eight
A, Very little cross talk and spying
D, :ittle inter$erence
H, Repeaters #to *oast strength o$ the signal. are not re"uired
@, Are ideal $or ha)ardous conditions since there is no sparking,
These are ho!ever "uite e-pensive to purchase and set up,
COM'(TER NET6OR, SYSTEMS
A net!ork is a nu&*er o$ co&puters connected through so&e channel so that they
&ay share so&e o$ the resources and allo! access into the& *y users $ro& other
points,
A$2antage# of net)or.ing
a, Resources can *e shared e,g, printers+ co&puter $iles and progra&&es,
*, More even distri*ution o$ processing and other !ork *y the co&puters and
users,
c, More econo&ic and $uller use o$ co&puters,
d, Allo! $or the provision o$ local $acilities !ithout loss o$ central control,
e, Mutual support and a spirit o$ cooperation e-ist,
Di#a$2antage# of net)or.ing:
a, There could *e congestion at the shared resources,
*, Control o$ in$or&ation and con$identiality &ay *e lost,
c, The costs o$ the syste& &ay *e considera*le,
d, Viruses and other $or&s o$ corruption to progra&&es spread $aster
33
6i$e Area Net)or.# /6AN0
These are net!orks that are spread over large geographical areas, The telephone
syste& is one such 2AN, It is a long distant net!ork o$ interconnected co&puters on
separate sites+ cities or even di$$erent countries,
'!ro#e# of Imlementation of 6AN
To get data $ro& its source,
I&prove on the productivity o$ the syste& *y i&proving the speed o$ processing
Allo! $or instant $eed*ack and e-pansion o$ the syste&,
6AN har$)are
Ho#t# This provides users !ith processing so$t!are and access, The host is usually a
&ain$ra&e co&puter !ith &icroco&puters connected to it,
Front en$ 'roce##or# /FE'0 3 1ac. En$ 'roce##or# /1E'0 These are
&inico&puters that are placed in $ront o$ #F4%. or at the *ack #34%. o$ the &ain
syste& C%/, These assist the &ain syste& C%/ !ith accepting input per$or& the
operations on it *e$ore $or!arding it to the &ain$ra&e C%/ $or $urther processing or
a$ter the &ain syste& C%/ to assist !ith the output activities, They generally &anage
co&&unications, The &ain syste& C%/ concentrates on process !ork !ithout having
to handle input and output activities,
Mo$em# This is short $or Modulate De&odulate, Telephone lines that are co&&on
link &edia *et!een co&puters use the analogue signal !hereas co&puters use digital
signals, So there is need to convert the signals, Fro& the sending co&puter+ the
digital signal should *e &odulated to analogue signal $or trans&ission over the
telephone link, At the receiving end the analogue signal has to *e de&odulated
#converted *ack. into the digital signal,
Modulation can *e done using a nu&*er o$ &ethods, A&plitude &odulation #AM. !here
the a&plitude is &odi$ied to represent *inary digits = and >, Fre"uency Modulation
#FM. ad0usts $re"uency to represent the *its = and >, The %hase Shi$t Modulation
ad0usts a $i-ed a&ount so that = and > can correspond to di$$erent phase shi$ts,
Terminal# These are the &icroco&puters connected to the syste& on !hich the
users can !ork to sent data or access in$or&ation, Ter&inals &ay *e du&p or
intelligent, Du&p ter&inals have li&ited &e&ory and intelligence !hile intelligent
ter&inals have processing and &e&ory capa*ilities that they can process data
the&selves,
34
M!ltile5or it is a device that can su*divide one *ig channel so that &any people can
use it at the sa&e ti&e, There are t!o types o$ &ultiple-ors1 ti&e division and
$re"uency division,
Ti&e Division Multiple-ors #TDM. It slices &ultiple inco&ing signals into s&all
ti&e intervals that are then trans&itted over a channel and then split *y
another TDM at the receiving end,
Ti&e Slots Ti&e
Fre"uency Division Multiple-or #FDM. inco&ing signals on di$$erent $re"uency
ranges are sent across a trans&ission &ediu& at the sa&e ti&e, At the receiving end
another FDM splits the $re"uencies into &ultiple signals again,
Terminal controller#+Concentrator#" are used to connect &any ter&inals to a single
line+ they do not co&&unicate directly !ith the F4%,
%rotocol Converters 3ecause o$ the diversity o$ technology in co&&unication+ 2ANs
are using various devices+ channels+ &odes and codes, To allo! $or co&&unication
*et!een and a&ong all these protocol converters are used to translate di$$erent
signals $ro& one syste& to another, Typical protocol converters include 7TT% #7yper
Te-t Trans$er %rotocol. used on Internet co&&unications+ TC%<I%,
Multile!or




"
#
S
$
Multile!or
35
6AN Soft)are
In order $or the 2AN hard!are to operate there should appropriate so$t!are !hich
should include teleco&&unications access progra&&es that handle &essages *et!een
the host;s &e&ory and the re&ote devices+ this progra&&e could *e in the F4%,
There is also the net!ork control progra&&e that has the !ork o$ running the
net!ork o$$ the host *y checking i$ ter&inals have &essages to send+ do editing o$
inco&ing &essages,
Net)or. concern# For the Manager
>, Relia*ility o$ the net!ork there should *e &ini&al *reakdo!n and errors in
the syste&,
B, Response ti&e o$ the Net!ork there should *e less ti&e spent on picking
the re"uired signals !hen re"uired,
A, Costs o$ the Net!ork costs o$ setting up and &aintaining the syste& &ay
*e considera*le+ so the &anager should reduce these,
D, Co&pati*ility o$ So$t!are and hard!are hard!are and the so$t!are should
*e co&pati*le #capa*le o$ !orking together. other!ise there should at least
*e so&e conversion o$ either the so$t!are or the hard!are to suit the
other,
H, Access and Security o$ the Syste& !ith 2AN there is greater risk o$
data *eing accessed *y unauthorised people+ there should *e &easures to
reduce this risk e,g, use o$ pass!ords+ physical access protection or through
encryption #coding o$ data so that in the event that it is intercepted it &ay
not *e understood.
6AN Toology
Pi&*a*!e
So!th Africa

Terminal# Ho#t
Mode% Mode%
Multile!or
Multile!or
36
LOCAL AREA NET6OR,S /LAN0
It is an interconnected group o$ &inico&puters or other ter&inals !ithin a s&all
geographical area, The area could *e a roo&+ a nu&*er o$ o$$ices or a *uilding,
LAN Har$)are an$ Soft)are
Net)or. 6or.#tation# these are usually &icroco&puters $ro& !here a user can
!ork to enter or receive data $ro& the net!ork, These could *e du&p ter&inals or
diskless 2orkstations,
File Ser2er# These are co&puter syste&s attached to a net!ork that control
acce## to an$ other )i#e manage har$ $i#.# to allo! the !orkstations to share disk
space+ progra&&es and data and to control the net)or.,
'rint Ser2er# these are co&puters that have the duty o$ &anaging the printer
resources+ that is allocating print ti&e+ and carrying out other print routines,
Comm!nication Ser2er# these &anage co&&unication devices in the net!ork
#&ode&s+ &ultiple-ors., A &icroco&puter or even the $ile server could do this 0o*
provided that it is not too *usy !ith its o!n $unctions,
Ca-ling these connect the di$$erent co&puter syste&s and devices in the net!ork,
So&eti&es :ANs use radio !aves and thus are !ireless,
Net)or. interface Car$# these provide the necessary translation o$ signals
*et!een the devices in the net!ork, They are so&eti&es called adapters,
The Net)or. oerating Sy#tem These are progra&&es that &anage the operations
o$ the net!ork allo!ing the user to install the net!ork+ the application so$t!are+
analyse and solve net!ork pro*le&s+ &anage the sending+ routing and delivery o$
&essages and do other routine and housekeeping duties $or the net!ork,
LAN Toologie#
Topologies are !ays in !hich a net!ork can *e structured or arranged depending on
the resources+ the needs and the structure o$ the given organisation,
>, Star Toology there is a central node the $ile server #!hich could *e a
&inico&puter or &icroco&puter. to !hich all other co&puters in the syste&
are connected, All the processing and storage are done *y the host #central
co&puter., There is no direct interter&inal co&&unication,
The net!ork is suita*le $or use in o$$ices and ho&es,
Advantages
a, It is easy to trou*le shoot
*, It is econo&ic and o$$ers intensive use o$ the ter&inals
37
c, Re"uires a single intelligent co&puters+ ter&inals could *e du&p there *y
saving on the cost o$ the net!ork,
d, 4ach ter&inal has direct and "uicker access to the host
Disadvantages
a, It is prone to $ailure $ailure o$ the node &ean loss and *reakdo!n to the
!hole syste&,
*, The ca*ling &ay *e costly
c, Viruses can *e trans&itted easily !ithin the net!ork
B, 1!# /M!lti$ro0 Toology
All the co&puters are connected to a linear trans&ission &ediu& called a *us through
the use o$ a tap, The tap is used to create a link up to the &ediu& and to the
net!ork,
This net!ork handles higher tra$$ic,
A$2antage#
a, Costs o$ setting up and &aintaining the net!ork are lo!,
*, 4ach ter&inal can co&&unicate directly !ith any other on the net!ork,
Di#a$2antage#
a, Risk o$ net!ork &al$unction
*, Are &ore trou*leso&e than the star topology,
c, Trou*le shooting is &ore di$$icult,
d, There is the risk o$ data collision,
;: Ring Toology
It is &ade up o$ a series o$ nodes connected to each other to $or& a closed loop,
4ach loop can accept data trans&itted to it $ro& an i&&ediate neigh*our and
"ost
$er%inal
38
$or!ard data not addressed to it to the ne-t neigh*our, Messages are
trans&itted in packets or $ra&es, 4ach node has an address and packet is
delivered to the node *earing the address re"uired,
A$2antage#
a, There is *ypass technology so that &essages can *e passed on $ro& a $ailed
!orkstation *reakdo!n o$ a !orkstation does not a$$ect the net!ork &uch,
*, It is easy to install
c, There is less risk o$ packet collision
d, More accurate and relia*le
Di#a$2antage#
a, There is poor response ti&e
*, There is risk o$ data interception so there should *e data encyption,
c, /n!anted data &ay continue to circulate the net!ork+ thus reducing tra$$ic
carrying capacity o$ the net!ork,
D, Me#h Toology
This topology co&*ines the ring and the star topologies, 3idirectional links are
esta*lished,
This o$$ers *etter co&&unication and reduces the risk o$ data collision *ecause o$
the e-istence o$ alternative routes, The net!ork has "uick response ti&e and is very
accurate, 7o!ever+ the costs o$ the ca*ling are "uite considera*le,
H, Hierarchical /Tree0 Toology
39
The nodes are connected to $or& a hierarchy, Messages are passed along the
*ranches until they reach their destinations, These net!orks do not need a
centralised co&puter that controls co&&unications, These are also very easy to
trou*leshoot and repair *ecause the *ranches can *e separated and serviced
separately,
@, Mi5e$ Toologie#
Various topologies are co&*ined into one net!ork,
LAN concern# for the Manager
Costs o$ connection ca*les and so$t!are
Co&pati*ility o$ the hard!are and so$t!are
Appoint&ent o$ a net!ork &anager !here necessary,
THE INTERNET
The Internet is a !orld!ide net!ork o$ co&puter syste&s, Millions o$ co&puter
net!orks in di$$erent parts o$ the !orld are connected *y telephone lines+ ca*les+
radio and &icro!ave links and &ode&s, 3ecause the telephone syste& is not yet $ully
digitali)ed+ there is need to convert the predo&inantly digital co&puter signal to
analogue and reconvert to digital, This is done *y the Mo$em #short $or Modulator
de&odulator. !hich sits *et!een the co&puter and the telephone line, Mode&s &ay
*e e-ternal or internal to the %C, There are &any organi)ations that o$$er internet
services, These are called Internet Service %roviders #IS%s. and they usually charge
a &onthly $ee $or the connection, So&e IS%s do not charge a $ee $or the service, I$
you !ant to e-plore the Internet+ a !e* *ro!ser is re"uired, A !e* *ro!ser contains
progra&&es that assist in the sur$ing o$ the internet, The &ost used !e* *ro!ser is
Microso$t Internet 4-plorer,
40
6e- #ite &
2e* address (
Facilities on the Internet
Electronic Mail
It is co&&only re$erred to as the e&ail, 4very user o$ the e&ail has a uni"ue
address, 4&ail addresses have an Q+ $or e-a&ple &iriro&Qyahoo,co& One can send
and receive &essages the sa&e !ay an ordinary letter is sent and received, 4&ail
&essages are sent $ro& user to user on a co&puter net!ork !ith &essage *eing
stored in the recipient6s &ail*o- or in*o-, The ne-t ti&e the user logs on+ he is told
that there is a ne! &essage+ these &essages can *e read+ printed or replied, 4&ail
allo!s $or the sending o$ attach&ents, These are $iles that contain greater detail and
are *ased on a particular application package like Microso$t 2ord+ Micro$o$t 4-cel,
One can even send a CV+ an assign&ent or other docu&ent using e&ail,
4&ail &akes use o$ an e-isting internet connection and so$t!are, 7o!ever+ there is a
&isconception in the &inds o$ &any students that e&ail and internet are one and the
sa&e thing, Internet provides &any $acilities and the e&ail is only one o$ the&,
Advantages o$ e&ail
>, Speed Messages are received instantly
- %rovides certainty o$ delivery o$ &ail
- Reading+ sending replies+ redirecting &assages is $aster,
B, Cost Ienerally cheaper than ordinary &ail
- :ess or no paper used,
A, Ti&e :ess ti&e spent on the phone !aiting to *e put through+ $inding people
uno*taina*le+ holding the line *ecause line is engaged and leaving &essages and having
to call again,
D, Fle-i*ility Anyone !ith a %C at ho&e can send and receive &essages out o$ o$$ice
hours,
- Messages can *e sent and received at any co&puter that is linked to
the net!ork,
Di#a$2antage# of e"mail
>, Delay ( i$ a recepient takes long to log on+ the speed advantages is lost
- I$ there is a pro*le& !ith the recepient6s server+ one &ay not kno!
i&&ediately i$ the &essage has *een received or not,
B, In$or&ation Overload ( So&eti&es there &ay *e too &any &essages
- So&eti&es i&portant or urgent &essages are overlooked,
A, Runk &ail ( There &ay lots o$ un!anted &essages received,
41
D, 3reakdo!ns ( O$ten log on pro*le&s &ay result in &essages not *eing sent or
received,
H, Security ( There is the concern a*out security o$ con$idential in$or&ation that
is sent and<or received,
Intranet
It is the net!ork o$ co&puters usually !ithin a co&pany that uses e&ail and *ro!ser
so$t!are *ut is not part o$ the internet, 4&ployees can use the Intranet to access
in$or&ation related to the co&pany such as training+ social activities+ 0o*
opportunities and product in$or&ation, It ena*les e&ployees to share in$or&ation,
E"commerce
It involves the internet transactions o$ goods and services to *usinesses and
consu&ers and can include1
- retail ( you can *uy virtually anything on the Internet+ e,g *ooks
- *anking ( there are online *anking $acilities that allo! the pay&ent o$
*ills and access o$ *alances,
- Travel arrange&ents ( airline and rail tickets can *e *ought and sold
on the internet and *ookings &ade thereon,
Consu&ers connect to the online service and can then order goods and pay $or these
using a credit or de*it card,
DATA 'ROCESSING
It is the process o$ collecting data and converting it into in$or&ation, It &ay *e
&anual #!here only hu&an e$$ort is used.+ se&i&anual !here hu&an e$$ort is aided
*y an electronic device or &echanical<electronic+ !here co&puters replace hu&an
e$$ort,
Types o$ Data %rocessing
<: Centrali#e$ $ata roce##ing
This is !here data is sent to and processed at a central place,
Advantages o$ centralised data processing
a, All re"uired in$or&ation can *e got $ro& one place
*, :ittle distortion o$ in$or&ation
c, 4asy to &anage and control
d, Cheaper to i&ple&ent
e, 4asier to en$orce standards
$, Is not co&plicated
42
Di#a$2antage#
a, The !hole syste& is distur*ed !hen the co&puter is do!n,
*, /sers o$ the syste& have little control over the data even their o!n,
c, :oss o$ data *y the processing co&puter &ay &ean loss o$ data at other points,
d, Needs specialists to set up and &aintain the syste& and its environ&ent,
e, %rocessing o$ data &ay *e slo! due to congestion at the central co&puter,
B, Di#tri-!te$ roce##ing
Data is processed at di$$erent points in the organisation, 3ranch or depart&ent &ay
have a &icroco&puter or &inico&puter that processes the in$or&ation, The
&inico&puter in the *ranch then sends to a host co&puter a$ter processing,
A$2antage#
a, Data lost at any point &ay *e recovered $ro& the host
*, Faster processing o$ data
c, %rocessing &ay occur even i$ the host co&puter is do!n
d, /ser have so&e control over their data
e, %ro*le& can *e solved at the di$$erent points
Di#a$2antage#
a, The syste& needs e-pensive e"uip&ent and has high &aintenance costs,
*, Manage&ent and control di$$icult
c, There is dada duplication at the di$$erent points
d, No uni$or&ity o$ data
e, There is no overall control ti&e
=: 1atch roce##ing
A central co&puter syste& nor&ally processes all transactions against a central data
*ase and produces reports at intervals, In *atch processing transactions are
accu&ulated over a period o$ ti&e and processed periodically, A -atch #y#tem
handles the inputing+ processing+ 0o* "ueuing and trans&ission o$ the data $ro& the
re&ote sites !ith little or no user intervention,
3atch processing involves,
a, Data gathering $ro& source docu&ents at the re&ote site through the re&ote
0o* entry #RR4.
*, recording the transaction data onto so&e &ediu& e,g, &agnetic tape or disk,
c, Sorting the transactions into transaction $iles
d, %rocessing o$ the data
"#S$ &#M'($ER
1 2 3 4 5 6
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e, /pdating the &aster $ile,
A$2antage#
a, It is econo&ical !hen large a&ounts o$ data are *eing processed
*, Suita*le !here reports and in$or&ation is needed periodically,
c, Reduced risk o$ error due to the ti&e involved in validation and veri$ication,
Di#a$2antage#
a, Master $iles are o$ten out o$ date
*, I&&ediate updated responses cannot *e &ade,
c, /nsuita*le !here decisions and $ollo! up transactions depend on the results o$
earlier transactions e,g, in *ank !ithdra!als and deposits,
d, Once the syste& $ails all output is delayed,
>: On"line 'roce##ing
It is the input o$ transactions !hile the input device is connected directly to the &ain
C%/ o$ the syste&, There is no necessity o$ a *atch,
A$2antage#
a, Ite&s can *e input &uch easier and "uicker,
*, Many errors are dealt !ith *y the operator at entry
c, Ti&e is saved *ecause a *atch does not have to *e produced $irst,
d, /ser can recognise ano&alies in the data *eing entered
Di#a$2antage#
a, The syste& &ay *e &ore e-pensive than *atch processing,
*, So&eti&es accuracy o$ data depends on the operator !ho &ight $ail to detect
or prevent so&e errors,
c, So&eti&es source docu&ent are not used e,g, in the case o$ telephone orders,
?: On"line Real time roce##ing
It is the continual receiving and rapid processing o$ data as to *e a*le to $eed*ack
the result o$ that input to the source o$ that data, There is no delay *et!een the
input o$ a transaction and the updating o$ the &aster $iles $or the transaction, The
only delay is $or the necessary validation and veri$ication o$ the data, This allo!s $or
i&&ediate processing o$ data and results generated to provide i&&ediate output to
users, Data does not have to !ait+ as is the case under *atch processing,
Data is $ed directly into the co&puter syste& $ro& online ter&inals !ithout the
storing+ sorting #these are done online.
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A$2antage#
%rocessing is instantaneous
Files and data*ases are al!ays up to date
Di#a$2antage#
The syste&s are e-pensive to and co&ple- to develop and put up,
Data !ith errors &ay *e processed !ith da&aging e$$ect,
7ard!are costs are high+ there is need $or online ter&inals+ &ore C%/ po!er+
large online storage and *ack up $acilities,
@: Time Sharing 'roce##ing
%rocessor ti&e is shared *et!een users to provide &ultiaccess #&any users accessing
data at the sa&e ti&e., This can *e done *y &inico&puters and &ain$ra&e co&puter
syste&s,
Advantages
a, 4ach user is given a chance
*, More than one person can use the co&puter at the sa&e ti&e,
Disadvantages
The user &ay not re"uire a service at the ti&e his slice is given this results in too
&uch e-cess capacity at so&e periods,
THE DATA 'ROCESSING CYCLE
Data Ac"uisition
#Fro& source Docu&ents.

Output Co&&unication Input< Capture#validation checks+
veri$ication.

Storage %rocessing
45
Stage >
Data ac"uisition this is the collection o$ data $ro& source docu&ents #receipts+
delivery notes. $or input into the co&puter syste&,
Stage B
Input<Capture This is the putting o$ the ac"uired data into the syste& e,g, through
typing+ scanning+ or other $or&s o$ input,
Veri$ication data is checked $or &istakes in copying so that it is correct,
There &ay *e gar*age in and gar*age out #IIIO. &eaning that in$or&ation syste&s
!ill produce erroneous output i$ provided !ith erroneous input data or instructions,
To avoid IIIO co&&on validation is done1
a, Checking data reasona*leness+ e,g, pregnancy $or a three year old !ould *e
unreasona*le,
Checking data consistency e,g, it !ould *e inconsistent to record a pregnant
&ale,
*, Checking range units e,g, it !ould *e i&possi*le to have A=hours !orked *y one
!orker in a day,
Ti&eliness that data is not out o$ date,
Validation the "uality o$ the data is checked *e$ore it is entered or processed and
errors detected and eli&inated,
*ali$ation metho$#
Allo)e$ character chec.#
Checks that ascertain that only e-pected characters are present in a $ield, For
e-a&ple a nu&eric $ield &ay only allo! the digits =G+ the deci&al point and
perhaps a &inus sign or co&&as, A te-t $ield such as a personal na&e &ight
disallo! characters such as S and J+ as they could *e evidence o$ a &arkup*ased
security attack, An e&ail address &ight re"uire at least one Q sign and various
other structural details, Regular e-pressions are e$$ective !ays o$ i&ple&enting
such checks, #See also data type checks *elo!.
1atch total#
Checks $or &issing records, Nu&erical $ields &ay *e added together $or all
records in a *atch, The *atch total is entered and the co&puter checks that the
total is correct+ e,g,+ add the ;Total Cost; $ield o$ a nu&*er o$ transactions
together,
Car$inality chec.
46
Checks that record has a valid nu&*er o$ related records, For e-a&ple i$
Contact record classi$ied as a Custo&er it &ust have at least one associated
Order #Cardinality J =., I$ order does not e-ist $or a Ocusto&erO record then it
&ust *e either changed to OseedO or the order &ust *e created, This type o$
rule can *e co&plicated *y additional conditions, For e-a&ple i$ contact record
in %ayroll data*ase is &arked as O$or&er e&ployeeO+ then this record &ust not
have any associated salary pay&ents a$ter the date on !hich e&ployee le$t
organi)ation #Cardinality C =.,
Chec. $igit#
/sed $or nu&erical data, An e-tra digit is added to a nu&*er !hich is calculated
$ro& the digits, The co&puter checks this calculation !hen data are entered,
For e-a&ple the last digit o$ an IS3N $or a *ook is a check digit calculated
&odulus >=,
Con#i#tency chec.#
Checks $ields to ensure data in these $ields corresponds+ e,g,+ I$ Title C OMr,O+
then Iender C OMO,
Control total#
This is a total done on one or &ore nu&eric $ields !hich appears in every record,
This is a &eaning$ul total+ e,g,+ add the total pay&ent $or a nu&*er o$
Custo&ers,
Cro##"#y#tem con#i#tency chec.#
Co&pares data in di$$erent syste&s to ensure it is consistent+ e,g,+ The address
$or the custo&er !ith the sa&e id is the sa&e in *oth syste&s, The data &ay *e
represented di$$erently in di$$erent syste&s and &ay need to *e trans$or&ed
to a co&&on $or&at to *e co&pared+ e,g,+ one syste& &ay store custo&er na&e
in a single Na&e $ield as ;Doe+ Rohn M;+ !hile another in three di$$erent $ields1
FirstTNa&e #Rohn.+ :astTNa&e #Doe. and MiddleTNa&e #Muality.5 to co&pare
the t!o+ the validation engine !ould have to trans$or& data $ro& the second
syste& to &atch the data $ro& the $irst+ $or e-a&ple+ using SM:1 :astTNa&e UU
;+ ; UU FirstTNa&e UU su*str#MiddleTNa&e+ >+ >. !ould convert the data $ro& the
second syste& to look like the data $ro& the $irst ;Doe+ Rohn M;
Data tye chec.#
Checks the data type o$ the input and give an error &essage i$ the input data
does not &atch !ith the chosen data type+ e,g,+ In an input *o- accepting
nu&eric data+ i$ the letter ;O; !as typed instead o$ the nu&*er )ero+ an error
&essage !ould appear,
File e5i#tence chec.
Checks that a $ile !ith a speci$ied na&e e-ists, This check is essential $or
progra&s that use $ile handling,
Format or ict!re chec.
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Checks that the data is in a speci$ied $or&at #te&plate.+ e,g,+ dates have to *e in
the $or&at DD<MM<VVVV,
Regular e-pressions should *e considered $or this type o$ validation,
Ha#h total#
This is 0ust a *atch total done on one or &ore nu&eric $ields !hich appears in
every record, This is a &eaningless total+ e,g,+ add the Telephone Nu&*ers
together $or a nu&*er o$ Custo&ers,
Limit chec.
/nlike range checks+ data are checked $or one li&it only+ upper OR lo!er+ e,g,+
data should not *e greater than B #SCB.,
Logic chec.
Checks that an input does not yield a logical error+ e,g,+ an input value should not
*e = !hen it !ill divide so&e other nu&*er so&e!here in a progra&,
're#ence chec.
Checks that i&portant data is actually present and have not *een &issed out+
e,g,+ custo&ers &ay *e re"uired to have their telephone nu&*ers listed,
Range chec.
Checks that the data lie !ithin a speci$ied range o$ values+ e,g,+ the &onth o$ a
person;s date o$ *irth should lie *et!een > and >B,
Referential integrity
In &odern relational data*ase values in t!o ta*les can *e linked through $oreign
key and pri&ary key values in the pri&ary key $ield are not constrained *y
data*ase internal &echanis&+ then they should *e validated, Validation o$ the
$oreign key $ield checks that re$erencing ta*le &ust al!ays re$er to a valid ro!
in the re$erenced ta*le,
Selling an$ grammar chec.
:ooks $or spelling and gra&&atical errors,
(niA!ene## chec.
Checks that each value is uni"ue, This can *e applied to several $ields #i,e,
Address+ First Na&e+ :ast Na&e.,
Ta-le Loo. ( Chec.
A ta*le look up check takes the entered data ite& and co&pares it to a valid list
o$ entries that are stored in a data*ase ta*le,
Stage A
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%rocessing this is the key part o$ the cycle !here data is converted into
in$or&ation, This is !here calculations and other logical and &anipulative operations
on the data are done, Speci$ic applications are used to process the data e,g, !ord
processing+ spreadsheet+ payroll packages etc
Stage D
Storage in$or&ation is stored on various storage &edia including hard disks+ $loppy
disks+ &agnetic tapes etc,
Stage H
Output The processed in$or&ation is eventually displayed $or use *y the user
through the various output syste&s printers+ VD/s+ sound cards L speakers,
DATA 'ROCESSING 'ERSONNEL
The 0o* involving the capture+ processing and output o$ data and in$or&ation involves
a nu&*er o$ people, So&eti&es there &ay *e one person to do this and o$ten there
&ay *e a depart&ent solely responsi*le $or data processing or $or In$or&ation
technology, The data processing depart&ent interacts !ith all other depart&ents
$ro& !here it gets data and $or !ho& it processes and eventually provides the
in$or&ation to,
The &ain $unctions o$ a D% depart&ent are1
a, Design and install a custo& *uilt syste& o$ data capture and processing,
*, %rovision o$ advice to the organisation on &atters regarding the processing o$
in$or&ation e,g, the selection o$ the correct devices $or input+ process+ storage
and output,
c, %rovides advice on the installation o$ a package or in$or&ation syste&
d, Manage the organisation;s data processing resources,
A typical D%<IT depart&ent
Data %rocessing Manager
Syste&s Manager %rogra&&ing Manager Operations Manager
D3A 3A SA TA A% S% D%S S: D%:
CO CO CO CO CO CO
,ey4 D3A Data*ase Ad&inistrator
49
3A 3usiness Analyst
SA Syste& Analyst
TA Technical Analyst
A% Application analyst
S% Syste& %rogra&&er
D%S Data control Supervisor
S: Shi$t :eader
D%: Data %rocessing :i*rarian
CO Co&puter Operator
>, Data roce##ing Manager
7e is the head o$ the IT or D% depart&ent covering the three &ain areas o$ syste&
develop&ent+ progra&&ing+ and operations &anage&ent,
The Main D!tie# of the D'M
a, Develop&ent and assisting in producing data processing policy $or the
organisation,
*, 4-ecution o$ the de$ined data processing policy
c, Manage&ent o$ the data processing $unction
d, :iasing !ith data user depart&ents
e, 2orking !ith &anage&ent to identi$y pro*le& areas and areas o$ i&prove&ent,
$, 4nsuring proper syste&s develop&ent+ syste& &aintenance and co&puter
operating standards e-ist+ are kept up to date,
g, 4nsuring proper security and *ackup arrange&ents are in e-istence and are
tested regularly,
h, 4nsuring that the syste&s are ade"uately docu&ented,
i, 4nsure proper evaluation o$ the i&ple&ented syste&s,
0, %roviding suita*le training $or the data personnel,
k, Coordination o$ all activities in the depart&ent
l, Resolution o$ con$lict !ithin the depart&ent and *et!een the depart&ent and
other depart&ents,
&, %rovide guidance on issues o$ data processing
n, Reco&&ends on sta$$ing issues,
B, Sy#tem Analy#t
The title and $unction o$ this person &ay vary $ro& organisation to organisation or as
an organisation develops $ro& stage to the other, As the co&puter is applied to the
di$$erent organisational pro*le&s+ the duties o$ the analyst &ay change,
50
A *usiness analyst !ould re"uire less skill than the syste& designer or the technical
analyst, These personnel deal !ith &ore or less the sa&e task *ut !ith di$$ering
depth,
Main D!tie#
a, 4-a&ine the $easi*ility o$ potential co&puter applications and to consider all
the various approaches to co&puterisation that are availa*le,
*, To per$or& the proper analysis o$ user syste&s and re"uire&ents,
c, Develop a cost *ene$it analysis in con0unction !ith the users,
d, Design syste&+ !hich take into account not only the co&puter procedures *ut
the clerical and other procedures around the co&puter syste&,
e, To speci$y the check and controls to *e incorporated into the syste& in
con0unction !ith the audit sta$$,
$, To speci$y the &ost appropriate processing techni"ues to *e used e,g, &icro+
&ini or &ain$ra&e+ *atch or real ti&e processing,
g, To ensure that there is proper co&&unication and clear instructions at each
stage o$ the pro0ect e,g, progra&&e speci$ication+ $ile set up+ operating
instructions+ print out volu&es,
h, To ensure the syste& is properly set up and docu&ented,
i, To ensure a proper environ&ent $or syste& testing and pilot running and
parallel running o$ the syste& as &ay *e appropriate,
A, 'rogrammer
A$ter design the progra&&er co&es in, 7e uses the progra& speci$ications produced
*y the analyst<syste& designer to develop the progra&&e, The progra&&e
speci$ications &ay consist o$ $ile and records layouts+ $ield description+ report and
screen layouts, A $lo! chart or diagra& indicating the &ain logical steps in the
proposed progra& &ay *e &ade, The progra&&er converts speci$ications $ro& the
syste& analyst into a !orking progra&&e,
Duties
a, To reach an understanding o$ !hat each progra&&e is e-pected to do and to
clari$y any pro*le&s !ith the analyst or syste&s designer,
*, To design the structure o$ the progra&&e in accordance !ith installations
standards,
c, To provide a !orking o$ an e$$icient progra&&e using the installations
standards !ithin the *udgeted ti&e and $unds,
d, To test progra&&es thoroughly *oth as a unit and in relation to other
progra&&es,
e, To provide the re"uired progra&&e docu&entation,
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Once the progra&&e is in place+ the &aintenance progra&&er !ould take the
responsi*ility o$ correcting any su*se"uent pro*le&s and reco&&end any
i&prove&ents,
Sy#tem# 'rogrammer
7e specialises in nonapplication progra&&es e,g, operating syste&s+ data
co&&unications
D!tie#
a, :iaising !ith co&puter supplier to keep a*reast !ith operating syste& changes,
*, Support syste&s analyst and progra&&er regards "ueries on the syste&
so$t!are per$or&ance and $eatures,
c, Assisting the progra&&er to interpret and resolve pro*le&s !hich appear to
*e caused *y the syste& so$t!are rather than application so$t!are,
H, Alication rogrammer
7e !rites progra&&es or adapts so$t!are packages to carry out speci$ic task or
operations $or the co&puter users e,g, a sales analysis progra&&e $or the &arketing
depart&ent,
D!tie#
a, discuss the progra&&e speci$ication !ith the analyst,
*, To !rite the sources progra& &odule,
c, To test the progra&&e and de*ug it,
d, To &aintain progra&&es correcting errors+ &aking i&prove&ents L
&odi$ications to allo! $or changing *usiness &ethods+ circu&stances or
e"uip&ent,
e, 4ncode the procedure detailed *y the analyst in a language suita*le $or the
speci$ied co&puter,
$, :iase !ith the analyst and other users on the logical correctness o$ the
progra&&e,
@: Com!ter Oerator
S<he operates the &ain$ra&e or &ini co&puter, 7e is responsi*le $or the e$$icient
running o$ the co&puter e"uip&ent+ !hich i$ not ensured e$$icient running ti&e o$
the co&puter &ay *e lost,
D!tie#
a, Collecting $iles and progra&s re"uired $or a co&puter run $ro& the li*rary,
*, :oading &agnetic tapes and disks into drives,
c, %utting stationery into the printer,
52
d, Carrying out routine &aintenance such as cleaning the tapes and read !rite
heads,
e, 4nsure the e"uip&ent is running e$$iciently and reporting any $aults to the
technicians,
$, Replace&ent o$ co&puter accessories e,g, toner catridges+ ri**ons+ ink,
g, S!itching the co&puter on<o$$,
h, 7andles and operates the co&puter hard!are,
i, 7andles co&puter input and output,
0, Responds to &essages on the operator;s console pro&pted *y the operating
syste& that &onitors the user;s re"uests and the status o$ the peripherals,
k, 2atching the process o$ individual 0o*s and o$ the co&puter in general,
l, 'eeping a log o$ !hat happens to supple&ent the log that the co&puter
produces,
F, Data 'rearation+Entry Cler.
This is the key station operator !ho transcri*es source data into co&puter sensi*le
$or&,
D!tie#
a, %repares data $or input into the co&puter
*, 4nters the data into the co&puter $or processing,
c, Monitors the processing and output,
d, Does so&e operations o$ the co&puter operator,
?, Data-a#e A$mini#trator
This is a person responsi*le $or planning+ designing and &aintaining the organisation;s
data*ase, This person relates to the &anage&ent+ syste& analysts+ progra&&ers and
other stakeholders in the organisation, 7e needs to have ade"uate &anagerial and
technical a*ilities to suit the 0o*, 7e there$ore &ust have a sound kno!ledge o$ the
structure o$ the data*ase and the D3MS,
Duties
a, 4nsure that the data*ase &eets the needs o$ the organisation,
*, 4nsure $acilities $or the recovery o$ data
c, 4nsure the $unctioning o$ report generation syste&s $or& the D3MS
d, The D3A is also responsi*le $or the docu&entation o$ the D3MS through the
designing and availing o$ the data dictionary and &anuals $or the users giving
such direction as the general use o$ the data*ase+ access to in$or&ation+
deletion o$ records $ro& the syste& and the general validation and veri$ication
o$ data,
Duties o$ the personnel overlap and depending on the si)e o$ the organisation or the
IT depart&ent so&e duties are done *y one person,
53
FILE AND DATA1ASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
File Concet#
The purpose o$ a co&puter $ile is to hold data re"uired $or providing in$or&ation, A
co&puter $ile is a collection o$ related records, Records consist o$ $ields and the
$ields are &ade up o$ characters, A character is the s&allest ele&ent o$ a $ile, A
character &ay *e a letter o$ the alpha*et+ a digit or o$ a special $or& #sy&*ols.,
:ogical $iles sho! !hat data ite&s are contained and !hat processing &ay *e done
!hile physical $iles are vie!ed in ter&s o$ ho! data is stored on storage &edia,
Tye# of File#
>, Ma#ter File# ( They hold per&anent data $or use in applications such as stock
control+ credit control, /sually &uch o$ the data ite&s in these $iles do not
change $re"uently or !ith each transaction e,g na&e+ address or date o$ *irth,
B, Tran#action file# ( These are also called &ove&ent $iles, They hold te&porary
records o$ values, They are used to update the &aster $ile and are over!ritten
a$ter the updating o$ the &aster $ile,
A, Loo. ! file# ( they are re$erence $iles $ro& !hich such in$or&ation as prices
list and &ailing list can *e o*tained,
D, Archi2e file# ( these are $iles that are used to store in$or&ation that has not
*een in use in the recent past and !ould not *e in use in the near $uture ( so
are used to store historical data,
File Str!ct!re#
This is the !ay a records are stored on the storage device or &ediu&, This is ho! the
$iles are arranged, The arrange&ent also a$$ects the !ay these $iles !ill *e accessed,
>, SeA!ential File# ( the $iles are stored and accessed in se"uence i,e, one a$ter
another, Access the $ile is dependent on the position o$ the $ile on the storage
&ediu&, Accessing the $iles is *y &oving usually through spooling to the
relevant $ile, This is the structure o$ $iling on &agnetic tapes, It is &ost
suita*le !here all the records on the $ile are *eing considered e,g, in the
preparation o$ a payroll *ut !ould *e ine$$icient !here the selection o$ one
record is necessary e,g, access to one e&ployee on the payroll,
54
B, The Direct File Str!ct!re ( The $iles are rando&ly stored, Access and storage
o$ the records not depend on the physical position o$ the record on the $ile,
This is the $or& o$ $ile structure on &agnetic disks+ $loppy disks+ or on optical
disks, 4ach record is given a speci$ic disk address *y !hich it is recogni)ed and
accessed, This is the structure used to store and access records and $iles on
the Auto&atic Teller Machine #ATMs. syste&s, Access to records is &uch
$aster, 7o!ever+ there could *e con$lict resolution !here several records
generate the sa&e address ( this pro*le& has *een dealt !ith the use o$
con$lict resolution &echanis&s on the co&puter and $iling syste&s,
A, In$e5e$ SeA!ential File Str!ct!re ( This co&*ines the $eatures o$ se"uential
and direct $ile structures, Records are stored se"uentially on a direct access
&ediu& like the hard disk and each record occupies an addressa*le location
identi$ia*le *y the uni"ue disk address, An inde- is developed to keep track o$
the records and their physical locations on the storage &ediu&, The records
can *e stored and accessed se"uentially starting $ro& the *eginning &oving
through the records one at a ti&e or can *e stored and accessed directly e,g,
the !ay the cell phone6s phone *ook is structured,
N3 On all the types and structures discussed a*ove a user &ay add or re&ove a $ile
or record+ &odi$y contents o$ the $ile or record+ vie! the contents o$ the data and
create reports as &ay *e necessary, These operations on the data can *e done online
i,e, $iles and records updated as the transactions are *eing entered $ro& a device
connected onto the &ain C%/ o$ the syste&,
DATA1ASE CONCE'TS
A data*ase is a single organised collection o$ structured data, It is a collection o$
related $iles that are stored in a uni$or& !ay $or ease o$ access, It can also *e
de$ined as a collection o$ logically related records or $iles previously stored
separately so that a co&&on pool o$ data records is $or&ed,
A data*ase has a nu&*er o$ advantages over the keeping o$ separate $iles1
Data Independence data can *e de$ined and descri*ed separately $ro& the
application progra&&e, 2here there is no data independence a change in any record
!ould then necessitate the changing o$ the progra&&e to access the $ile,
Data Redundancy The sa&e data ele&ent appears in a nu&*er o$ $iles *ut serving
the sa&e purpose and usually thus staying unused,
55
Data Inconsistency this is !hen redundant data is not updated accurately so &uch
that there are di$$erences in the data ele&ents on the di$$erent $iles,
Advantages o$ the Data*ase
a, 4asier data sharing leading to econo&ies o$ scale
*, Reduced data redundancy
c, I&proved data consistency
d, I&proved data independence
e, Inreased application progra&&er productivity
$, I&proved data ad&inistration and control
g, Increased e&phasis on data as a resource
Disadvantages o$ Data*ases
a, Concurrence pro*le&s !here &ore than one user access and atte&pt to
update the sa&e record at the sa&e ti&e there is $ile edit locking to prevent
this,
*, O!nership pro*le&s so&eti&es so&e individuals tend to o!n the data and
thus re$use access *y other individuals or depart&ents in the organisation,
c, Resources pro*le& !ith data*ase e-tra resources are needed e,g, &ore
!orkstations and other devices,
d, Security pro*le&s there is increased e-posure to unauthori)ed entry into the
data this could *e reduced *y the use o$ regularly changed pass!ords and *y
physically denying access to unauthori)ed users,
The Data-a#e Management Sy#tem /D1MS0
It is a co&ple- syste& o$ so$t!are that constructs+ e-pands and &aintains the
data*ase, It provides a controlled inter$ace *et!een the data*ase and the user,
Comonent# of a D1MS
Data Dictionary this is a data*ase &anage&ent tool that has na&es and
descriptions o$ all data ele&ents !ithin a data*ase,
Application
Programme
Application
Programme
DBMS
DB
56
Data repositories these are an e-tension o$ the data dictionary !hich provide a
directory o$ co&ponent parts o$ the d3 and other in$or&ation resources in the
organisation,
Data languages a de$inition language is needed to place the data in the data
dictionary through the use o$ co&&ands such as #ort% get% fin$ etc:
Teleprocessing Monitor This is a so$t!are that controls and &anages the
co&&unication *et!een re&ote ter&inals e,g, $ro& and to sales points in a large
depart&ental store,
Applications Develop&ent So$t!are this is a set o$ develop&ent so$t!are used
to help the user progra&&er to develop data*ase so$t!are,
Security So$t!are this is a set o$ so$t!are used to &ini&i)e unauthori)ed
access to the data*ase,
Archiving and Recovery Syste&s these syste&s are used to store *ackups o$ the
original record so that i$ the original data*ase is da&aged the in$or&ation can still
*e recovered,
Report 2riters these allo! the user to o*tain reports $ro& the data "uicker and
easier,
F!nction# of the D1MS
a, Allocates storage space to data
*, It &aintains indices to allo! $or easy access too data ite&s,
c, It allo!s $or the addition+ editing and deletion o$ $iles in the data*ase,
d, %rovides an inter$ace !ith user progra&&es !hich &ay *e !ritten in di$$erent
progra&&ing languages,
e, %rovides $or the processing o$ $iles in di$$erent !ays1
#i. processing o$ a co&plete $ile #se"uentially or serially.
#ii. process re"uired records #selective+ se"uential or rando&.
#iii. retrieve individual records
$, %rovides security $or the data in the data*ase through1
#i. denying unauthori)ed access to data
#ii. preventing data corruption
#iii. providing data recovery in the case o$ $ailure
57
g, 'eeps a record o$ statistics o$ the use o$ data in the data*ase+ this assists in
the re&oval o$ redundant #duplicated. data+ it also keeps $re"uently used data
&ore accessi*le,
The Data-a#e A$mini#trator
This is a person responsi*le $or planning+ designing and &aintaining the
organisation;s data*ase, This person relates to the &anage&ent+ syste& analysts+
progra&&ers and other stakeholders in the organisation, 7e needs to have
ade"uate &anagerial and technical a*ilities to suit the 0o*, 7e there$ore &ust
have a sound kno!ledge o$ the structure o$ the data*ase and the D3MS,
Re#on#i-ilitie# of the D1A
e, 4nsure that the data*ase &eets the needs o$ the organisation,
$, 4nsure $acilities $or the recovery o$ data
g, 4nsure the $unctioning o$ report generation syste&s $or& the D3MS
h, The D3A is also responsi*le $or the docu&entation o$ the D3MS through the
designing and availing o$ the data dictionary and &anuals $or the users giving
such direction as the general use o$ the data*ase+ access to in$or&ation+
deletion o$ records $ro& the syste& and the general validation and veri$ication
o$ data,
Data-a#e #tr!ct!re# /Entity relation#hi Mo$el#0
Records in the data*ase &ay *e set in di$$erent !ays depending on the
relationships *et!een the records the&selves,
>, One to One relation#hi this is !here one record is related to one other
record e,g, single parent record to one child record
This can *e represented in a relational entity &odel+ in 4R diagra&s
> Represents >
This could *e !here one sales representative deals !ith one custo&er $or e-a&ple,
Record
Recor
ddd
Record
Record
58
B, One to many relation#hi# one parent to &any children
In the form of an E"R $iagram
> Represents N
e,g, one sales representative $or relating to &any custo&ers,
A, Many to one !here there are &any parents to one child
In 4R diagra&
M Represents M
e,g, &any sales representatives relating !ith on custo&er+ &any lecturers relating to
one student,
D, Many to &any !ith t!o or &ore parents relating to t!o or &ore children
Record
Record
Record Record
Record
Records
Record Record Record
Record
Records
Record
Record Record Record
Record
Record
Record
59
In 4R diagra&1
M Represents M
This could *e the &any sales reps relate to &any custo&ers,
Di#tri-!te$ *er#!# Centrali8e$ Data-a#e
A distri*uted data*ase is !hen the data*ases are scattered !hereas a centrali)ed
d3 is !here the data*ases are located in one area and usually under &anage&ent o$ a
group o$ people, A d3 &ay *e distri*uted in t!o !ays1 Replicated or partitioned,
A replicated d3 is one that has *een copied and is kept at di$$erent geographical
locations, This allo!s $or easier recovery i$ one $ails and reduces data trans&ission
costs+ as there !ould *e little long distance trans&ission thus is also $aster, This+
ho!ever+ it is e-pensive in ter&s o$ co&puter resources,
A partitioned d3 is one that is split into seg&ents and each seg&ent distri*uted to
the relevant location, This reduces trans&ission costs and provides a $aster
turnaround ti&e in input+ processing and output, There is reduced data inconsistency
and redundancy, 7o!ever+ there is need $or &ore co&puter resources that are costly,
An Online d3 this is a d3 that is allo!s $or the i&&ediate updating o$ $iles $ro&
re&ote ter&inals since input !ill *e directly into the syste& e,g, stock &arket
in$or&ation,
DATA SEC(RITY
This re$ers to &easures to reduce unauthori)ed access to+ use and destruction o$ an
organisation6s data and data resources,
Data is a valua*le resource like any other asset o$ an organi)ation, Data like &oney
can *e stolen and e-changed $or so&e value, Organisations have so&e pieces o$ data
that are con$idential and these need to *e secure, 4very organi)ation needs to take
security o$ hard!are+ so$t!are and data seriously *ecause the conse"uences o$
*reaches o$ security can *e e-tre&ely da&aging to a *usiness, This &ay lead to loss
o$ production+ cash $lo! pro*le&s+ loss o$ custo&ers and reputation,
Records
Records
60
Threats to security co&e $ro& outside #e-ternal. and inside #internal. the
organisation
Securing data entails &aking sure that the co&puters are in the right environ&ent+
there are right so$t!are &easures to reduce loss or the$t o$ data,
Sec!rity of EA!iment
There is need to look a$ter the co&puter hard!are !ell to avoid loss o$ data or the
co&puters the&selves,
Re"uire&ents $or a Co&puter 4nviron&ent #Co&puter Roo&.
>, Ventilation ( a good roo& has to *e ade"uately ventilated, I$ ventilation is poor
the co&puter &ay over heat and thus $ail to operate properly,
B, %o!er supply ( po!er supply should o$ the right voltage and supplied $ro& sa$e
socket outlet, %o!er ca*les should not cross the roo& to avaid inter$ering !ith
$ree &ove&ents,
A, /se o$ /ninterupted %o!er Supplies #/%S. ( in the event o$ unanticipated
po!er loss or po!er surge there should *e so&e stand*y po!er alternative so
that the users6s in$or&ation is not lost,
D, Carpet ( Carpets are good dust a*sor*ers+ this thus reduces dust in the roo&+
dust inter$eres !ith the operation o$ electronic e"uip&ent,
H, Curtains ( Curtains reduce the a&ount o$ light getting to the screens and other
co&puter e"uip&ent, :ight da&ages screens,
@, :ocka*le doors ( doors should *e locka*le to avoid unauthori)ed access to the
co&puters or the$t or vandalis& o$ the co&puter syste&s, The key should *e
kept !ith so&e responsi*le person,
F, Metal 3ars and Shutters ( Fit roo& !ith &etal *ars and shutter,
?, An alar& syste& ( an alar& syste& &ay *e installed to !arn o$ an intrision,
G, ID *adges ( all users to use ID *adges $or access to the roo& or *uilding,
>=, Security guards ( have a t!enty$our hour guard to the roo&,
>>, Attach co&puters per&anently to desks using cla&ps to avoid the$t o$ the
co&puter#s.,
>B, 7ave all e"uip&ent serial nu&*ers $or use i$ e"uip&ent is stolen,
>A, 7ave $ire $ighting syste&s in place to deal !ith ant risks o$ $ire to the
e"uip&ent,
>D, Reduce levels o$ &oisture ( &oisture da&ages electronic e"uip&ent,
Sec!rity of Data
61
Data itsel$ is at risk o$ accidental or deli*erate loss and the$t,
Acci$ental Lo##
Accidental loss &ay *e caused *y1
- docu&ent is accidentally deleted
- co&puter *reaks do!n or po!er $ails
- $ile or disk *eco&es corrupted
- $ile is destroyed *y $ire or $lood,
To reduce the risk o$ loss to accidental loss there is the use o$ *ack up o$ data (
there should *e a saved copy o$ the original $ile that is kept on a di$$erent &ediu&
and place,
Deli-erate Damage
This is loss o$ data *y viruses or hackers
*ir!#e#
A co&puter virus is a har&$ul progra& that copies itsel$ onto other progra&&es and
destroys the& or inter$eres !ith their proper $unctioning,
%resence o$ viruses can *e noticed *y1
#a. Displaying o$ &essages
#*. Deleting data and progra&&e $iles
#c. Failure o$ co&puter to detect peripherals
#d. Display o$ irritating &essages or i&ages
#e. 4-aggerated $ile and docu&ent si)es,
#$. /n!anted $or&atting o$ hard disk
#g. %laying &usic
#h. Co&puter $ails to *oot up
Viruses are trans&itted $ro& co&puter to co&puter, They copy the&selves "uickly,
4$$ects o$ viruses &ay *e &ild to severe, So&e viruses are har&less and co&puters
&ay operate nor&ally,
Characteri#tic# of 2ir!#e#
#a. Copies itsel$
#*. 7ides
62
To reduce the risk o$ viral in$ection1
#a. /se antivirus so$t!are
#*. /se genuine so$t!are
#c. 2rite protect all so$t!are progra&s
#d. Make regular
COM'(TERS AND HEALTH AND SAFETY
Co&puter and co&puter e"uip&ent have negative health e$$ects on the users,
Research is still *eing carried out to deter&ine the e-tent o$ the e$$ects on the
health o$ users,
The &ain e$$ects are1
#a. Repetitive Strain In0ury #RSI.
#*. 4ye strain $ro& VD/ use
#c. 3ad posture
#d. Risk o$ an accident
#e. 4-posure to radiation
#a. Reetiti2e Strain In9!ry This re$ers to disorders that a$$ect the hands+
!rists+ ar&s+ shoulders or neck o$ co&puter operators, It is in$la&&ation o$
the 0oints and is caused *y &aking the sa&e s&all &ove&ents over and over
again, This can cause pain+ nu&*ness+ s!elling and the ina*ility to li$t or grip
o*0ects, In so&e cases+ operators have *eco&e per&anently disa*led,
To re$!ce RSI
- &ake sure the desk and chair are at suita*le heights
- sit at a co&$orta*le distance $ro the key*oard
- &ake sure that lo!er ar&s are hori)ontal and !rists straight !hen using
a key*oard or &ouse,
- /se a !rist rest i$ necessary so that you do not rest you !rists on the
edge o$ the ta*le or key*oard,
- Take $re"uent *reaks to stretch your ar&s and $ingers
#*. Eye Strain From *D(
/sing the VD/ $or long periods at a ti&e &ay a$$ect a user6s eyes and in so&e
instances cause headaches,
63
To reduce eye strain1
- desks and VD/s area arranged to avoid glare or *right re$lections on the
screen,
- Arrange desks so that user is not looking at !indo!s or lights
- /se curtains and !indo! *linds
- Sharply $ocus VD/ so that characters do not &ove and $licker
- 7ave regular eye tests
- Ad0ust screen *rightness and contrast to suit lighting conditions
- Ad0ust the angle o$ the screen to your sitting height
- 'eep the screen clean
- /se a docu&ent holder so that you do not lean over to read docu&ents,
- Take a *reak every B= to A= &inutes,
#c. 'o#t!re
Sitting incorrectly or !ithout right support at a co&puter ter&inal $or long
periods &ay result in *ack+ neck and upper ar& pains,
To reduce posture related pro*le&s1
- /se ad0usta*le chairs to ad0ust height
- /se ad0usta*le *ackrests
- /se s!ivel chairs
- /se $ootrest
- Al!ays sit !ell
- Change sitting positions regularly
- Take $re"uent short *reaks
#d. Ri#. of Acci$ent
I$ it &ay *e necessary to shi$t a co&puter+ i$ not done properly &ay result in
in0ury to the !orker, There &ay also *e pro*le&s relating to po!er and $alling
over o$ co&puter e"uip&ent that is not put up properly,
#e. Ri#. of E5o#!re Ra$iation
So&e co&puter e"uip&ent produces radiation that has longter& e$$ects on
users or on un*orn *a*ies,
SYSTEMS DE*ELO'MENT LIFE CYCLE
64
The syste&s develop&ent li$e cycle is a pro0ect &anage&ent techni"ue that divides
co&ple- pro0ects into s&aller+ &ore easily &anaged seg&ents or phases, Seg&enting
pro0ects allo!s &anagers to veri$y the success$ul co&pletion o$ pro0ect phases
*e$ore allocating resources to su*se"uent phases,
So$t!are develop&ent pro0ects typically include initiation+ planning+ design+
develop&ent+ testing+ i&ple&entation+ and &aintenance phases, 7o!ever+ the phases
&ay *e divided di$$erently depending on the organi)ation involved, For e-a&ple+ initial
pro0ect activities &ight *e designated as re"uest+ re"uire&entsde$inition+ and
planning phases+ or initiation+ conceptdevelop&ent+ and planning phases, 4nd users o$
the syste& under develop&ent should *e involved in revie!ing the output o$ each
phase to ensure the syste& is *eing *uilt to deliver the needed $unctionality,
Note1 4-a&iners should $ocus their assess&ents o$ develop&ent+ ac"uisition+ and
&aintenance activities on the e$$ectiveness o$ an organi)ation6s pro0ect &anage&ent
techni"ues, Revie!s should *e centered on ensuring the depth+ "uality+ and
sophistication o$ a pro0ect &anage&ent techni"ue are co&&ensurate !ith the
characteristics and risks o$ the pro0ect under revie!,
INITIATION 'HASE
Care$ul oversight is re"uired to ensure pro0ects support strategic *usiness
o*0ectives and resources are e$$ectively i&ple&ented into an organi)ation;s
enterprise architecture, The initiation phase *egins !hen an opportunity to add+
i&prove+ or correct a syste& is identi$ied and $or&ally re"uested through the
presentation o$ a *usiness case, The *usiness case should+ at a &ini&u&+ descri*e a
proposal6s purpose+ identi$y e-pected *ene$its+ and e-plain ho! the proposed syste&
supports one o$ the organi)ation6s *usiness strategies, The *usiness case should also
identi$y alternative solutions and detail as &any in$or&ational+ $unctional+ and
net!ork re"uire&ents as possi*le,
The presentation o$ a *usiness case provides a point $or &anagers to re0ect a
proposal *e$ore they allocate resources to a $or&al $easi*ility study, 2hen
evaluating so$t!are develop&ent re"uests #and during su*se"uent $easi*ility and
design analysis.+ &anage&ent should consider input $ro& all a$$ected parties,
Manage&ent should also closely evaluate the necessity o$ each re"uested $unctional
re"uire&ent, A single so$t!are $eature approved during the initiation phase can
re"uire several design docu&ents and hundreds o$ lines o$ code, It can also increase
testing+ docu&entation+ and support re"uire&ents, There$ore+ the initial re0ection o$
unnecessary $eatures can signi$icantly reduce the resources re"uired to co&plete a
pro0ect, I$ provisional approval to initiate a pro0ect is o*tained+ the re"uest
65
docu&entation serves as a starting point to conduct a &ore thorough $easi*ility
study, Co&pleting a $easi*ility study re"uires &anage&ent to veri$y the accuracy o$
the preli&inary assu&ptions and identi$y resource re"uire&ents in greater detail,
The $easi*ility support docu&entation should *e co&piled and su*&itted $or senior
&anage&ent or *oard study, The $easi*ility study docu&ent should provide an
overvie! o$ the proposed pro0ect and identi$y e-pected costs and *ene$its in ter&s
o$ econo&ic+ technical+ and operational $easi*ility, The docu&ent should also descri*e
alternative solutions and include a reco&&endation $or approval or re0ection, The
docu&ent should *e revie!ed and signed o$$ on *y all a$$ected parties, I$ approved+
&anage&ent should use the $easi*ility study and support docu&entation to *egin the
planning phase,
'LANNING 'HASE:
The planning phase is the &ost critical step in co&pleting develop&ent+ ac"uisition+
and &aintenance pro0ects, Care$ul planning+ particularly in the early stages o$ a
pro0ect+ is necessary to coordinate activities and &anage pro0ect risks e$$ectively,
The depth and $or&ality o$ pro0ect plans should *e co&&ensurate !ith the
characteristics and risks o$ a given pro0ect, %ro0ect plans re$ine the in$or&ation
gathered during the initiation phase *y $urther identi$ying the speci$ic activities and
resources re"uired to co&plete a pro0ect, A critical part o$ a pro0ect &anager6s 0o* is
to coordinate discussions *et!een user+ audit+ security+ design+ develop&ent+ and
net!ork personnel to identi$y and docu&ent as &any $unctional+ security+ and net!ork
re"uire&ents as possi*le,
DESIGN 'HASE
The design phase involves converting the in$or&ational+ $unctional+ and net!ork
re"uire&ents identi$ied during the initiation and planning phases into uni$ied design
speci$ications that developers use to script progra&s during the develop&ent phase,
%rogra& designs are constructed in various !ays, /sing a topdo!n approach+
designers $irst identi$y and link &a0or progra& co&ponents and inter$aces+ then
e-pand design layouts as they identi$y and link s&aller su*syste&s and connections,
/sing a *otto&up approach+ designers $irst identi$y and link &inor progra&
co&ponents and inter$aces+ then e-pand design layouts as they identi$y and link
larger syste&s and connections, Conte&porary design techni"ues o$ten use
prototyping tools that *uild &ockup designs o$ ite&s such as application screens+
data*ase layouts+ and syste& architectures, 4nd users+ designers+ developers+
data*ase &anagers+ and net!ork ad&inistrators should revie! and re$ine the
prototyped designs in an iterative process until they agree on an accepta*le design,
Audit+ security+ and "uality assurance personnel should *e involved in the revie! and
approval process,
66
Manage&ent should *e particularly diligent !hen using prototyping tools to develop
auto&ated controls, %rototyping can enhance an organi)ation6s a*ility to design+ test+
and esta*lish controls, 7o!ever+ e&ployees &ay *e inclined to resist adding additional
controls+ even though they are needed+ a$ter the initial designs are esta*lished,
Designers should care$ully docu&ent co&pleted designs, Detailed docu&entation
enhances a progra&&er6s a*ility to develop progra&s and &odi$y the& a$ter they are
placed in production, The docu&entation also helps &anage&ent ensure $inal progra&s
are consistent !ith original goals and speci$ications, Organi)ations should create
initial testing+ conversion+ i&ple&entation+ and training plans during the design phase,
Additionally+ they should dra$t user+ operator+ and &aintenance &anuals,
Alication Control Stan$ar$#
Application controls include policies and procedures associated !ith user activities
and the auto&ated controls designed into applications, Controls should *e in place to
address *oth *atch and online environ&ents, Standards should address procedures
to ensure &anage&ent appropriately approves and control overrides, Re$er to the IT
7and*ook6s OOperations 3ookletO $or details relating to operational controls,
Designing appropriate security+ audit+ and auto&ated controls into applications is a
challenging task, O$ten+ *ecause o$ the co&ple-ity o$ data $lo!s+ progra& logic+
client<server connections+ and net!ork inter$aces+ organi)ations cannot identi$y the
e-act type and place&ent o$ the $eatures until interrelated $unctions are identi$ied
in the design and develop&ent phases, 7o!ever+ the security+ integrity+ and relia*ility
o$ an application is enhanced i$ &anage&ent considers security+ audit+ and auto&ated
control $eatures at the onset o$ a pro0ect and includes the& as soon as possi*le in
application and syste& designs, Adding controls late in the develop&ent process or
!hen applications are in production is &ore e-pensive+ ti&e consu&ing+ and usually
results in less e$$ective controls,
Standards should *e in place to ensure end users+ net!ork ad&inistrators+ auditors+
and security personnel are appropriately involved during initial pro0ect phases, Their
involve&ent enhances a pro0ect &anager;s a*ility to de$ine and incorporate security+
audit+ and control re"uire&ents, The sa&e groups should *e involved throughout a
pro0ect6s li$e cycle to assist in re$ining and testing the $eatures as pro0ects progress,
Application control standards enhance the security+ integrity+ and relia*ility o$
auto&ated syste&s *y ensuring input+ processed+ and output in$or&ation is
authori)ed+ accurate+ co&plete+ and secure, Controls are usually categori)ed as
preventative+ detective+ or corrective, %reventative controls are designed to prevent
unauthori)ed or invalid data entries, Detective controls help identi$y unauthori)ed or
invalid entries, Corrective controls assist in recovering $ro& un!anted occurrences,
Input Controls
67
Auto&ated input controls help ensure e&ployees accurately input in$or&ation+
syste&s properly record input+ and syste&s either re0ect+ or accept and record+ input
errors $or later revie! and correction,
'roce##ing Control#
Auto&ated processing controls help ensure syste&s accurately process and record
in$or&ation and either re0ect+ or process and record+ errors $or later revie! and
correction, %rocessing includes &erging $iles+ &odi$ying data+ updating &aster $iles+
and per$or&ing $ile &aintenance,
O!t!t Control#
Auto&ated output controls help ensure syste&s securely &aintain and properly
distri*ute processed in$or&ation,
DE*ELO'MENT 'HASE:
The develop&ent phase involves converting design speci$ications into e-ecuta*le
progra&s, 4$$ective develop&ent standards include re"uire&ents that progra&&ers
and other pro0ect participants discuss design speci$ications *e$ore progra&&ing
*egins, The procedures help ensure progra&&ers clearly understand progra& designs
and $unctional re"uire&ents,
%rogra&&ers use various techni"ues to develop co&puter progra&s, The large
transactionoriented progra&s associated !ith $inancial institutions have traditionally
*een developed using procedural progra&&ing techni"ues, %rocedural progra&&ing
involves the line*yline scripting o$ logical instructions that are co&*ined to $or& a
progra&,
%ri&ary procedural progra&&ing activities include the creation and testing o$ source
code and the re$ine&ent and $inali)ation o$ test plans, Typically+ individual
progra&&ers !rite and revie! #desk test. progra& &odules or co&ponents+ !hich are
s&all routines that per$or& a particular task !ithin an application, Co&pleted
co&ponents are integrated !ith other co&ponents and revie!ed+ o$ten *y a group o$
progra&&ers+ to ensure the co&ponents properly interact, The process continues as
co&ponent groups are progressively integrated and as inter$aces *et!een co&ponent
groups and other syste&s are tested,
Advance&ents in progra&&ing techni"ues include the concept o$ Oo*0ectoriented
progra&&ing,O O*0ectoriented progra&&ing centers on the develop&ent o$ reusa*le
progra& routines #&odules. and the classi$ication o$ data types #nu&*ers+ letters+
dollars+ etc,. and data structures #records+ $iles+ ta*les+ etc,., :inking prescripted
&odule o*0ects to prede$ined dataclass o*0ects reduces develop&ent ti&es and
&akes progra&s easier to &odi$y, Re$er to the OSo$t!are Develop&ent Techni"uesO
68
section $or additional in$or&ation on o*0ectoriented progra&&ing,
Organi)ations should co&plete testing plans during the develop&ent phase,
Additionally+ they should update conversion+ i&ple&entation+ and training plans and
user+ operator+ and &aintenance &anuals,
De2eloment Stan$ar$#:
Develop&ent standards should *e in place to address the responsi*ilities o$
application and syste& progra&&ers, Application progra&&ers are responsi*le $or
developing and &aintaining enduser applications, Syste& progra&&ers are
responsi*le $or developing and &aintaining internal and opensource operating
syste& progra&s that link application progra&s to syste& so$t!are and su*se"uently
to hard!are, Managers should thoroughly understand develop&ent and production
environ&ents to ensure they appropriately assign progra&&er responsi*ilities,
Develop&ent standards should prohi*it a progra&&er;s access to data+ progra&s+
utilities+ and syste&s outside their individual responsi*ilities, :i*rary controls can *e
used to &anage access to+ and the &ove&ent o$ progra&s *et!een+ develop&ent+
testing+ and production environ&ents, Manage&ent should also esta*lish standards
re"uiring progra&&ers to docu&ent co&pleted progra&s and test results thoroughly,
Appropriate docu&entation enhances a progra&&er;s a*ility to correct progra&&ing
errors and &odi$y production progra&s,
Coding standards+ !hich address issues such as the selection o$ progra&&ing
languages and tools+ the layout or $or&at o$ scripted code+ and the na&ing
conventions o$ code routines and progra& li*raries+ are outside the scope o$ this
docu&ent, 7o!ever+ standardi)ed+ yet $le-i*le+ coding standards enhance an
organi)ation6s a*ility to decrease coding de$ects and increase the security+ relia*ility+
and &aintaina*ility o$ application progra&s, 4-a&iners should evaluate an
organi)ation6s coding standards and related code revie! procedures,
Li-rary Control#
:i*raries are collections o$ stored docu&entation+ progra&s+ and data, %rogra&
li*raries include reusa*le progra& routines or &odules stored in source or o*0ect
code $or&ats, %rogra& li*raries allo! progra&&ers to access $re"uently used
routines and add the& to progra&s !ithout having to re!rite the code, Dyna&ic link
li*raries include e-ecuta*le code progra&s can auto&atically run as part o$ larger
applications,
Li-rary control# #ho!l$ incl!$e4
69
*er#ion Control#
:i*rary controls $acilitate so$t!are version controls, Version controls provide a
&eans to syste&atically retain chronological copies o$ revised progra&s and progra&
docu&entation, Develop&ent version control syste&s+ so&eti&es re$erred to as
concurrent version syste&s+ assist organi)ations in tracking di$$erent versions o$
source code during develop&ent, The syste&s do not si&ply identi$y and store
&ultiple versions o$ source code $iles, They &aintain one $ile and identi$y and store
only changed code, 2hen a user re"uests a particular version+ the syste& recreates
that version, Concurrent version syste&s $acilitate the "uick identi$ication o$
progra&&ing errors, For e-a&ple+ i$ progra&&ers install a revised progra& on a test
server and discover progra&&ing errors+ they only have to revie! the changed code
to identi$y the error,
Soft)are Doc!mentation
Organi)ations should &aintain detailed docu&entation $or each application and
application syste& in production, Thorough docu&entation enhances an organi)ation6s
a*ility to understand $unctional+ security+ and control $eatures and i&proves its
a*ility to use and &aintain the so$t!are, The docu&entation should contain detailed
application descriptions+ progra&&ing docu&entation+ and operating instructions,
Standards should *e in place that identi$y the type and $or&at o$ re"uired
docu&entation such as syste& narratives+ $lo!charts+ and any special syste& coding+
internal controls+ or $ile layouts not identi$ied !ithin individual application
docu&entation,
Manage&ent should &aintain docu&entation $or internally developed progra&s and
e-ternally ac"uired products, In the case o$ ac"uired so$t!are+ &anage&ent should
ensure #either through an internal revie! or thirdparty certi$ication. prior to
purchase+ that an ac"uired product6s docu&entation &eets their organi)ation;s
&ini&u& docu&entation standards, For additional in$or&ation regarding ac"uired
so$t!are distinctions #open<closed code. re$er to the O4scro!ed Docu&entationO
discussion in the OAc"uisitionO section,
4-a&iners should consider access and change controls !hen assessing docu&entation
activities, Change controls help ensure organi)ations appropriately approve+ test+ and
record so$t!are &odi$ications, Access controls help ensure individuals only have
access to sections o$ docu&entation directly related to their 0o* $unctions,
Syste& docu&entation should include1
TESTING 'HASE
70
The testing phase re"uires organi)ations to co&plete various tests to ensure the
accuracy o$ progra&&ed code+ the inclusion o$ e-pected $unctionality+ and the
interopera*ility o$ applications and other net!ork co&ponents, Thorough testing is
critical to ensuring syste&s &eet organi)ational and enduser re"uire&ents,
I$ organi)ations use e$$ective pro0ect &anage&ent techni"ues+ they !ill co&plete
test plans !hile developing applications+ prior to entering the testing phase, 2eak
pro0ect &anage&ent techni"ues or de&ands to co&plete pro0ects "uickly &ay
pressure organi)ations to develop test plans at the start o$ the testing phase, Test
plans created during initial pro0ect phases enhance an organi)ation6s a*ility to create
detailed tests, The use o$ detailed test plans signi$icantly increases the likelihood
that testers !ill identi$y !eaknesses *e$ore products are i&ple&ented,
Testing groups are co&prised o$ technicians and end users !ho are responsi*le $or
asse&*ling and loading representative test data into a testing environ&ent, The
groups typically per$or& tests in stages+ either $ro& a topdo!n or *otto&up
approach, A *otto&up approach tests s&aller co&ponents $irst and progressively
adds and tests additional co&ponents and syste&s, A topdo!n approach $irst tests
&a0or co&ponents and connections and progressively tests s&aller co&ponents and
connections, The progression and de$initions o$ co&pleted tests vary *et!een
organi)ations,
3otto&up tests o$ten *egin !ith $unctional #re"uire&ents *ased. testing, Functional
tests should ensure that e-pected $unctional+ security+ and internal control $eatures
are present and operating properly, Testers then co&plete integration and endto
end testing to ensure application and syste& co&ponents interact properly, /sers
then conduct acceptance tests to ensure syste&s &eet de$ined acceptance criteria,
Testers o$ten identi$y progra& de$ects or !eaknesses during the testing process,
%rocedures should *e in place to ensure progra&&ers correct de$ects "uickly and
docu&ent all corrections or &odi$ications, Correcting pro*le&s "uickly increases
testing e$$iciencies *y decreasing testers6 do!nti&e, It also ensures a progra&&er
does not !aste ti&e trying to de*ug a portion o$ a progra& !ithout de$ects that is
not !orking *ecause another progra&&er has not de*ugged a de$ective linked
routine, Docu&enting corrections and &odi$ications is necessary to &aintain the
integrity o$ the overall progra& docu&entation, Organi)ations should revie! and
co&plete user+ operator+ and &aintenance &anuals during the testing phase,
Additionally+ they should $inali)e conversion+ i&ple&entation+ and training plans,
IM'LEMENTATION 'HASE
71
The i&ple&entation phase involves installing approved applications into production
environ&ents, %ri&ary tasks include announcing the i&ple&entation schedule+ training
end users+ and installing the product, Additionally+ organi)ations should input and
veri$y data+ con$igure and test syste& and security para&eters+ and conduct post
i&ple&entation revie!s, Manage&ent should circulate i&ple&entation schedules to all
a$$ected parties and should noti$y users o$ any i&ple&entation responsi*ilities,
A$ter organi)ations install a product+ pree-isting data is &anually input or
electronically trans$erred to a ne! syste&, Veri$ying the accuracy o$ the input data
and security con$igurations is a critical part o$ the i&ple&entation process,
Organi)ations o$ten run a ne! syste& in parallel !ith an old syste& until they veri$y
the accuracy and relia*ility o$ the ne! syste&, 4&ployees should docu&ent any
progra&&ing+ procedural+ or con$iguration changes &ade during the veri$ication
process,
'RO7ECT E*AL(ATION 'HASE
Manage&ent should conduct posti&ple&entation revie!s at the end o$ a pro0ect to
validate the co&pletion o$ pro0ect o*0ectives and assess pro0ect &anage&ent
activities, Manage&ent should intervie! all personnel actively involved in the
operational use o$ a product and docu&ent and address any identi$ied pro*le&s,
Manage&ent should analy)e the e$$ectiveness o$ pro0ect &anage&ent activities *y
co&paring+ a&ong other things+ planned and actual costs+ *ene$its+ and develop&ent
ti&es, They should docu&ent the results and present the& to senior &anage&ent,
Senior &anage&ent should *e in$or&ed o$ any operational or pro0ect &anage&ent
de$iciencies,
MAINTENANCE 'HASE
The &aintenance phase involves &aking changes to hard!are+ so$t!are+ and
docu&entation to support its operational e$$ectiveness, It includes &aking changes to
i&prove a syste&6s per$or&ance+ correct pro*le&s+ enhance security+ or address user
re"uire&ents, To ensure &odi$ications do not disrupt operations or degrade a
syste&6s per$or&ance or security+ organi)ations should esta*lish appropriate change
&anage&ent standards and procedures,
Change &anage&ent #so&eti&es re$erred to as con$iguration &anage&ent. involves
esta*lishing *aseline versions o$ products+ services+ and procedures and ensuring all
changes are approved+ docu&ented+ and disse&inated, Change controls should address
all aspects o$ an organi)ation6s technology environ&ent including so$t!are progra&s+
hard!are and so$t!are con$igurations+ operational standards and procedures+ and
pro0ect &anage&ent activities, Manage&ent should esta*lish change controls that
address &a0or+ routine+ and e&ergency so$t!are &odi$ications and so$t!are patches,
72
Ma0or &odi$ications involve signi$icant changes to a syste&6s $unctionality,
Manage&ent should i&ple&ent &a0or &odi$ications using a !ellstructured process+
such as an SD:C &ethodology, Routine changes are not as co&ple- as &a0or
&odi$ications and can usually *e i&ple&ented in the nor&al course o$ *usiness,
Routine change controls should include procedures $or re"uesting+ evaluating+
approving+ testing+ installing+ and docu&enting so$t!are &odi$ications,
4&ergency changes &ay address an issue that !ould nor&ally *e considered routine+
ho!ever+ *ecause o$ security concerns or processing pro*le&s+ the changes &ust *e
&ade "uickly, 4&ergency change controls should include the sa&e procedures as
routine change controls, Manage&ent should esta*lish a**reviated re"uest+
evaluation+ and approval procedures to ensure they can i&ple&ent changes "uickly,
Detailed evaluations and docu&entation o$ e&ergency changes should *e co&pleted as
soon as possi*le a$ter changes are i&ple&ented, Manage&ent should test routine and+
!henever possi*le+ e&ergency changes prior to i&ple&entation and "uickly noti$y
a$$ected parties o$ all changes, I$ &anage&ent is una*le to thoroughly test
e&ergency &odi$ications *e$ore installation+ it is critical that they appropriately
*ackup $iles and progra&s and have esta*lished *ackout procedures in place,
So$t!are patches are si&ilar in co&ple-ity to routine &odi$ications, This docu&ent
uses the ter& OpatchO to descri*e progra& &odi$ications involving e-ternally
developed so$t!are packages, 7o!ever+ organi)ations !ith inhouse progra&&ing &ay
also re$er to routine so$t!are &odi$ications as patches, %atch &anage&ent progra&s
should address procedures $or evaluating+ approving+ testing+ installing+ and
docu&enting so$t!are &odi$ications, 7o!ever+ a critical part o$ the patch
&anage&ent process involves &aintaining an a!areness o$ e-ternal vulnera*ilities and
availa*le patches,
Maintaining accurate+ uptodate hard!are and so$t!are inventories is a critical part
o$ all change &anage&ent processes, Manage&ent should care$ully docu&ent all
&odi$ications to ensure accurate syste& inventories, #I$ &aterial so$t!are patches
are identi$ied *ut not i&ple&ented+ &anage&ent should docu&ent the reason !hy the
patch !as not installed,.
Manage&ent should coordinate all technology related changes through an oversight
co&&ittee and assign an appropriate party responsi*ility $or ad&inistering so$t!are
patch &anage&ent progra&s, Muality assurance+ security+ audit+ regulatory
co&pliance+ net!ork+ and enduser personnel should *e appropriately included in
change &anage&ent processes, Risk and security revie! should *e done !henever a
syste& &odi$ication is i&ple&ented to ensure controls re&ain in place,
73
DIS'OSAL 'HASE
The disposal phase involves the orderly re&oval o$ surplus or o*solete hard!are+
so$t!are+ or data, %ri&ary tasks include the trans$er+ archiving+ or destruction o$
data records, Manage&ent should trans$er data $ro& production syste&s in a planned
and controlled &anner that includes appropriate *ackup and testing procedures,
Organi)ations should &aintain archived data in accordance !ith applica*le record
retention re"uire&ents, It should also archive syste& docu&entation in case it
*eco&es necessary to reinstall a syste& into production, Manage&ent should destroy
data *y over!riting old in$or&ation or degaussing #de&agneti)ing. disks and tapes,
Re$er to the IT 7and*ook6s 8In$or&ation Security 3ooklet9 $or &ore in$or&ation on
disposal o$ &edia,
RECENT DE*ELO'MENTS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
>, The Internet
De$inition
Facilities
3ulletin 3oards ( Maga)ines+ ne!spapers W 2e* Television
Music W So$t!are do!nloading
#share!are.
Discussion Iroups W Shopping Malls
:i*raries W Research
Tuition and Virtual :earning #elearning. W Ro* Opportunities
4co&&erce W 4&ail
2eather reports W Date line
B, Telecomm!ting
This involves !orking $ro& ho&e !hile connected to the o$$ice through co&puter
net!orks, This &eans the !orkers do not need to travel to !orkplaces, This has the
advantage o$ saving ti&e to the !orker in ter&s o$ travel especially in highly
congested cities, It also saves costs o$ $uel to the !orker, 7o!ever+ traditional
supervision &ethods do not apply,
A, Teleconferencing
This is also kno!n as con$ravision, It is a $acility through !hich people in distant
places can hold a con$erence like discussion !hile seeing each other on co&puter
screens, The *iggest advantage o$ this $or& o$ technology is in the saving o$
con$erence costs like venue hire+ travel and su*sistence, There is also the *ene$it o$
*ody language that the people using this technology have,
74
D, Decision Support Syste&s
4-pert Syste&s ( Arti$icial Intelligence
H, Connectivity
Increased use o$ net!orks W/se o$ shared data*ases
@, 4nd /ser Co&puting
De$inition WAppropriateness
F, Data Security Concerns
Security Issues ( e,g pass!ords+ encryption+ physical access controls+ viruses
Co&puter Cri&e ( Types #e,g 7acking+ co&puter espionage+ data the$t.
?, Co&puter Aided So$t!are 4ngineering #CAS4.
De$inition
Appropriateness
G, Ilo*ali)ation
Role o$ IT in Ilo*alisation
75